Token Economies

Chapter 25

Some Definitions

• Conditioned Reinforcers– Not originally reinforcing but becomes

reinforcer after being paired with other reinforcers

• Tokens– Conditioned reinforcers that endure,

can be accumulated and exchanged for backup reinforcers

• Token Economy– Behavior Modification program that

uses tokens

Advantages of Token Economies

• Can be given immediately• Paired with many different backup

reinforcers – Can be administered to large diverse

groups

Setting up a Token Economy

• Decide on target behavior– Define behaviors so that all involved can

identify instances of appropriate and inappropriate behavior

• Take baselines– Baseline data important to know what is

needed– Data can help with selecting backup reinforcers

• Select backup reinforcers– Identify backup consequences through direct

and indirect assessment– Use wide variety of backup reinforcers– Can use response-cost procedures to punish

inappropriate behavior

Setting up a Token Economy

• Select the type of tokens to use– Can take many forms, but should be:

• Durable• Easy to handle• Difficult to steal• Difficult to counterfeit

– Can gave graded value for tokens– Can associate different types of tokens

with different behaviors

Setting up a Token Economy

• Identify available help– Depending on the situation, different people may need

to help• Ex: teachers, volunteers, behaviorally advanced peers, etc.

• Choose the locations– Some locations are better than others, but often do not

have a choice of location• Managing Consequences

– Ensure backup reinforcers are on hand– Clearly describe criteria for earning and exchanging

tokens– Award tokens as immediately as possible– Use reinforcers such as praise with tokens– Keep accurate records – Provide bonuses for high-level performance– Train those administering tokens

Specific Implementation Procedures

• Must decide on procedures for:– Keeping data

• What kinds of sheets? • Who will record the data?• When will recording take place?

– The reinforcing agent• Who will administer the reinforcement and for

what behaviors?– Number or frequency of tokens to Pay

• More tokens to start• Gradually decrease number of tokens• Less pleasant activities might earn more

Specific Implementation Procedures Continued:

• Managing the Backup Reinforcers– How frequently will backup reinforcers be

made available?• Frequency high in the beginning

– How much will each reinforcer cost?• Should be related to monetary cost• High demand items should cost more• Low cost for backup reinforcers that have therapeutic

value

• Possible Punishment Contingencies– Can use tokens to administer punishment

through fines– May need to teach clients how to accept fines in

a nonaggressive, relatively nonemotional way

Specific Implementation Procedures Continued:

• Supervision of Staff– Duties must be clearly spelled out– Staff must be monitored closely– Reinforcement must be offered for appropriate

behavior• Handling Potential Problems

– Problems must be planned for in advance– Likely problems:

• Confusion• Staff shortages• Attempts by clients to get tokens they have not earned

or backup reinforcers for which they do not have enough tokens

• Clients playing with tokens in distracting ways• Failure to purchase backup reinforcers

Preparing a Manual

• Token Economy Manual– Written set of rules describing exactly

how the economy is to run– Includes:

• Definite procedures for evaluating whether or not the rules are being followed adequately and procedures for ensuring that they are

• Methods for arbitrating disputes about rules

– Should be detailed– Should be given to all staff members

Programming Generality to the Natural Environment

• Token economy should be designed so that social reinforcement gradually replaces tokens

• Weaning from tokens:– Eliminate tokens gradually

• Gradually make the schedule of token delivery more and more intermittent

– Decrease token value gradually• Gradually decrease amount of backup

reinforcement that a token can purchase• Or, gradually increase the delay between getting

tokens and purchase of backup reinforcements

– Gradually transfer control to the clients

Ethical Considerations

• Must take precusions to avoid abuse

• Making the system completely open to public scrutiny may ensure that no abuse happens