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Multimodal Design for Hybrid Course Materials
MULTIMODAL DESIGN FOR HYBRID COURSE MATERIALS: DEVELOPING AND EVALUATING A NEW PARADIGM FOR
COURSE DELIVERY
Michael D Sankey Dip Art and Design Prahran CAE
BCA USQ BA (Honours) USQ
MEd (Further Education and Training) USQ
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Education
Faculty of Education Queensland University of Technology
Brisbane, Queensland Australia
2007
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Statement of original authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made. Signed:______________________________________________________________ Date: _______________________________________________________________
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Acknowledgements
There are numerous people to whom I owe my sincere gratitude. Firstly, my heartfelt thanks to Dr Wendy Morgan, my Principal Supervisor, and Dr Bruce Burnett, my Associate Supervisor. Without their guidance, wisdom and expertise this project could never have progressed as smoothly and quickly as it did. Thanks must also be extended to Associate Professor Susan Danby from the Centre for Learning Innovation, and Coordinator of the Doctor of Education program. The work and expertise she and the teaching team put into the Doctor of Education program is first class. Well done! Needless to say, my project would not have been possible without the interest and co-operation of Associate Professor Rod St Hill and Mr Cec Pedersen, whose courses were used for this research. Their commitment to their own teaching and learning practice is exemplary and I look forward to continued involvement with them in the future. Special thanks must also go to the design and development team in the Distance and e-Learning Centre (DeC) at The University of Southern Queensland (USQ) and particularly to Associate Professor Alan Smith, the Executive Director, Division of Academic Information Services. His support of this project and the support of his team has been tireless. My thanks also to several esteemed colleagues, namely, Jacquie McDonald, Caroline Cottman and Marilyn Dorman; their collegial support and interest in the instructional design aspects of this project has been extremely thought provoking and helpful. Thank you too, to my fabulous wife and partner for the last 25 years, Kim. For her tireless support, prayers and discernment, ensuring I kept a balance in my life and making every day a wonderful adventure. Finally, a special thanks to our children Corin, Brynn, Rebekah and Joel, for their love and perseverance. I love you all.
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Abstract
In early 2003, in a major shift in policy, the University of Southern Queensland
(USQ) announced that its learning materials would progressively move from a
predominantly print-based mode of delivery to a new ‘hybrid’ mode of delivery
across all discipline areas. Central to this delivery would be a resource-rich CD-
ROM containing all study materials, supported with a range of multimedia based
enhancements, online support and selective print materials.
As this represented a fundamentally new approach to the delivery of materials
at USQ, it was essential to ascertain a clear understanding of about the implications
of this change for student learning. In implementing this policy it was necessary to
establish a range of pedagogically sound, cost effective delivery guidelines, for the
development of the course materials and the multimedia based enhancements. In
response to this need, this study has developed a set of 10 multimodal design
heuristics used to guide the development of these materials. In establishing these
guidelines, this thesis contextualises important issues associated with hybrid delivery
and considers how catering for a multiliterate clientele by using a combination of
multimedia based enhancements in an electronic environment may improve the
learning opportunities for students.
Two Faculty of Business courses delivered in 2004, ECO2000
‘Macroeconomics for Business and Government’ and MGT2004 ‘People
Development’, were chosen to pilot the new hybrid mode of delivery. The
combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches was used to investigate how
students have utilised this new environment. This approach rendered a clear
indication of student views about the CD based delivery and, more particularly, an
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appreciation of how they utilised the multimedia based enhancements to augment
their studies.
Analysis of the research data indicated a strong acceptance of the CD based
learning environment. This was particularly true for off-campus and international
students. On the whole, students reported a preference for a CD based resource,
though this acceptance was moderated by a desire to still receive some print-based
materials. Importantly, from this analysis it was possible to add a further four
multimodal design heuristics to the original set of ten which informed the design of
the multimedia based enhancements for each course.
This study demonstrates that higher levels of student engagement are possible
when integrating a range of multimedia based enhancements to cater for a range of
student learning modalities, whilst also maintaining a balanced environment for more
traditional learners1.
1 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “traditional
learners”
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Keywords
Multimodal design, multimedia, distance education, hyperlinking, design heuristics,
instructional design, learning styles / modalities, multiple representation, cognitive
load, dual coding, hybrid CD delivery, animation, concurrent triangulation strategy.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No Statement of original authorship ii
Acknowledgements iii
Abstract iv
Keywords vi
List of tables xi
List of figures xi
List of abbreviations xii
Overview of chapters xiii
1 Introduction to the study
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background to the study 2
1.3 About this study 6
1.4 Hybrid delivery at USQ 11
1.4.1 How the hybrid approach differs from other CD based courses 13
1.4.2 The processes of hybrid development 14
1.4.3 Why not just put it online? 18
1.5 Courses chosen for hybrid delivery 19
1.6 Design considerations 21
1.6.1 Instructional design 22
1.6.2 Researching the design 27
1.7 Importance of this study 27
1.8 Conclusion 28
2 Review of the literature
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 Establishing a need for multimodal design 32
2.2.1 Learning styles/modalities 34
2.2.2 Visualisation in representation 38
2.2.3 Multiple literacies or multiliteracies 41
2.2.4 Multiple representations and multimedia 43
2.2.5 Cognitive constraints and benefits 46
Cognitive Load Theory 46
Dual Coding Theory 48
2.2.6 Learner centred approach utilising hypermedia 50
2.3 Multimodal design heuristics 53
2.4 Researching student perceptions 55
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2.4.1 Examples of research designs in this area 60
2.5 Conclusion 67 3 Application of multimodal design heuristics
3.1 Introduction 71
3.2 Navigation on the hybrid CD 75
3.3 Multiple representations and multimedia elements 79
3.3.1 CD based multimedia enhancements 80
Mini lectures utilising PowerPoint and video or audio 80
Audio overviews 82
Animated equations and concept diagrams 83
Interactive graphs and drag and drop formative exercises 85
Graphs and tables with audio 87
Audio glossary 87
Harvard referencing tool 88
VARK learning styles inventory tool 89
Icons and images 90
Electronic forms 92
Formative interactive quizzes 93
3.3.2 USQConnect Study Desk 94
Interactive e-pac quizzes 95
PowerPoint lecture slides 96
3.4 Hyperlinking to alternative representations 97
3.4 Conclusion 98 4 Research methods
4.1 Introduction 101
4.2 Research questions 101
4.3 General research approach and design 102
4.3.1 Mixed methods approach 104
4.4 Course implementation 106
4.4.1 ECO2000 trial group 107
Results of initial trial group 108
4.4.2 Research participants 109
4.4.3 Implementation timetable 109
4.5 Data collection events 110
4.5.1 Learning styles assessment questionnaire 112
4.5.2 Brief questionnaire 115
4.5.3 First focus group interviews 116
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4.5.4 Longer questionnaire 119
4.5.5 Second focus group interviews 120
4.5.6 Student results 122
4.6 Evaluation and validity of data 122
4.6.1 Data analysis procedures 123
Qualitative data 124
Quantitative data 125
Triangulation 126
4.6.2 Validity 127
4.7 Ethical considerations 128
The purpose of this research 128
During data collection 128
Anonymity and protection of data 129
Writing up and disseminating the research 129
University considerations 129
4.8 Limitations and generalisability 130
4.9 Conclusion 131 5 Analysis
5.1 Introduction 134
5.2 Preparation of quantitative and qualitative data sets for analysis 135
5.2.1 Quantitative 135
5.2.2 Qualitative 136
5.3 Issues emerging from student perceptions of their learning experience 136
5.3.1 Demographic information 137
5.3.2 Final grades 138
5.3.3 Further background information 140
5.3.4 The multiple representation of key concepts 141
Summary and implications 149
5.3.5 The use of additional multimedia and/or interactive elements 151
Summary and implications 158
5.3.6 The facilitation of an awareness of a student’s preferred learning modality 159
Summary and implications 166
5.3.7 Access to an alternative print based version of the course material 167
Summary and implications 177
5.3.8 The use of interactive features such as hyperlinking to access further learning support elements 177
Summary and implications 183
5.4 Conclusion 183
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6 Discussion and implications
6.1 Introduction 186
6.2 Summary of study 186
6.2.1 Multimodal design and hybrid delivery 187
6.2.2 Understanding student perceptions of hybrid delivery 192
Design of study 192
Size of study and participation rates 193
6.3 Summary of outcomes and recommendations 194
6.3.1 Student perceptions of multiple representations 194
6.3.2 Student perceptions of additional multimedia 195
6.3.3 Student perceptions of learning modalities 197
6.3.4 Student perceptions of access to print-based materials 198
6.3.5 Student perceptions of hyperlinking 200
6.4 Revision of original multimodal design heuristics 200
6.4.1 Additional recommendations 201
6.5 Final discussion of outcomes 201 6.6 Limitations and suggestions for further research 206 6.7 Conclusion 208
Glossary of terms 211
References 212 Appendix 1: Summary of results from research conducted into the course MGT2102 228
Appendix 2: Preliminary questionnaire 232
Appendix 3: VARK questionnaire 234
Appendix 4: Brief questionnaire 238
Appendix 5: First focus group interviews 240
Appendix 6: Longer questionnaire 242
Appendix 7: Research consent form 246
Appendix 8: Response from QUT Ethics Committee 248
Appendix 9: Response from USQ Ethics Committee 252
Appendix 10: Quantitative statistics of Surveys 1 and 2 254
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List of tables
Page No Table 1.1 The top ten Australian providers of distance education in 2004 3 Table 1.2 Two aspects of the ADDIE design model 24 Table 3.1 The multimedia enhancements used in the ECO2000 and MGT2004 CDs 80 Table 4.1 The project timeline 110 Table 4.2 A brief description of the research events in this study 111 Table 5.1 Grade allocations at USQ 139
List of figures
Page No 1 Introduction to the study
Figure 1.1 The main areas of consideration when designing hybrid delivery 8
Figure 1.2 The hybrid delivery model: context specific support for the CD based package 11
Figure 1.3 A GOOD production model: XML files rendered to print, CD/DVD or the web 15
Figure 1.4 The GOOD e-content system: Storing, editing and production from one file 16
Figure 1.5 Both HTML and PDF versions are provided on the hybrid CD 17
Figure 1.6 The ADDIE Instructional Design Model 22 2 Review of the literature
Figure 2.1 The five areas of theoretical interest in this review of the literature 34
Figure 2.2 A VARK model 38
Figure 2.3 The multiple representation of a concept 44
Figure 2.4 A Dual Coding model 49
Figure 2.5 A presentation broken down into stepwise segments 52
Figure 2.6 The MGT2102 front screen 57
Figure 2.7 The prompt to view the PDF version (left). The warning if not accessed (right) 57
Figure 2.8 Online questionnaire used to research MGT2102 student perceptions 58 3 Application of the multimodal design heuristics
Figure 3.1 One of three forms of navigation on the hybrid CD using hyperlinks 73
Figure 3.2 A multiple representation hyperlinked within the ECO2000 materials 73
Figure 3.3 The delivery model used for the ECO2000 and MGT2004 hybrid CDs 74
Figure 3.4 PDF files linked from the HTML materials 75
Figure 3.5 The information sent to students on ways to navigate the hybrid CD 76
Figure 3.6 Hyperlinks to additional materials 78
Figure 3.7 Video PowerPoint presentation and audio PowerPoint presentation 81
Figure 3.8 Each module in MGT2004 also has an audio overview 83
Figure 3.9 An animated equation in ECO2000 and an animated concept model in MGT2004 84
Figure 3.10 The animated sequence of an equation being explained 85
Figure 3.11 An interactive graph in ECO2000 and a “drag and drop” exercise in MGT2004 86
Figure 3.12 An audio file explains how the data appearing in the table can be understood 87
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Figure 3.13 The audio glossary tool allows the student to hear the definition of a word 88
Figure 3.14 The Harvard referencing tool used to help students correctly reference their work 89
Figure 3.15 The VARK learning styles inventory: showing question and response screens 90
Figure 3.16 Icons are used in the ECO2000 and MGT2004 courses 91
Figure 3.17 Screen captures showing the use of images and icons in the ECO2000 course and enlargement of the economic pizza
91
Figure 3.18 An electronic form: students fill this out and print it for their records 92
Figure 3.19 Interactive quizzes contextualised in materials providing instant feedback 93
Figure 3.20 Screen grab of ECO2000 course home page, in student view 94
Figure 3.21 A sample e-pac quiz provided on the StudyDesk for ECO2000 96
Figure 3.22 PowerPoint slides of lectures provided online 97 4 Research methods
Figure 4.1 The areas of interest in this study 103
Figure 4.2 The Concurrent Triangulation Strategy. (Adapted from Creswell 2003) 104
Figure 4.3 The front screen of the VARK website on the course CDs 112 5 Analysis
Figure 5.1 Comparison of final grades from the past four offers to 2004 (all students) 139
Figure 5.2 VARK survey results for both courses combined, n=170 159
List of abbreviations
USQ University of Southern Queensland CD Compact Disk ROM Read Only Memory XML eXtensible Markup Language GOOD Generic On/Off line Delivery PDF Portable Document File IMM Interactive Multimedia VARK Visual, Aural, Read/write, Kinaesthetic HTML Hypertext Markup Language
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Overview of Chapters
Chapter 1 Introduction to the study
This chapter gives a general introduction to the study and places it in the
context of the research to be conducted.
Chapter 2 Review of the literature
This chapter presents a discussion of the literature investigated in relation to
the use of multiple representations in multimedia material, learning styles and hybrid
delivery. It culminates with a set of multimodal design heuristics used in the design
of the multiple representations and multimedia elements for the two courses
researched in this study.
Chapter 3 Application of the multimodal design heuristics
This chapter discusses the application of the multimodal design heuristics
outlined in the previous chapter to the two courses used for this research project. It
elaborates on the learning theories utilised in each course and puts these into context
with the use of the multimodal design heuristics and the University of Southern
Queensland’s procedures for course materials production.
Chapter 4 Research methods
This chapter discusses the strategies and methods used in researching the
appropriateness of the multiple representations and multimedia elements in the two
courses chosen for this project. These were the principles advanced in Chapter 2, the
application of which was discussed in Chapter 3.
Chapter 5 Analysis
This chapter presents an analysis of the research data as it relates to each of the
five elements of research question. From this analysis a series of recommendations
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for each of the areas pertaining to the research questions and to future hybrid
delivery environments are presented.
Chapter 6 Discussion and implications
This chapter begins with a brief summary of the background to the study and
the issues that informed the formation of the multimodal design heuristics. It then
reviews the analysis of the data and demonstrates that, based on this analysis, four
further heuristics should be added to the original group of ten. Finally, the chapter
highlights the key points made during this study and makes a series of
recommendations for future research possibilities.
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Chapter 1
Introduction to the study
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1.1 Introduction
This study sought to understand how students enrolled in two courses,
ECO2000 “Macroeconomics for business and government” and MGT2004 “People
development”, at University of Southern Queensland (USQ) during 2004, perceived
the trial of a new CD based hybrid mode of delivery. More specifically, it
investigated their perception of the multimedia based enhancements used to augment
the course environments.
At the time this study was conducted the researcher was an Instructional
Designer in the Distance and e-Learning Centre at USQ and was responsible for the
translation of these two courses to hybrid CD delivery2. This translation necessitated
the design and development of a range of multimedia based enhancements that took
the form of multiple representations and additional multimedia elements used to
support the course materials. A set of multimodal design heuristics were developed,
by the researcher, to underpin the design of these enhancements.
From gaining an understanding of the students’ perceptions of these
environments the researcher was able to analyse whether the strategies adopted in
designing and developing these environments, and the multimedia based
enhancements, had been appropriate to support the students’ learning. From this
understanding it was then possible to make some judgements as to whether the
multimodal design3 heuristics would need to be changed or adapted before they
could be applied to the development of future courses.
This chapter begins with background information necessary to contextualise
this study and then moves on to introducing the study proper. It discusses the
2 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “hybrid CD”
3 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “Multimodal design”
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rationale behind USQs move to a hybrid form of delivery and gives some
background to the two courses chosen for this redevelopment. It then investigates
some of the related instructional design considerations and explains why this study is
seen to be important. Finally, this chapter synthesises the discussion by proposing the
research question used to facilitate an understanding of how students perceived these
new learning environments.
1.2 Background to the study
Early in 2003, in a major shift in policy, the University of Southern
Queensland (USQ) decided that over the following three to four years all its study
materials, for both on- and off-campus students, would be developed in a hybrid
mode.4 Central to this delivery would be a resource-rich CD containing all essential
study materials supported by significant multimedia based enhancements and online5
support. This represented a fundamentally new approach to the delivery of course
materials at USQ, one that would require significant research to underpin its
development. However, before this chapter introduces the study proper, it will first
set a context by providing an overview to the institution in which it is based and the
main issues that made the above mentioned change in policy necessary.
The USQ is a dual-mode university with three alternative teaching modes:
students can study on-campus, or by “traditional” distance education, or online via
4 In 2005 USQ changed the name of ‘hybrid delivery’ to ‘transmodal delivery’. For the sake of
consistency, this document will retain the term hybrid as this was the nomenclature at the time this
study was conducted. It should also be noted that the term ‘hybrid’ is still used by certain sectors of
the university.
5 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “online”
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the Internet. It offers over 300 accredited awards, consisting of over 1,000 courses6
across five faculties and provides access to educational opportunities for
approximately 25,000 students annually. In 2004 USQ was the second largest
provider of distance education in Australia (see Table 1.1) with approximately 75%
of its students studying off-campus.
The quality and standing of the university’s teaching and learning activities are
widely recognised. In 2004 the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) presented USQ
with the Award of Excellence for Institutional Achievement in the area of excellence
in distance education. In addition, the university was the joint winner of the Good
Universities Guides “University of the Year” award for 2000-2001. This award was
presented for developing the “e-university”, where students learn and are supported
through the innovative and strategic use of educational web-based technologies.
Table 1.1. The top ten Australian providers of distance education in 2004.
Distance Education Providers 2004 Distance education students % 1 Charles Sturt University 21,213 18.5% 2 University of southern Queensland 15,433 13.4% 3 The University of New England 11,863 10.3% 4 Deakin University 9,788 8.5% 5 Monash University 7,963 6.9% 6 Central Queensland University 5,682 4.9% 7 Southern Cross University 4,274 3.7% 8 University of South Australia 3,700 3.2% 9 Queensland University of Technology 3,245 2.8% 10 The University of New South Wales 3,126 2.7% Other Universities 28,650 24.9% Total 114,937 100.0%
Source: DEST; Ian Dobson Cited in: (Vergnani, 2005)
Through the years, the university has prospered across the four mainstream
generations of distance education development, namely the:
• correspondence model (with print),
6 A course at USQ may be called a subject or unit at another institution.
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• multimedia model (print, audiotape, videotape, computer-based learning and
interactive video),
• telelearning model (audioconferencing, videoconferencing, audiographic
communication, broadcast TV/radio and audioconferencing), and the
• flexible learning model (interactive multimedia, Internet-based access to
WWW resources, and computer-mediated communication).
(Sankey & Smith, 2004)
Where appropriate, elements from each of these models are used across all
faculties, in the preparation of teaching materials, mainly for students studying off-
campus. This approach has served USQ very well, as has the “higher education
paradigm, honed and perfected for hundreds of years” (Twigg, 2001, p.3) and used
for the university’s on-campus students.
Although USQ has used different models over the years, a clear differentiation
still exists between its on- and off-campus students. Many courses use very different
teaching strategies for each of the two different modes of delivery. This approach has
been quite justifiable, given the significant research that has been conducted into “the
no significant difference phenomenon” (Russell, 1999). Repeated studies show no
significant differences between results of students studying by distance education
and those studying in a face to face mode (Twigg, 2001). However, this research has
been conducted only on learning environments where on- and off-campus students
were using materials designed specifically to suit that particular mode of delivery
(Meyer, 2002).
On a micro level, a delivery model that requires multiple approaches (as
described above) is not economically sustainable for the university in the long term.
The pressures of constant technological advancement and increasing economic
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rationalism require university staff, both academic and general, to continually do a
lot more with less (P. Taylor, 2000). Given these pressures, Taylor (2004) believes
that traditional university approaches to teaching and learning will not have the
capacity to meet the escalating demands for higher education in the future.
On the macro level there are broader perspectives to delivery models that
should be considered. Over recent years significant societal and technological
developments have resulted in major changes taking place in the fields of higher
education and lifelong learning as a whole (Jochems, van Merrienboer, & Koper,
2004). These changes have not been restricted to individual institutions, but have
occurred on a more global level, with institutions increasingly competing in the
international marketplace (Van Damme, 2001).
This globalisation of higher education is seen in many different forms,
encompassing the burgeoning issues of technological innovation and the rise of the
network society, and restructuring of world economic systems through newly
industrialised nations entering the knowledge market. Linked to these issues are the
demise of the nation state and the homogenisation of cultural exchange leading to the
new realities of multiculturalism (Van Damme, 2001). These changes have caused
fundamental educational questions to be asked such as “what to teach and how on
earth to teach it” (Jochems, van Merrienboer, & Koper, 2004). For many universities
this has required new approaches to the delivery of course materials to be considered
across the board (Kellner, 2004), and a greater flexibility in the way programs are
designed and delivered (Laurillard, 2002).
These pressures, on both the micro and the macro levels, have made it
increasingly untenable for USQ to produce different versions of materials for
different student cohorts, studying the same course at the same time, both
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domestically and internationally, either on- or off-campus. Associated with this is
society’s increased reliance on the internet for information retrieval, though currently
restricted by the inconsistency of broadband technologies available to these diverse
student groups. This has required the university to look for creative solutions to deal
with these challenges.
1.3 About this study
As part of the USQ’s ongoing response to the wider pressures on higher
education discussed above and the economic pressures of being a small regional
university in an ever widening global market, in early 2003 USQ introduced a major
policy shift in the area of course materials delivery. This required that the
development of study materials, for courses offered both on- and off- campus, would
move towards a hybrid mode of delivery over the following three to four years. The
term “hybrid” in this educational context embraces a range of approaches to learning
and teaching that integrate a number of delivery media, mainly facilitated by the
proliferation of information and communication technologies (Parsons & Ross,
2002).
More specifically, from USQ’s perspective, hybrid delivery involves the
provision of course content through a resource-based learning package. This package
is supplemented by selected interactive teaching support strategies, such as utilising
communication technologies or face-to-face sessions. The resource-based learning
package is the same for all students, whether enrolled on- or off-campus. This
effectively reduces the duplication of effort required in supplying different course
materials to each cohort. There is however no single hybrid delivery mode, rather
there is a range of hybrid modes for courses and programs within different
disciplines and subject areas (A. Smith, 2004).
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Central to this new hybrid delivery, in the majority of cases, is a resource-rich
CD-ROM containing all the essential study materials, support materials and
significant multimedia based enhancements. The CD allows direct linking to relevant
course websites, hosted on USQ’s WebCT Vista learning management system
(LMS). Students and staff at USQ know this environment as USQConnect. In some
cases courses may be further supported by print-based materials.
As USQ moves towards this CD based hybrid mode of delivery, the
establishment of a range of pedagogically sound design heuristics for the delivery of
course materials in this format is regarded as paramount. Heuristics in this context
can be understood as rules of thumb rather than specified guidelines (Nielsen, 1994).
Consideration of the most appropriate and cost effective delivery combinations
related to each course has been taking place in many course development teams since
the announcement of this change. Broadly speaking, the areas requiring
consideration when proposing such a change in delivery can be broken down into
four main subgroups, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. On a human level there is a need to
consider issues related to both students and teachers. On a broader level
consideration should also be given to the needs of the institution and the different
modes by which course materials are delivered.
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Figure 1.1. The main areas of consideration when designing hybrid delivery.
This research project is broadly interested in the areas of student based issues
and cognition as indicated in Figure 1.1, as it deals predominantly with the
instructional design issues to be considered when developing multimedia enhanced
course materials. More specifically, this study is interesting as an aspect of this topic,
that is, the design of additional multimedia based enhancements for use to augment
the hybrid CD based environments, with a special interest in the multiple
representation of core concepts and the use of other multimedia elements used to
enhance these materials. This research is further interested in developing and
establishing a set of sound multimodal design heuristics that may be used in
developing similar multimedia based enhancements in future hybrid courses and
across a range of disciplines.
This study proposes that the use of a hybrid CD based environment augmented
with a range of specifically designed multimedia based enhancement will cater for a
greater range of student learning modalities and thereby provide a more complete or
engaging learning experience for the students, particularly, for those students who
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choose to study off-campus and for those not used to traditional print-based learning
materials.
To help establish the above multimodal design heuristics, two of 19 courses
proposed for hybrid delivery in 2004 were chosen to research this new configuration
of study materials and more specifically, the use of multiple representations or
multimedia elements used to augment these materials. The two courses are ECO2000
“Macroeconomics for Business and Government”, which ran in first semester 2004,
and MGT2004 “People Development”, in second semester 2004. Reasons for the
selection of these courses will be discussed in Section 1.5 below. It is important to
note that although these courses have both run successfully for many years in both
on- and off-campus modes, the transition to hybrid delivery should be seen as the
first major step in a staged process, with further enhancements planned for future
iterations.
Specifically, this study examines the appropriateness of the multimodal design
heuristics established to develop the range of multimedia based enhancements used
in the above two courses. These enhancements use a combination of media, image,
animation, audio and/or video files to represent key concepts within the courses in
alternative ways. This is done to cater for a broader range of student learning
modalities within the learning environment. These alternative representations will be
referred to, in this study, as “multiple representations”. Other multimedia based
enhancements have also been used as stand alone features within these courses.
These are not specifically related to alternative representations of the same material
or concept and will be referred to as “multimedia elements”.
In Chapter 2, specific issues relating to the design of the multiple
representations and multimedia elements and how these may relate to issues of
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student cognition are investigated. These issues include the role that student learning
modality7 plays in the different ways in which instructional material are perceived,
and the importance of visualisation in the representation of key concepts within these
multimedia based enhancements. In addition it will consider how catering for a
multiliterate clientele, and how utilising multimedia based enhancements in a
hypermedia based environment, such as the CD based hybrid learning materials, may
enhance the learning opportunities for USQ students.
Emanating from this discussion a set of multimodal design heuristics for the
development of the multiple representations and multimedia elements is proposed for
use within the ECO2000 and MGT2004 courses. The implementation of these design
guidelines is discussed in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 outlines the proposed research
methods adopted to investigate the appropriateness of the design recommendations.
These courses have been researched by asking students enrolled in both
ECO2000 and MGT2004 to comment on their use of the CD based study materials
and on the multimedia based enhancements used to augment the study materials.
This project then analyses and reports on the findings of the research conducted over
Semesters 1 and 2 2004 (Chapter 5). Finally, Chapter 6 reflects on the impact these
findings may have on the design of future CD based hybrid courses and any role
multimedia may play in this design. In so doing the chapter evaluates the adequacy
of the multimodal design heuristics used to develop these materials with the aim of
being able to apply them to the design of future courses.
7 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “Learning
modality”
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1.4 Hybrid delivery at USQ
As indicated earlier the term “hybrid”, in an educational context, covers a
range of teaching approaches that integrate an array of delivery mechanisms mainly
facilitated by the proliferation of information and communication technologies (ICT)
(Parsons & Ross, 2002). The proliferation of ICT has allowed considerable
expansion of support mechanisms for both on- and off-campus courses and made
them available en masse (Cookson, 2002). In the context of USQ, CD-based hybrid
delivery is seen as the provision of a resource-rich learning environment. This
environment is then further supported by different combinations of teaching support
and an integration with the institutional e-systems, as illustrated in Figure 1.2 (A.
Smith & Sankey, 2005).
Figure 1.2. The hybrid delivery model: context specific support for the CD based package.
Over Semesters 1 and 2 of 2004, 19 courses from within the faculties of
Business and Arts underwent re-development for hybrid delivery. Initially individual
courses were chosen for re-development rather than strands or majors in a program.
The main criterion for the selection of these courses was that those responsible for
these courses were willing to trial this new form of delivery. It was anticipated that
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once these initial trials had taken place, other courses from within the same programs
would be developed as the next iteration of this new delivery format.
The aim of hybrid delivery is to deliver a consistent quality package of course
materials to all USQ students regardless of their chosen mode of study. The initial
focus has been to develop additional content, or to “value add” to existing teaching
strategies and different combinations of activities that may support learners in a
range of different contexts. These contexts include students studying on-campus (in
Toowoomba, Brisbane and Wide Bay) or off-campus, in Australia or overseas. These
students may be undertaking programs at different levels including, tertiary
preparation, undergraduate and postgraduate courses. There are also international
students serviced by USQ’s overseas agents or partners and finally, independent
students and/or groups of students studying in selected areas unrelated to established
courses (A. Smith, Sankey, & Cottman, 2004). The value adding to support these
different contexts, in most cases, takes the form of multimedia based enhancements,
and interactive communication technologies based on the USQConnect portal.
Importantly, hybrid delivery at USQ was and is required to complement the
University’s directions for teaching and learning and allow for consistent quality
educational delivery to all targeted USQ markets, both domestically and
internationally. As such, the University’s teaching and learning plan states that the
key strategy in creating and maintaining a flexible and responsive learning
environment is to, “develop a hybrid delivery mechanism, as a core educational
resource for all courses as practicable, that accommodates different learning styles8
and opportunities” (USQ, 2003). This new delivery format also had to be
8 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “learning style”
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economically viable and sustainable in order to develop, produce and deliver courses
and programs on such a large scale.
1.4.1 How the hybrid approach differs from other CD based courses
Although USQ has, over recent years, presented a considerable quantity of
course material both on CD and online, this new initiative seeks to focus these efforts
to establish a common format to deliver all future courses in a consistent way. The
CD based hybrid delivery allows a resource rich package is made available to all
students in any given course. The look and feel of the environment remains the same
for all courses. What varies is specific course related content and the types of
teaching support provided to different student cohorts. The CD contains course
specific elements such as introductory materials, a study guide, study modules,
readings to support the modules, and multimedia based enhancements such as audio,
video and animations. PowerPoint presentations, reference lists and web links may
also be included. More University wide generic information such as the USQ
Handbook, the Distance Education Student Guide, information on getting started,
help files and software updates, for students who may not have the correct computer
software plug-ins, is also provided on each CD.
As it is expected that all students will have access to the internet to fully
participate in their courses, CD delivery may be further supported in two ways. The
first is by USQ’s learning management system, USQConnect. USQConnect provides
each student with their own electronic Study Desk with links to each course they are
enrolled in. USQConnect Study Desk also offers the opportunity for the course
lecturer to establish and use either asynchronous or synchronous discussion forums
to enable students to interact and communicate with each other and the lecturer.
Announcements and updates may also be made available by the lecturer where
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appropriate. This environment also provides links to all library services, the USQ
Bookshop, to USQAssist where students may find answers to questions related to
USQ systems and individual courses, and USQAdmin where students can enrol,
change personal details, access results and other resource materials related to their
course or enrolment. These e-learning systems offered on USQConnect play an
extremely important role in student support and communication, with students
communicating both with each other and with the University.
As previously mentioned, the CD based resource package contains all study
materials, and access to University e-systems remains the same for all students.
Therefore, the second way in which CD delivery is supported is by context specific
strategies such as face to face sessions, field work, telephone tutorials, etc. Figure 1.2
(above) illustrates this concept. What varies is the type of teaching support provided
to different student groups and individuals. This suggests that the hybrid model may
take on different configurations depending on the course content and pedagogy.
These combinations may include a CD supported by USQConnect (online); CD,
online and print; CD, online, print and tutorials; CD, online and residential school or
laboratories; CD, online and lectures/tutorials; CD and face to face for selected
student groups; and in limited cases where minimal content is required, online only.
Regardless of the combination, the basic design of the CD based learning
environment stays the same.
1.4.2 The processes of hybrid development
The primary delivery mechanism for distance education at USQ has for many
years been print based material, with the addition of audiotapes, video and/or CDs
where appropriate. In considering the change to a more integrated form of delivery,
both new and existing materials need to be converted into the CD based format. In
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2000 USQ launched its Generic Online Offline Delivery (GOOD) project. The
GOOD project is essentially an e-content management system that allows cross-
media publishing from a single document source. This allows USQ to make
courseware available to students in a variety of delivery modes (print, CD, DVD or
online) from a single document source (J. C. Taylor, 2001). At the core of the content
management system is the ability to automate these processes through the use of
eXtensible Markup Language (XML) standards (see Figure 1.3).
The GOOD cross-media production system allows study materials to be
automatically rendered from XML content into Hyper Text Markup Language
(HTML) for web and CD delivery and into Portable Document Files (PDFs) for print
delivery. Further, once the study materials are converted to XML, individual
lecturers (after some initial training) and/or development staff from the Distance and
e-Learning Centre (DeC) are able to source the document directly to edit and make
changes at will (see Figure 1.4). The updated version of the document is then
accessed and automatically rendered to print, CD or web, whichever is required for
the next offer of that course.
Figure 1.3. A GOOD production model: XML files rendered to print, CD/DVD or the web.
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Figure 1.4. The GOOD e-content system: Storing, editing and production from one file.
Initial conversion of existing materials into XML has been underway since
2001, with the majority of hybrid courses offered in 2004 having been converted into
the GOOD system. It is anticipated that a range of multimedia based enhancements,
along with further value adding strategies, will be progressively added to course
materials in successive offerings once converted. Examples are the multiple
representations, multimedia elements and USQConnect based communications being
used in the two courses for this study. In a very real sense it is anticipated that the
outcomes of this research will be used to justify the time and money spent by the
DeC in developing this mode of delivery and, more specifically, the multimedia
based enhancements used to augment each of the courses.
As previously mentioned, the GOOD system allows both a navigable HTML
version and a printable PDF version of the course materials to be rendering onto the
CD. The PDF version is linked to the HTML and is available for students to access if
required (Figure 1.5). The HTML version also allows significant hyperlinking to
additional resources and other printable materials. Links can be added at the time of
conversion or at any time prior to the course being rendered to CD. This is discussed
more fully in Chapter 3.
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Figure 1.5. Both HTML and PDF versions are provided on the hybrid CD.
This hybrid CD initiative should not be viewed in isolation. Rather it should be
seen in the context of developing a total learning package. As van Merrienboer,
Bastiaens, and Hoogveld (2004) suggest that, media other than computers will
typically be required to design powerful integrated e-learning environments. For
example, the use of textbooks, additional stand-alone programs, communication
technologies and in some cases face-to-face instruction may all still need to be used
(p. 22). What is desirable, from USQ’s perspective, is to isolate for each course the
“optimal combination of learning opportunities that are available in the classroom, at
home or at work, by using web, books and video” (Jochems, van Merrienboer, &
Koper, 2004, p.7). The focus is therefore on making the most of the e-learning
experience. This includes deciding what will be the most appropriate combination of
elements to best support each hybrid CD.
As noted above, this study sought to addresses a particular facet of this
concern, as it sought to gain an understanding of student perceptions of the CD based
hybrid environment as a primary mode of delivery. More specifically, this study
investigated how students perceive the incorporation of additional multimedia based
HTML version
PDF Version
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enhancements, such as the multiple representations and multimedia elements created
for the courses trialling the hybrid CD-based materials. Further consideration is also
given to aspects of student learning modality, learning outcomes, user demands, the
use of navigation features and the availability of print-based materials. These are
investigated in relation to how students perceive these aspects of the delivery, with a
view to how this will impact on the continued development of hybrid CDs at USQ.
1.4.3 Why not just put it online?
USQ has chosen to deliver material on CD as opposed to solely online for a
number of reasons. Primarily it is due to what has been termed the “tyranny of
broadband” (Bruch, 2003). This refers to the variability and inconsistency of internet
connection within Australia and in the many countries to which USQ supplies course
materials. This makes the consistent delivery of high quality web based resources
problematic. The National Office for the Information Economy in Australia recently
released the “Australian National Broadband Strategy” on behalf of the Federal
Government. This report indicated that due to population distribution in most rural
and remote areas in Australia it is unlikely that equitable access to broadband
technology will be achieved in the near future (NOIE, 2004, p.4).
Given that over 75% of USQ’s students study by distance education, both
domestically and overseas, equitable broadband access is a major consideration,
particularly for those students living outside of the major metropolitan centres. For
example, in Malaysia, where USQ has over 2000 students, high speed broadband is
still very expensive, with most schools still being limited to a bandwidth of only 56K
and in many cases only having limited access to this (Wan Mohd, 2004). Therefore
web-based delivery cannot be realistically considered until a consistent level of
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national and international broadband technology is freely available (van Merrienboer
et al., 2004) across the full range of USQ’s target markets.
As there appears to be no easy short term solution to this problem, CD offers
the most reliable delivery platform for the foreseeable future. The CD gives USQ the
ability to provide access to large quantities of electronic information directly to
student computers, thereby limiting the need for them to access large amounts of
core data from the internet. It also gives the University the ideal opportunity to
directly supply a range of multimedia based enhancements for course materials.
Nonetheless, the web still plays a significant role in the delivery of most courses,
offering support, communication and discussion.
1.5 Courses chosen for hybrid delivery
Two undergraduate courses from the suite of courses offered by the Faculty of
Business at USQ have been chosen for this research project. The first course,
“Macroeconomics for Business and Government” (ECO2000), is a course from an
Economics and Resources Management major, delivered in semester 1 2004. Prior to
this course being involved in hybrid delivery it was offered in both on- and off-
campus mode as both a face-to-face and a print-based course. This course had 133
students enrolled in 2004, 42 studying on-campus in face-to-face mode and 91
studying off-campus by distance education. Since this course was last offered in
Semester 1 2003, it has been converted in the GOOD system, by the DeC, for CD
delivery. It has been further augmented with interactive multimedia based
enhancements and asynchronous discussion forums offered on the USQConnect
student portal.
The second course used in this research, “People Development” (MGT2004),
was offered in Semester 2 of 2004 and is from the Human Resource Development
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suite of courses. This course had 154 students enrolled, 33 studying on campus in a
face-to-face mode and 121 studying by distance education. This course had also been
previously offered in a face-to-face mode for on-campus students and as print-based
course in off-campus mode. This course was enhanced in a similar way to the
ECO2000 course.
The different subject matter and differing teaching methods used in each
course, ECO2000 and MGT2004, allow for a thorough examination of the generic
design concepts applied to the CD based hybrid delivery and multimedia based
enhancements. That is, the multiple representations and multimedia elements used in
each of these courses are used by students who are unlikely to be taking both
courses, since they come from two distinctly different programs, or majors. The
design differences between the multimedia based enhancements are discussed in
more detail in Section 3.3.
All students in both the ECO2000 and MGT2004 courses, regardless of their
study mode, received identical course materials presented on a hybrid CD. On-
campus students however, were able to attend a one-hour lecture and a two-hour
tutorial once a week. Off-campus students had telephone tutorials scheduled during
the semester (two for ECO2000, three for MGT2004) and were encouraged to make
extensive use of the discussion forums hosted on the USQConnect student portal.
On-campus students also had access to these online discussion forums, though
tended to use this feature less frequently. Weekly PowerPoint presentation slides that
were used as part of the weekly lecture and/or tutorials were also made available to
both on- and off-campus students through this course website.
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1.6 Design considerations
As noted above, both courses, ECO2000 and MGT2004, have been designed
for, and offered in, both on- and off-campus modes of delivery for many years. The
core design of these materials has not changed substantially for the CD based hybrid
delivery, as they both conform to USQ instructional design templates implemented
for the GOOD system. It is not the intention of this study to investigate the adequacy
or otherwise of these design templates. Rather, the main focus of this study concerns
the design of the multiple representations and multimedia elements used to support
the core teaching materials for each course and the utility of these for students
learning the concepts within the courses.
However, it should also be noted that the researcher, as the instructional
designer for both courses, would prefer to see these courses place a greater
emphasise on a constructivist learning approach, one based in the premise that
learning is a collaborative venture where meaning is negotiated from multiple
perspectives (P. L. Smith & Ragan, 2005). Jonassen (1999) believes that
constructivism is an approach to teaching and learning based on the premise that
students individually and socially construct knowledge as they interpret their
experiences, and that cognition is the result of this “mental construction”. In other
words, students learn by fitting new information together with what they already
know. Consequently learning is affected by the context in which an idea is taught, as
well as by student beliefs and attitudes (Caine & Caine, 1991). Jonassen (1999) also
considers that a constructivist learning environment is one that will “engage learners
in meaning making (knowledge construction)” (p. 217).
It was seen in the ECO2000 course (see Table 1.2), that limited attention has
been paid to this approach to learning in its previous iterations, particularly from the
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perspective of students studying off-campus. This has not been the case in the
MGT2004 course, which is more congruent with constructivist learning principles. In
an attempt to begin the process of addressing this in the ECO200 course, it is
demonstrated that the design of the multiple representations and multimedia
elements, and the way these have been integrated into the course materials, is one
designed to build a knowledge framework based on students’ existing knowledge.
1.6.1 Instructional design
The Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation (ADDIE)
instructional design model is applied to most courses at USQ. Both of the courses
involved in this project were initially established using this model and continue to be
evaluated and updated by this same process. After an initial, or front-end, analysis is
undertaken to assess the viability of a course, the course enters into a design and then
a development stage. Once development is complete the course is implemented and
finally evaluated. In addition, evaluation is implemented at all stages of the design
process. This process is illustrated in Figure 1.6 (Reiser & Dempsey, 2002). This
ADDIE process is used for both the initial design of a course and ongoing updating
of the course materials.
Figure 1.6. The ADDIE instructional design model (Reiser & Dempsey, 2002).
Implementation
Analysis
Design
Development
Evaluation
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The design and development of the multiple representations and multimedia
elements used to augment the ECO2000 and MGT2004 courses can also be seen to
use the ADDIE model. For example, an analysis was done on what multimedia based
enhancements would be most appropriate for each course; this was then evaluated
against what had been successfully implemented in other courses. Based on this
analysis a series of enhancements were designed, again evaluated both from previous
experience and from relevant literature in the areas of multimedia learning and
teaching. In this case the review of literature informed the development of the
multimodal design heuristics described in Chapter 2.
Once designed, development of the multimedia based enhancements was
carried out by the multimedia developers in the DeC; these were then evaluated
against the established design criteria, which had been informed by the multimodal
design heuristics. Implementation of these enhancements, into the two CD based
hybrid courses followed and these were then evaluated by the students who had used
them as part of their studies. To complete the ADDIE loop, an analysis of feedback
provided by the students then established whether changes needed to be made to the
existing enhancements, and consequently to the multimodal design, that would then
be used to inform future course designs. A thorough discussion of the creation of the
multimodal design heuristics used in the development of the multiple representation
and multimedia elements used in the ECO2000 and MGT2004 courses is outlined in
Chapter 2.
As previously mentioned, the formatting of these materials uses XML as the
programming language. The use of XML has allowed the study materials to be
rendered onto CD as both HTML and PDF files. The HTML files allow extensive
hyper-linking within the CD based materials. Heavy emphasis is placed on the use of
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this hyper-linking feature to direct students to discrete bodies of information and/or
to relevant multimedia based enhancements, discussion forums and support material
on the CD.
Table 1.2 illustrates in very general terms the different teaching approaches
used in the two courses, indicating two of the five process fields from the ADDIE
design model (discussed above) that have also been applied to the design of the
additional multimedia based enhancements used in these courses. These process
fields are elaborated more specifically in relation to individual elements in Chapter 3.
It should be noted however that this study does not debate the rights or wrongs of the
particular teaching methodologies employed by each lecturer (against the
researcher’s preferred perspective), who has the final say over their course materials;
rather, it means to draw the reader’s attention to the approaches taken prior to these
courses being prepared for hybrid delivery. It is also important to note that both these
courses do follow an instructional strategy. Though differently applied in each case,
this strategy builds a structure to help learners make the required knowledge
construction needed for their learning (Wilson, 1997).
Table 1.2. Two aspects of the ADDIE design model.
Instructional design phase ECO2000 MGT2004
Teaching methodology Cognitive approach Constructivist approach
Design
• Instructional objectives isolated • Task analysis undertaken • Criterion-referenced assessment
implemented
• Learning goals isolated • Learning sequence identified
(group and/or individual) • Content driven evaluation
implemented
Implementation
• Teacher: conveys information directing activity
• Learner: receives and acquires this information
• Teacher: facilitates the instruction material and engages the learner
• Learner: directs, controls and focuses on problem solving
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As seen in Table 1.2, the ECO2000 course has previously utilised a cognitive
approach to learning and teaching that has relied heavily on the use of written
exposition, formulae and graphs to convey macroeconomic modelling concepts. The
course was enhanced for Semester 1 2004 with some fundamental social
constructivist learning elements. These consisted of interactive discussion forums,
which allowed students to co-construct an understanding of the course material with
a series of interactive tutorials. Nevertheless, this course still relies heavily on
students progressing through a textbook and associated support workbook. However,
knowledge is not simply tested by recall but is also explored as students apply a
range of economic concepts and interpretations based on accepted modelling
principles.
The new hybrid version of this course contains significant enhancements, with
the incorporation of a number of exploratory learning elements and exercises
(Kynigos & Preen - Kynigou, 1995). These elements allow students to interact and
experiment with graphs and economic models contained on both the course CD and
an additional support CD supplied with the course textbook. These exploratory
learning exercises are designed to help students further investigate the economic
relationships within the macro economy.
In contrast, the MGT2004 course uses a much stronger constructivist approach
in its current design, relying heavily on student interaction with both the lecturer and
fellow students. In this course (MGT2004) students are asked to construct learning
by interacting with each other. In some instances this involves forming teams to find
solutions to particular problems, the answers to which are not necessarily found
within the study materials. To help facilitate this, in the first module of the course the
lecturer establishes what he describes as the “paradigm framework” that students will
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work within to construct knowledge in a meaningful way. This paradigm is carried
throughout the modules, contextualising what each student contributes. The lecturer
also believes that the computer based environment is ideal for this style of teaching
based in constructivist theory. This notion is supported by de Jong et al. (1998) and
Young (2003), who believe the computer environment can facilitate this supported,
collaborative style of learning.
It was intended that the design of the multiple representations and the
multimedia elements used in both ECO2000 and MGT2004 learning environments
would serve to support the major concepts being elaborated in each course. More
particularly, the plan was that they would facilitate knowledge construction by
catering for a wider range of learning modalities than the previous versions and aid
students who would prefer to receive information in this way.
By utilising hyperlinks in a CD-based environment, alternative representations
become freely accessible, giving students the ability to access these representations
within the context of the materials, without having to seek them from an alternative
source. It is not mandatory for students to access the alternative representations.
However, they are supplied for those students who would prefer to either see or hear
the concepts being explained, thereby catering for a range of learning styles.
In the case of ECO2000, students also have the option to access additional
multimedia support materials via the USQConnect course website. These support
materials were made available by the publisher of the course textbook and contain
further interactive learning tools and formative assessment items to help students
work through the concepts of the course. Similar features for the MGT2004 course
were contained on the course CD.
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1.6.2 Researching the design
Once both courses had run in their respective semesters, an analysis of student
feedback on their use of the hybrid CD was conducted, particularly the multiple
representations and additional multimedia elements. This is explained in detail in
Chapter 4. This analysis sought to address the following research question:
When a CD based hybrid mode of delivery is chosen as the main delivery
platform of study (course) materials, to what extent do the following factors
impact on students’ perceptions of their learning:
• The multiple representation of key concepts?
• The use of additional multimedia and/or interactive elements?
• The facilitation of an awareness of a student’s preferred learning
modality?
• Access to an alternative print based version of the course material?
• The use of interactive features such as hyperlinking to access further
learning support elements?
In endeavouring to successfully answer this question it is necessary to get an
indication from participants of their prior experience of receiving study materials on
CD or in other interactive ways. The answers may help USQ gain a more thorough
understanding of the implications of hybrid delivery and may bring other issues to
the fore requiring consideration.
1.7 Importance of this study
This study is one of two major studies being conducted at USQ into student
response to the new hybrid CD based delivery of course materials. Since the move to
hybrid delivery is a substantial move away from the traditional provision of print-
based course resources at USQ, it is critical to understand how these materials are
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being received and used by students. Results from this study will be used to guide
future development of CD based hybrid courses at USQ. The use of and demand for
interactive multimedia in course materials has increased substantially over recent
years at USQ. To date, however, there have been very few studies conducted to
ascertain how effective the use of this style of course material has been. This study
therefore seeks to understand how students perceive these materials being
researched.
More specifically this study seeks to evaluate to what extent the use of multiple
representations and multimedia elements helped the students understand the concepts
within the two courses. As a result this understanding will further inform the future
development of the multimodal design heuristics used to underpin the design and
development of the multiple representations and multimedia elements used in the two
courses researched in this study. It is also intended that from this study a series of
guiding principles may be extrapolated and applied to the future development of
educational multimedia course materials both at USQ and in a broader context.
1.8 Conclusion
As USQ has decided to move towards a CD-based hybrid mode of delivery
over the next three to four years for all its students, it is necessary to undertake
specific research into different aspects of this mode of delivery. This study seeks to
investigate the use of multiple representations and media elements to complement
and potentially improve existing course materials. To do so, this study first
establishes a range of pedagogically sound, cost-effective guiding principles for the
delivery of these materials. These are considered in Chapter 2. In Chapter 3, the
application of these principles in the two learning environments, ECO2000 and
MGT2004 is discussed.
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Having applied these design principles to the multiple representations and
additional multimedia elements offered in the CD based materials, this study then
seeks to ascertain how students respond to these multimedia based enhancements.
The investigative approach is outlined in Chapter 4. The responses and feedback
received from students during semesters 1 and 2 of 2004 are analysed in Chapter 5.
Chapter 6 then seeks to contextualise this analysis and consider the implications of
this for future course designs. More particularly, it seeks to apply these findings by
reviewing the original set of multimodal design heuristics used in the design and
development of the multimedia based enhancements, and establish whether there is a
need to either alter or add to this original set of 10 heuristics. Finally, Chapter 6
provides recommendations as to what improvements could be made to the delivery
for the two courses involved in this study.
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Chapter 2
Review of the literature
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2.1 Introduction
As outlined in Chapter 1, in a major shift in policy at the beginning of 2003,
USQ decided that all courses of study, for both on- and off-campus students, would
be developed in hybrid delivery modes over the next three to four years. Central to
this hybrid delivery is a resource-rich CD-ROM containing all the essential study
materials, supported by extensive multimedia based enhancements. The CD allows
direct linking to a course website hosted on USQ’s learning management system
(LMS) known as USQConnect. In some cases it will be further supported by print
material or other media.
As USQ moves towards this CD based hybrid mode of delivery, the need to
establish a range of sound, cost-effective guidelines for delivery of these materials is
regarded as paramount. Consideration of the most appropriate delivery combinations
related to each course is currently taking place in many course development teams.
This chapter establishes a solid theoretical base (from a survey of related literature)
on which to build a set of reliable multimodal design heuristics to be used when
designing multimedia based enhancements to course materials for CD based
delivery. This research project has applied these principles to the design and
implementation of the multiple representations and multimedia elements used to
augment the learning material for the two hybrid CD courses, ECO2000 and
MGT2004.
In establishing a theoretical base on which to develop the multimodal design
heuristics, outlined later in this chapter (Section 2.3), the following areas are
explored: the role learning styles or modalities play in knowledge acquisition and
how these need to be catered for when designing instructional material; the
importance of visualisation in the representation of concepts; the implications of
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catering for a multimodal9 or multiliterate clientele with the use of multiple
representations; and considerations on giving students the choice of representation
they would prefer to use.
The heuristics developed from this review of the literature primarily take into
account a range of pedagogical issues associated with the mode of delivery (hybrid)
being trialled by the University. However, at the same time it is important to ensure
there is also a level of generalisability in their development to make possible for
them to be applied across a range of different contexts, or instructional design
scenarios.
This chapter also comments on a selection of previous research projects of a
similar nature and more particularly on a preliminary study conducted at USQ during
2003. This study investigated a course, MGT2102 “Optimisation Applications II”,
that utilised a multimedia learning environment to augment a print based package
provided for both on- and off-campus students. The research conducted on
MGT2102 has helped to inform the development of the multimodal design heuristics
outlined at the end of this chapter and has been used to justify some of the processes
undertaken in developing the multiple representations and multimedia elements for
the ECO2000 and MGT2004 course CDs. Chapter 3 then demonstrates how these
multimodal design heuristics have been applied to the two courses being used for this
research project.
2.2 Establishing a need for multimodal design
A central premise of this study is that students using the course materials for
either ECO20000 or MGT2004 will approach their learning in different ways, and
they will also have different modal preferences. Dunn and Dunn (1987) relate modal
9 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “multimodal”
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preference to the perceptual function within the broader context of learning styles -
that is, how students perceive information that is presented to them (in this case their
study materials). St Hill (2000) believes that modal preference is a dimension of
learning styles that “brings the focus to the preferences that students have for in-
putting and out-putting information” (p. 1). He considers “modal preferences” to be a
more helpful definition than the broader field of a learning style that carries with it a
range of other connotations. This understanding has helped him “to employ a
teaching strategy based on modal preferences” (St Hill, 2000, p. 4) in courses he has
developed. Further, Fleming (2001a) suggests that most people may be considered
multimodal but will usually have a preference for one or two modalities over others,
and will probably use a combination of modalities when approaching a learning task.
As indicated above, this chapter considers key areas within the literature that
have been central in the development of a set of multimodal design heuristics which
were then used to inform the design and development of the multiple representations
and multimedia elements used to augment the ECO2000 and MGT2004 course
materials. There are five key areas investigated in this review of the literature. These
are: learning styles/modality; multiliteracies; the use of multiple representations;
cognitive constraints; and learner centred environments (see Figure 2.1). These five
areas should not be seen as all-inclusive when designing for multimodal learning
environments; rather, further studies may need to consider other design
considerations. For example, Figure 2.1 indicates other areas or pieces of the puzzle,
such as “Communication”, that are not highlighted in this study. Although other
areas may also be important, the five areas highlighted are those of greater concern to
this particular study and are fundamental to the development of the multimodal
design heuristics outlined later in this chapter.
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Figure 2.1. The five areas of theoretical interest in this review of the literature.
2.2.1 Learning styles/modalities
When developing CD based multimedia materials many contemporary
educators are beginning to become more aware that learners, for many reasons, use a
variety of learning/cognitive styles to process information. For instance, a study
conducted by Liu and Ginther (1999) found that approximately 20 to 30% of
American students were auditory learners and about 40% visual, while the remaining
30 to 40% were either tactual/kinaesthetic, visual/tactual, or some combinations of
the above. Another study (Vincent & Ross, 2001) found that approximately 50% of
students were auditory, followed by 33% visual and 17% kinaesthetic. Although
these figures vary quite markedly, these results clearly indicate that people perceive
information in different ways.
In a similar vein, it is also recognised that individuals have different cognitive
styles (the way information is processed once received) and that teaching can
become more effective when multiple sensory channels are involved in a
presentation (Kearnsley, 2000; Koc, 2005). Although most researchers agree that
different learning and cognitive styles exist, and freely acknowledge their
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significance for the learning process, they are unable to reach consensus regarding
the establishment of a single set of accepted principles on which to base this
understanding (Vincent & Ross, 2001).
The debate widens even further when we try to consider the range of ways to
classify different learning styles that have emerged over the years. Pedersen and St
Hill (2000) state that
Broadly speaking, learning styles have been classified in four different
ways. These are: preference for sensory modality, typically classified as
visual, auditory and kinaesthetic; left brain/right brain dominance;
information processing style, typically classified as concrete-reflective,
abstract-reflective, abstract-active and concrete-active; and personal style,
typically classified as extraverts/ introverts, sensors/intuitors,
thinkers/feelers and judgers/perceivers. (p. 556)
This study will limit its consideration to classifying learning styles/modalities
into four main sensory modalities, in the categories of visual (V), aural (A),
read/write (R) and kinaesthetic (K), or VARK10 (Fleming, 2001a). A justification for
this choice is made in Section 4.5.1.
Current research indicates that even with the understanding that students learn
in different ways many instructional events, particularly at university, still only target
generic cognitive styles, or certain types of learners, usually read/write learners
(Sarasin, 1999). This approach inadvertently leads to some students feeling
disenfranchised, in particular students whose learning modalities do not match the
style of the information presentation (McKay, 1999). This in turn may ultimately
result in a student’s performance being impeded (St Hill, 2000).
10 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “VARK”
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One primary reason for this disenfranchisement is that “many people don’t
even realise they are favouring one way or the other, because nothing external tells
them they’re any different from anyone else” (De Porter, 1992, p. 114).
Consequently, some students find themselves struggling with the learning materials
they are presented with, particularly the text-based learning materials provided in a
variety of traditional learning environments, and where there is limited interaction
(Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). Oblinger and Oblinger go on to suggest that
Although reading text may be the preferred mode of learning for faculty,
librarians, and other academics, it is not the preferred mode for most of the
population. Students on average retain 10 percent of what they read but
closer to 30 percent of what they see. (p. 2.14)
If however, as is being suggested, multiple sensory channels can be allowed for
in the design of a presentation or course materials, learning can become more
effective (Coffield, Moseley, Hall, & Ecclestone, 2004b; Kearnsley, 2000). This
being the case, Stokes (2002) suggests that “instructional materials, as well as
teaching styles, should be matched with cognitive styles [of students] for greatest
learner benefits” (p. 12). Stokes goes on to suggest that this should become a matter
of priority given the cultural shift that has occurred in today’s media-saturated
environments. In particular, as relates to this study, Koc (2005) believes that,
although there has been substantial research conducted into learning styles associated
with face to face environments, this is inadequate when considering today’s
electronic learning environments.
Although it has been seen that there is a real need to design learning
environments for a range of different learning modalities to aid student cognition,
considering issues of students meta-cognition is equally necessary. There is
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therefore, a further aspect that needs to be considered, one of individual students
being aware of their own preferred approach to learning, or learning style. It is
suggested that when students are aware of their individual strengths and weaknesses
as learners they become more motivated to learn (Coffield, Moseley, Hall, &
Ecclestone, 2004a). The potential of this awareness is that students can then question
their long-held beliefs or behaviours and be taught to monitor their selection and use
of a range of strategies to aid their learning (Sadler-Smith, 2001). This strategy has
also been shown to increase the confidence and the grades of students by helping
them to make the most of the learning opportunities that match their preferred style
(Coffield, Moseley, Hall, & Ecclestone, 2004a).
As mentioned above, the learning styles/modalities classification used for this
study is the VARK learning styles.
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