multimodal design for hybrid course materials:...

Multimodal Design for Hybrid Course Materials

MULTIMODAL DESIGN FOR HYBRID COURSE MATERIALS: DEVELOPING AND EVALUATING A NEW PARADIGM FOR

COURSE DELIVERY

Michael D Sankey Dip Art and Design Prahran CAE

BCA USQ BA (Honours) USQ

MEd (Further Education and Training) USQ

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Education

Faculty of Education Queensland University of Technology

Brisbane, Queensland Australia

2007


ii

Statement of original authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made. Signed:______________________________________________________________ Date: _______________________________________________________________


iii

Acknowledgements

There are numerous people to whom I owe my sincere gratitude. Firstly, my heartfelt thanks to Dr Wendy Morgan, my Principal Supervisor, and Dr Bruce Burnett, my Associate Supervisor. Without their guidance, wisdom and expertise this project could never have progressed as smoothly and quickly as it did. Thanks must also be extended to Associate Professor Susan Danby from the Centre for Learning Innovation, and Coordinator of the Doctor of Education program. The work and expertise she and the teaching team put into the Doctor of Education program is first class. Well done! Needless to say, my project would not have been possible without the interest and co-operation of Associate Professor Rod St Hill and Mr Cec Pedersen, whose courses were used for this research. Their commitment to their own teaching and learning practice is exemplary and I look forward to continued involvement with them in the future. Special thanks must also go to the design and development team in the Distance and e-Learning Centre (DeC) at The University of Southern Queensland (USQ) and particularly to Associate Professor Alan Smith, the Executive Director, Division of Academic Information Services. His support of this project and the support of his team has been tireless. My thanks also to several esteemed colleagues, namely, Jacquie McDonald, Caroline Cottman and Marilyn Dorman; their collegial support and interest in the instructional design aspects of this project has been extremely thought provoking and helpful. Thank you too, to my fabulous wife and partner for the last 25 years, Kim. For her tireless support, prayers and discernment, ensuring I kept a balance in my life and making every day a wonderful adventure. Finally, a special thanks to our children Corin, Brynn, Rebekah and Joel, for their love and perseverance. I love you all.


iv

Abstract

In early 2003, in a major shift in policy, the University of Southern Queensland

(USQ) announced that its learning materials would progressively move from a

predominantly print-based mode of delivery to a new ‘hybrid’ mode of delivery

across all discipline areas. Central to this delivery would be a resource-rich CD-

ROM containing all study materials, supported with a range of multimedia based

enhancements, online support and selective print materials.

As this represented a fundamentally new approach to the delivery of materials

at USQ, it was essential to ascertain a clear understanding of about the implications

of this change for student learning. In implementing this policy it was necessary to

establish a range of pedagogically sound, cost effective delivery guidelines, for the

development of the course materials and the multimedia based enhancements. In

response to this need, this study has developed a set of 10 multimodal design

heuristics used to guide the development of these materials. In establishing these

guidelines, this thesis contextualises important issues associated with hybrid delivery

and considers how catering for a multiliterate clientele by using a combination of

multimedia based enhancements in an electronic environment may improve the

learning opportunities for students.

Two Faculty of Business courses delivered in 2004, ECO2000

‘Macroeconomics for Business and Government’ and MGT2004 ‘People

Development’, were chosen to pilot the new hybrid mode of delivery. The

combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches was used to investigate how

students have utilised this new environment. This approach rendered a clear

indication of student views about the CD based delivery and, more particularly, an


v

appreciation of how they utilised the multimedia based enhancements to augment

their studies.

Analysis of the research data indicated a strong acceptance of the CD based

learning environment. This was particularly true for off-campus and international

students. On the whole, students reported a preference for a CD based resource,

though this acceptance was moderated by a desire to still receive some print-based

materials. Importantly, from this analysis it was possible to add a further four

multimodal design heuristics to the original set of ten which informed the design of

the multimedia based enhancements for each course.

This study demonstrates that higher levels of student engagement are possible

when integrating a range of multimedia based enhancements to cater for a range of

student learning modalities, whilst also maintaining a balanced environment for more

traditional learners1.

1 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “traditional

learners”


vi

Keywords

Multimodal design, multimedia, distance education, hyperlinking, design heuristics,

instructional design, learning styles / modalities, multiple representation, cognitive

load, dual coding, hybrid CD delivery, animation, concurrent triangulation strategy.


vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page No Statement of original authorship ii

Acknowledgements iii

Abstract iv

Keywords vi

List of tables xi

List of figures xi

List of abbreviations xii

Overview of chapters xiii

1 Introduction to the study

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Background to the study 2

1.3 About this study 6

1.4 Hybrid delivery at USQ 11

1.4.1 How the hybrid approach differs from other CD based courses 13

1.4.2 The processes of hybrid development 14

1.4.3 Why not just put it online? 18

1.5 Courses chosen for hybrid delivery 19

1.6 Design considerations 21

1.6.1 Instructional design 22

1.6.2 Researching the design 27

1.7 Importance of this study 27

1.8 Conclusion 28

2 Review of the literature

2.1 Introduction 31

2.2 Establishing a need for multimodal design 32

2.2.1 Learning styles/modalities 34

2.2.2 Visualisation in representation 38

2.2.3 Multiple literacies or multiliteracies 41

2.2.4 Multiple representations and multimedia 43

2.2.5 Cognitive constraints and benefits 46

Cognitive Load Theory 46

Dual Coding Theory 48

2.2.6 Learner centred approach utilising hypermedia 50

2.3 Multimodal design heuristics 53

2.4 Researching student perceptions 55


viii

2.4.1 Examples of research designs in this area 60

2.5 Conclusion 67 3 Application of multimodal design heuristics

3.1 Introduction 71

3.2 Navigation on the hybrid CD 75

3.3 Multiple representations and multimedia elements 79

3.3.1 CD based multimedia enhancements 80

Mini lectures utilising PowerPoint and video or audio 80

Audio overviews 82

Animated equations and concept diagrams 83

Interactive graphs and drag and drop formative exercises 85

Graphs and tables with audio 87

Audio glossary 87

Harvard referencing tool 88

VARK learning styles inventory tool 89

Icons and images 90

Electronic forms 92

Formative interactive quizzes 93

3.3.2 USQConnect Study Desk 94

Interactive e-pac quizzes 95

PowerPoint lecture slides 96

3.4 Hyperlinking to alternative representations 97

3.4 Conclusion 98 4 Research methods

4.1 Introduction 101

4.2 Research questions 101

4.3 General research approach and design 102

4.3.1 Mixed methods approach 104

4.4 Course implementation 106

4.4.1 ECO2000 trial group 107

Results of initial trial group 108

4.4.2 Research participants 109

4.4.3 Implementation timetable 109

4.5 Data collection events 110

4.5.1 Learning styles assessment questionnaire 112

4.5.2 Brief questionnaire 115

4.5.3 First focus group interviews 116


ix

4.5.4 Longer questionnaire 119

4.5.5 Second focus group interviews 120

4.5.6 Student results 122

4.6 Evaluation and validity of data 122

4.6.1 Data analysis procedures 123

Qualitative data 124

Quantitative data 125

Triangulation 126

4.6.2 Validity 127

4.7 Ethical considerations 128

The purpose of this research 128

During data collection 128

Anonymity and protection of data 129

Writing up and disseminating the research 129

University considerations 129

4.8 Limitations and generalisability 130

4.9 Conclusion 131 5 Analysis


5.2 Preparation of quantitative and qualitative data sets for analysis 135

5.2.1 Quantitative 135

5.2.2 Qualitative 136

5.3 Issues emerging from student perceptions of their learning experience 136

5.3.1 Demographic information 137

5.3.2 Final grades 138

5.3.3 Further background information 140

5.3.4 The multiple representation of key concepts 141

Summary and implications 149

5.3.5 The use of additional multimedia and/or interactive elements 151


5.3.6 The facilitation of an awareness of a student’s preferred learning modality 159


5.3.7 Access to an alternative print based version of the course material 167


5.3.8 The use of interactive features such as hyperlinking to access further learning support elements 177


5.4 Conclusion 183


x

6 Discussion and implications


6.2 Summary of study 186

6.2.1 Multimodal design and hybrid delivery 187

6.2.2 Understanding student perceptions of hybrid delivery 192

Design of study 192

Size of study and participation rates 193

6.3 Summary of outcomes and recommendations 194

6.3.1 Student perceptions of multiple representations 194

6.3.2 Student perceptions of additional multimedia 195

6.3.3 Student perceptions of learning modalities 197

6.3.4 Student perceptions of access to print-based materials 198

6.3.5 Student perceptions of hyperlinking 200

6.4 Revision of original multimodal design heuristics 200

6.4.1 Additional recommendations 201

6.5 Final discussion of outcomes 201 6.6 Limitations and suggestions for further research 206 6.7 Conclusion 208

Glossary of terms 211

References 212 Appendix 1: Summary of results from research conducted into the course MGT2102 228

Appendix 2: Preliminary questionnaire 232

Appendix 3: VARK questionnaire 234

Appendix 4: Brief questionnaire 238

Appendix 5: First focus group interviews 240

Appendix 6: Longer questionnaire 242

Appendix 7: Research consent form 246

Appendix 8: Response from QUT Ethics Committee 248

Appendix 9: Response from USQ Ethics Committee 252

Appendix 10: Quantitative statistics of Surveys 1 and 2 254


xi

List of tables

Page No Table 1.1 The top ten Australian providers of distance education in 2004 3 Table 1.2 Two aspects of the ADDIE design model 24 Table 3.1 The multimedia enhancements used in the ECO2000 and MGT2004 CDs 80 Table 4.1 The project timeline 110 Table 4.2 A brief description of the research events in this study 111 Table 5.1 Grade allocations at USQ 139

List of figures

Page No 1 Introduction to the study

Figure 1.1 The main areas of consideration when designing hybrid delivery 8

Figure 1.2 The hybrid delivery model: context specific support for the CD based package 11

Figure 1.3 A GOOD production model: XML files rendered to print, CD/DVD or the web 15

Figure 1.4 The GOOD e-content system: Storing, editing and production from one file 16

Figure 1.5 Both HTML and PDF versions are provided on the hybrid CD 17

Figure 1.6 The ADDIE Instructional Design Model 22 2 Review of the literature

Figure 2.1 The five areas of theoretical interest in this review of the literature 34

Figure 2.2 A VARK model 38

Figure 2.3 The multiple representation of a concept 44

Figure 2.4 A Dual Coding model 49

Figure 2.5 A presentation broken down into stepwise segments 52

Figure 2.6 The MGT2102 front screen 57

Figure 2.7 The prompt to view the PDF version (left). The warning if not accessed (right) 57

Figure 2.8 Online questionnaire used to research MGT2102 student perceptions 58 3 Application of the multimodal design heuristics

Figure 3.1 One of three forms of navigation on the hybrid CD using hyperlinks 73

Figure 3.2 A multiple representation hyperlinked within the ECO2000 materials 73

Figure 3.3 The delivery model used for the ECO2000 and MGT2004 hybrid CDs 74

Figure 3.4 PDF files linked from the HTML materials 75

Figure 3.5 The information sent to students on ways to navigate the hybrid CD 76

Figure 3.6 Hyperlinks to additional materials 78

Figure 3.7 Video PowerPoint presentation and audio PowerPoint presentation 81

Figure 3.8 Each module in MGT2004 also has an audio overview 83

Figure 3.9 An animated equation in ECO2000 and an animated concept model in MGT2004 84

Figure 3.10 The animated sequence of an equation being explained 85

Figure 3.11 An interactive graph in ECO2000 and a “drag and drop” exercise in MGT2004 86

Figure 3.12 An audio file explains how the data appearing in the table can be understood 87


xii

Figure 3.13 The audio glossary tool allows the student to hear the definition of a word 88

Figure 3.14 The Harvard referencing tool used to help students correctly reference their work 89

Figure 3.15 The VARK learning styles inventory: showing question and response screens 90

Figure 3.16 Icons are used in the ECO2000 and MGT2004 courses 91

Figure 3.17 Screen captures showing the use of images and icons in the ECO2000 course and enlargement of the economic pizza

91

Figure 3.18 An electronic form: students fill this out and print it for their records 92

Figure 3.19 Interactive quizzes contextualised in materials providing instant feedback 93

Figure 3.20 Screen grab of ECO2000 course home page, in student view 94

Figure 3.21 A sample e-pac quiz provided on the StudyDesk for ECO2000 96

Figure 3.22 PowerPoint slides of lectures provided online 97 4 Research methods

Figure 4.1 The areas of interest in this study 103

Figure 4.2 The Concurrent Triangulation Strategy. (Adapted from Creswell 2003) 104

Figure 4.3 The front screen of the VARK website on the course CDs 112 5 Analysis

Figure 5.1 Comparison of final grades from the past four offers to 2004 (all students) 139

Figure 5.2 VARK survey results for both courses combined, n=170 159

List of abbreviations

USQ University of Southern Queensland CD Compact Disk ROM Read Only Memory XML eXtensible Markup Language GOOD Generic On/Off line Delivery PDF Portable Document File IMM Interactive Multimedia VARK Visual, Aural, Read/write, Kinaesthetic HTML Hypertext Markup Language


xiii

Overview of Chapters

Chapter 1 Introduction to the study

This chapter gives a general introduction to the study and places it in the

context of the research to be conducted.

Chapter 2 Review of the literature

This chapter presents a discussion of the literature investigated in relation to

the use of multiple representations in multimedia material, learning styles and hybrid

delivery. It culminates with a set of multimodal design heuristics used in the design

of the multiple representations and multimedia elements for the two courses

researched in this study.

Chapter 3 Application of the multimodal design heuristics

This chapter discusses the application of the multimodal design heuristics

outlined in the previous chapter to the two courses used for this research project. It

elaborates on the learning theories utilised in each course and puts these into context

with the use of the multimodal design heuristics and the University of Southern

Queensland’s procedures for course materials production.

Chapter 4 Research methods

This chapter discusses the strategies and methods used in researching the

appropriateness of the multiple representations and multimedia elements in the two

courses chosen for this project. These were the principles advanced in Chapter 2, the

application of which was discussed in Chapter 3.

Chapter 5 Analysis

This chapter presents an analysis of the research data as it relates to each of the

five elements of research question. From this analysis a series of recommendations


xiv

for each of the areas pertaining to the research questions and to future hybrid

delivery environments are presented.

Chapter 6 Discussion and implications

This chapter begins with a brief summary of the background to the study and

the issues that informed the formation of the multimodal design heuristics. It then

reviews the analysis of the data and demonstrates that, based on this analysis, four

further heuristics should be added to the original group of ten. Finally, the chapter

highlights the key points made during this study and makes a series of

recommendations for future research possibilities.


Chapter 1

Introduction to the study


1

1.1 Introduction

This study sought to understand how students enrolled in two courses,

ECO2000 “Macroeconomics for business and government” and MGT2004 “People

development”, at University of Southern Queensland (USQ) during 2004, perceived

the trial of a new CD based hybrid mode of delivery. More specifically, it

investigated their perception of the multimedia based enhancements used to augment

the course environments.

At the time this study was conducted the researcher was an Instructional

Designer in the Distance and e-Learning Centre at USQ and was responsible for the

translation of these two courses to hybrid CD delivery2. This translation necessitated

the design and development of a range of multimedia based enhancements that took

the form of multiple representations and additional multimedia elements used to

support the course materials. A set of multimodal design heuristics were developed,

by the researcher, to underpin the design of these enhancements.

From gaining an understanding of the students’ perceptions of these

environments the researcher was able to analyse whether the strategies adopted in

designing and developing these environments, and the multimedia based

enhancements, had been appropriate to support the students’ learning. From this

understanding it was then possible to make some judgements as to whether the

multimodal design3 heuristics would need to be changed or adapted before they

could be applied to the development of future courses.

This chapter begins with background information necessary to contextualise

this study and then moves on to introducing the study proper. It discusses the

2 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “hybrid CD”

3 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “Multimodal design”


2

rationale behind USQs move to a hybrid form of delivery and gives some

background to the two courses chosen for this redevelopment. It then investigates

some of the related instructional design considerations and explains why this study is

seen to be important. Finally, this chapter synthesises the discussion by proposing the

research question used to facilitate an understanding of how students perceived these

new learning environments.

1.2 Background to the study

Early in 2003, in a major shift in policy, the University of Southern

Queensland (USQ) decided that over the following three to four years all its study

materials, for both on- and off-campus students, would be developed in a hybrid

mode.4 Central to this delivery would be a resource-rich CD containing all essential

study materials supported by significant multimedia based enhancements and online5

support. This represented a fundamentally new approach to the delivery of course

materials at USQ, one that would require significant research to underpin its

development. However, before this chapter introduces the study proper, it will first

set a context by providing an overview to the institution in which it is based and the

main issues that made the above mentioned change in policy necessary.

The USQ is a dual-mode university with three alternative teaching modes:

students can study on-campus, or by “traditional” distance education, or online via

4 In 2005 USQ changed the name of ‘hybrid delivery’ to ‘transmodal delivery’. For the sake of

consistency, this document will retain the term hybrid as this was the nomenclature at the time this

study was conducted. It should also be noted that the term ‘hybrid’ is still used by certain sectors of

the university.

5 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “online”


3

the Internet. It offers over 300 accredited awards, consisting of over 1,000 courses6

across five faculties and provides access to educational opportunities for

approximately 25,000 students annually. In 2004 USQ was the second largest

provider of distance education in Australia (see Table 1.1) with approximately 75%

of its students studying off-campus.

The quality and standing of the university’s teaching and learning activities are

widely recognised. In 2004 the Commonwealth of Learning (COL) presented USQ

with the Award of Excellence for Institutional Achievement in the area of excellence

in distance education. In addition, the university was the joint winner of the Good

Universities Guides “University of the Year” award for 2000-2001. This award was

presented for developing the “e-university”, where students learn and are supported

through the innovative and strategic use of educational web-based technologies.

Table 1.1. The top ten Australian providers of distance education in 2004.

Distance Education Providers 2004 Distance education students % 1 Charles Sturt University 21,213 18.5% 2 University of southern Queensland 15,433 13.4% 3 The University of New England 11,863 10.3% 4 Deakin University 9,788 8.5% 5 Monash University 7,963 6.9% 6 Central Queensland University 5,682 4.9% 7 Southern Cross University 4,274 3.7% 8 University of South Australia 3,700 3.2% 9 Queensland University of Technology 3,245 2.8% 10 The University of New South Wales 3,126 2.7% Other Universities 28,650 24.9% Total 114,937 100.0%

Source: DEST; Ian Dobson Cited in: (Vergnani, 2005)

Through the years, the university has prospered across the four mainstream

generations of distance education development, namely the:

• correspondence model (with print),

6 A course at USQ may be called a subject or unit at another institution.


4

• multimedia model (print, audiotape, videotape, computer-based learning and

interactive video),

• telelearning model (audioconferencing, videoconferencing, audiographic

communication, broadcast TV/radio and audioconferencing), and the

• flexible learning model (interactive multimedia, Internet-based access to

WWW resources, and computer-mediated communication).

(Sankey & Smith, 2004)

Where appropriate, elements from each of these models are used across all

faculties, in the preparation of teaching materials, mainly for students studying off-

campus. This approach has served USQ very well, as has the “higher education

paradigm, honed and perfected for hundreds of years” (Twigg, 2001, p.3) and used

for the university’s on-campus students.

Although USQ has used different models over the years, a clear differentiation

still exists between its on- and off-campus students. Many courses use very different

teaching strategies for each of the two different modes of delivery. This approach has

been quite justifiable, given the significant research that has been conducted into “the

no significant difference phenomenon” (Russell, 1999). Repeated studies show no

significant differences between results of students studying by distance education

and those studying in a face to face mode (Twigg, 2001). However, this research has

been conducted only on learning environments where on- and off-campus students

were using materials designed specifically to suit that particular mode of delivery

(Meyer, 2002).

On a micro level, a delivery model that requires multiple approaches (as

described above) is not economically sustainable for the university in the long term.

The pressures of constant technological advancement and increasing economic


5

rationalism require university staff, both academic and general, to continually do a

lot more with less (P. Taylor, 2000). Given these pressures, Taylor (2004) believes

that traditional university approaches to teaching and learning will not have the

capacity to meet the escalating demands for higher education in the future.

On the macro level there are broader perspectives to delivery models that

should be considered. Over recent years significant societal and technological

developments have resulted in major changes taking place in the fields of higher

education and lifelong learning as a whole (Jochems, van Merrienboer, & Koper,

2004). These changes have not been restricted to individual institutions, but have

occurred on a more global level, with institutions increasingly competing in the

international marketplace (Van Damme, 2001).

This globalisation of higher education is seen in many different forms,

encompassing the burgeoning issues of technological innovation and the rise of the

network society, and restructuring of world economic systems through newly

industrialised nations entering the knowledge market. Linked to these issues are the

demise of the nation state and the homogenisation of cultural exchange leading to the

new realities of multiculturalism (Van Damme, 2001). These changes have caused

fundamental educational questions to be asked such as “what to teach and how on

earth to teach it” (Jochems, van Merrienboer, & Koper, 2004). For many universities

this has required new approaches to the delivery of course materials to be considered

across the board (Kellner, 2004), and a greater flexibility in the way programs are

designed and delivered (Laurillard, 2002).

These pressures, on both the micro and the macro levels, have made it

increasingly untenable for USQ to produce different versions of materials for

different student cohorts, studying the same course at the same time, both


6

domestically and internationally, either on- or off-campus. Associated with this is

society’s increased reliance on the internet for information retrieval, though currently

restricted by the inconsistency of broadband technologies available to these diverse

student groups. This has required the university to look for creative solutions to deal

with these challenges.

1.3 About this study

As part of the USQ’s ongoing response to the wider pressures on higher

education discussed above and the economic pressures of being a small regional

university in an ever widening global market, in early 2003 USQ introduced a major

policy shift in the area of course materials delivery. This required that the

development of study materials, for courses offered both on- and off- campus, would

move towards a hybrid mode of delivery over the following three to four years. The

term “hybrid” in this educational context embraces a range of approaches to learning

and teaching that integrate a number of delivery media, mainly facilitated by the

proliferation of information and communication technologies (Parsons & Ross,

2002).

More specifically, from USQ’s perspective, hybrid delivery involves the

provision of course content through a resource-based learning package. This package

is supplemented by selected interactive teaching support strategies, such as utilising

communication technologies or face-to-face sessions. The resource-based learning

package is the same for all students, whether enrolled on- or off-campus. This

effectively reduces the duplication of effort required in supplying different course

materials to each cohort. There is however no single hybrid delivery mode, rather

there is a range of hybrid modes for courses and programs within different

disciplines and subject areas (A. Smith, 2004).


7

Central to this new hybrid delivery, in the majority of cases, is a resource-rich

CD-ROM containing all the essential study materials, support materials and

significant multimedia based enhancements. The CD allows direct linking to relevant

course websites, hosted on USQ’s WebCT Vista learning management system

(LMS). Students and staff at USQ know this environment as USQConnect. In some

cases courses may be further supported by print-based materials.

As USQ moves towards this CD based hybrid mode of delivery, the

establishment of a range of pedagogically sound design heuristics for the delivery of

course materials in this format is regarded as paramount. Heuristics in this context

can be understood as rules of thumb rather than specified guidelines (Nielsen, 1994).

Consideration of the most appropriate and cost effective delivery combinations

related to each course has been taking place in many course development teams since

the announcement of this change. Broadly speaking, the areas requiring

consideration when proposing such a change in delivery can be broken down into

four main subgroups, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. On a human level there is a need to

consider issues related to both students and teachers. On a broader level

consideration should also be given to the needs of the institution and the different

modes by which course materials are delivered.


8

Figure 1.1. The main areas of consideration when designing hybrid delivery.

This research project is broadly interested in the areas of student based issues

and cognition as indicated in Figure 1.1, as it deals predominantly with the

instructional design issues to be considered when developing multimedia enhanced

course materials. More specifically, this study is interesting as an aspect of this topic,

that is, the design of additional multimedia based enhancements for use to augment

the hybrid CD based environments, with a special interest in the multiple

representation of core concepts and the use of other multimedia elements used to

enhance these materials. This research is further interested in developing and

establishing a set of sound multimodal design heuristics that may be used in

developing similar multimedia based enhancements in future hybrid courses and

across a range of disciplines.

This study proposes that the use of a hybrid CD based environment augmented

with a range of specifically designed multimedia based enhancement will cater for a

greater range of student learning modalities and thereby provide a more complete or

engaging learning experience for the students, particularly, for those students who


9

choose to study off-campus and for those not used to traditional print-based learning

materials.

To help establish the above multimodal design heuristics, two of 19 courses

proposed for hybrid delivery in 2004 were chosen to research this new configuration

of study materials and more specifically, the use of multiple representations or

multimedia elements used to augment these materials. The two courses are ECO2000

“Macroeconomics for Business and Government”, which ran in first semester 2004,

and MGT2004 “People Development”, in second semester 2004. Reasons for the

selection of these courses will be discussed in Section 1.5 below. It is important to

note that although these courses have both run successfully for many years in both

on- and off-campus modes, the transition to hybrid delivery should be seen as the

first major step in a staged process, with further enhancements planned for future

iterations.

Specifically, this study examines the appropriateness of the multimodal design

heuristics established to develop the range of multimedia based enhancements used

in the above two courses. These enhancements use a combination of media, image,

animation, audio and/or video files to represent key concepts within the courses in

alternative ways. This is done to cater for a broader range of student learning

modalities within the learning environment. These alternative representations will be

referred to, in this study, as “multiple representations”. Other multimedia based

enhancements have also been used as stand alone features within these courses.

These are not specifically related to alternative representations of the same material

or concept and will be referred to as “multimedia elements”.

In Chapter 2, specific issues relating to the design of the multiple

representations and multimedia elements and how these may relate to issues of


10

student cognition are investigated. These issues include the role that student learning

modality7 plays in the different ways in which instructional material are perceived,

and the importance of visualisation in the representation of key concepts within these

multimedia based enhancements. In addition it will consider how catering for a

multiliterate clientele, and how utilising multimedia based enhancements in a

hypermedia based environment, such as the CD based hybrid learning materials, may

enhance the learning opportunities for USQ students.

Emanating from this discussion a set of multimodal design heuristics for the

development of the multiple representations and multimedia elements is proposed for

use within the ECO2000 and MGT2004 courses. The implementation of these design

guidelines is discussed in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 outlines the proposed research

methods adopted to investigate the appropriateness of the design recommendations.

These courses have been researched by asking students enrolled in both

ECO2000 and MGT2004 to comment on their use of the CD based study materials

and on the multimedia based enhancements used to augment the study materials.

This project then analyses and reports on the findings of the research conducted over

Semesters 1 and 2 2004 (Chapter 5). Finally, Chapter 6 reflects on the impact these

findings may have on the design of future CD based hybrid courses and any role

multimedia may play in this design. In so doing the chapter evaluates the adequacy

of the multimodal design heuristics used to develop these materials with the aim of

being able to apply them to the design of future courses.

7 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “Learning

modality”


11

1.4 Hybrid delivery at USQ

As indicated earlier the term “hybrid”, in an educational context, covers a

range of teaching approaches that integrate an array of delivery mechanisms mainly

facilitated by the proliferation of information and communication technologies (ICT)

(Parsons & Ross, 2002). The proliferation of ICT has allowed considerable

expansion of support mechanisms for both on- and off-campus courses and made

them available en masse (Cookson, 2002). In the context of USQ, CD-based hybrid

delivery is seen as the provision of a resource-rich learning environment. This

environment is then further supported by different combinations of teaching support

and an integration with the institutional e-systems, as illustrated in Figure 1.2 (A.

Smith & Sankey, 2005).

Figure 1.2. The hybrid delivery model: context specific support for the CD based package.

Over Semesters 1 and 2 of 2004, 19 courses from within the faculties of

Business and Arts underwent re-development for hybrid delivery. Initially individual

courses were chosen for re-development rather than strands or majors in a program.

The main criterion for the selection of these courses was that those responsible for

these courses were willing to trial this new form of delivery. It was anticipated that


12

once these initial trials had taken place, other courses from within the same programs

would be developed as the next iteration of this new delivery format.

The aim of hybrid delivery is to deliver a consistent quality package of course

materials to all USQ students regardless of their chosen mode of study. The initial

focus has been to develop additional content, or to “value add” to existing teaching

strategies and different combinations of activities that may support learners in a

range of different contexts. These contexts include students studying on-campus (in

Toowoomba, Brisbane and Wide Bay) or off-campus, in Australia or overseas. These

students may be undertaking programs at different levels including, tertiary

preparation, undergraduate and postgraduate courses. There are also international

students serviced by USQ’s overseas agents or partners and finally, independent

students and/or groups of students studying in selected areas unrelated to established

courses (A. Smith, Sankey, & Cottman, 2004). The value adding to support these

different contexts, in most cases, takes the form of multimedia based enhancements,

and interactive communication technologies based on the USQConnect portal.

Importantly, hybrid delivery at USQ was and is required to complement the

University’s directions for teaching and learning and allow for consistent quality

educational delivery to all targeted USQ markets, both domestically and

internationally. As such, the University’s teaching and learning plan states that the

key strategy in creating and maintaining a flexible and responsive learning

environment is to, “develop a hybrid delivery mechanism, as a core educational

resource for all courses as practicable, that accommodates different learning styles8

and opportunities” (USQ, 2003). This new delivery format also had to be

8 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “learning style”


13

economically viable and sustainable in order to develop, produce and deliver courses

and programs on such a large scale.

1.4.1 How the hybrid approach differs from other CD based courses

Although USQ has, over recent years, presented a considerable quantity of

course material both on CD and online, this new initiative seeks to focus these efforts

to establish a common format to deliver all future courses in a consistent way. The

CD based hybrid delivery allows a resource rich package is made available to all

students in any given course. The look and feel of the environment remains the same

for all courses. What varies is specific course related content and the types of

teaching support provided to different student cohorts. The CD contains course

specific elements such as introductory materials, a study guide, study modules,

readings to support the modules, and multimedia based enhancements such as audio,

video and animations. PowerPoint presentations, reference lists and web links may

also be included. More University wide generic information such as the USQ

Handbook, the Distance Education Student Guide, information on getting started,

help files and software updates, for students who may not have the correct computer

software plug-ins, is also provided on each CD.

As it is expected that all students will have access to the internet to fully

participate in their courses, CD delivery may be further supported in two ways. The

first is by USQ’s learning management system, USQConnect. USQConnect provides

each student with their own electronic Study Desk with links to each course they are

enrolled in. USQConnect Study Desk also offers the opportunity for the course

lecturer to establish and use either asynchronous or synchronous discussion forums

to enable students to interact and communicate with each other and the lecturer.

Announcements and updates may also be made available by the lecturer where


14

appropriate. This environment also provides links to all library services, the USQ

Bookshop, to USQAssist where students may find answers to questions related to

USQ systems and individual courses, and USQAdmin where students can enrol,

change personal details, access results and other resource materials related to their

course or enrolment. These e-learning systems offered on USQConnect play an

extremely important role in student support and communication, with students

communicating both with each other and with the University.

As previously mentioned, the CD based resource package contains all study

materials, and access to University e-systems remains the same for all students.

Therefore, the second way in which CD delivery is supported is by context specific

strategies such as face to face sessions, field work, telephone tutorials, etc. Figure 1.2

(above) illustrates this concept. What varies is the type of teaching support provided

to different student groups and individuals. This suggests that the hybrid model may

take on different configurations depending on the course content and pedagogy.

These combinations may include a CD supported by USQConnect (online); CD,

online and print; CD, online, print and tutorials; CD, online and residential school or

laboratories; CD, online and lectures/tutorials; CD and face to face for selected

student groups; and in limited cases where minimal content is required, online only.

Regardless of the combination, the basic design of the CD based learning

environment stays the same.

1.4.2 The processes of hybrid development

The primary delivery mechanism for distance education at USQ has for many

years been print based material, with the addition of audiotapes, video and/or CDs

where appropriate. In considering the change to a more integrated form of delivery,

both new and existing materials need to be converted into the CD based format. In


15

2000 USQ launched its Generic Online Offline Delivery (GOOD) project. The

GOOD project is essentially an e-content management system that allows cross-

media publishing from a single document source. This allows USQ to make

courseware available to students in a variety of delivery modes (print, CD, DVD or

online) from a single document source (J. C. Taylor, 2001). At the core of the content

management system is the ability to automate these processes through the use of

eXtensible Markup Language (XML) standards (see Figure 1.3).

The GOOD cross-media production system allows study materials to be

automatically rendered from XML content into Hyper Text Markup Language

(HTML) for web and CD delivery and into Portable Document Files (PDFs) for print

delivery. Further, once the study materials are converted to XML, individual

lecturers (after some initial training) and/or development staff from the Distance and

e-Learning Centre (DeC) are able to source the document directly to edit and make

changes at will (see Figure 1.4). The updated version of the document is then

accessed and automatically rendered to print, CD or web, whichever is required for

the next offer of that course.

Figure 1.3. A GOOD production model: XML files rendered to print, CD/DVD or the web.


16

Figure 1.4. The GOOD e-content system: Storing, editing and production from one file.

Initial conversion of existing materials into XML has been underway since

2001, with the majority of hybrid courses offered in 2004 having been converted into

the GOOD system. It is anticipated that a range of multimedia based enhancements,

along with further value adding strategies, will be progressively added to course

materials in successive offerings once converted. Examples are the multiple

representations, multimedia elements and USQConnect based communications being

used in the two courses for this study. In a very real sense it is anticipated that the

outcomes of this research will be used to justify the time and money spent by the

DeC in developing this mode of delivery and, more specifically, the multimedia

based enhancements used to augment each of the courses.

As previously mentioned, the GOOD system allows both a navigable HTML

version and a printable PDF version of the course materials to be rendering onto the

CD. The PDF version is linked to the HTML and is available for students to access if

required (Figure 1.5). The HTML version also allows significant hyperlinking to

additional resources and other printable materials. Links can be added at the time of

conversion or at any time prior to the course being rendered to CD. This is discussed

more fully in Chapter 3.


17

Figure 1.5. Both HTML and PDF versions are provided on the hybrid CD.

This hybrid CD initiative should not be viewed in isolation. Rather it should be

seen in the context of developing a total learning package. As van Merrienboer,

Bastiaens, and Hoogveld (2004) suggest that, media other than computers will

typically be required to design powerful integrated e-learning environments. For

example, the use of textbooks, additional stand-alone programs, communication

technologies and in some cases face-to-face instruction may all still need to be used

(p. 22). What is desirable, from USQ’s perspective, is to isolate for each course the

“optimal combination of learning opportunities that are available in the classroom, at

home or at work, by using web, books and video” (Jochems, van Merrienboer, &

Koper, 2004, p.7). The focus is therefore on making the most of the e-learning

experience. This includes deciding what will be the most appropriate combination of

elements to best support each hybrid CD.

As noted above, this study sought to addresses a particular facet of this

concern, as it sought to gain an understanding of student perceptions of the CD based

hybrid environment as a primary mode of delivery. More specifically, this study

investigated how students perceive the incorporation of additional multimedia based

HTML version

PDF Version


18

enhancements, such as the multiple representations and multimedia elements created

for the courses trialling the hybrid CD-based materials. Further consideration is also

given to aspects of student learning modality, learning outcomes, user demands, the

use of navigation features and the availability of print-based materials. These are

investigated in relation to how students perceive these aspects of the delivery, with a

view to how this will impact on the continued development of hybrid CDs at USQ.

1.4.3 Why not just put it online?

USQ has chosen to deliver material on CD as opposed to solely online for a

number of reasons. Primarily it is due to what has been termed the “tyranny of

broadband” (Bruch, 2003). This refers to the variability and inconsistency of internet

connection within Australia and in the many countries to which USQ supplies course

materials. This makes the consistent delivery of high quality web based resources

problematic. The National Office for the Information Economy in Australia recently

released the “Australian National Broadband Strategy” on behalf of the Federal

Government. This report indicated that due to population distribution in most rural

and remote areas in Australia it is unlikely that equitable access to broadband

technology will be achieved in the near future (NOIE, 2004, p.4).

Given that over 75% of USQ’s students study by distance education, both

domestically and overseas, equitable broadband access is a major consideration,

particularly for those students living outside of the major metropolitan centres. For

example, in Malaysia, where USQ has over 2000 students, high speed broadband is

still very expensive, with most schools still being limited to a bandwidth of only 56K

and in many cases only having limited access to this (Wan Mohd, 2004). Therefore

web-based delivery cannot be realistically considered until a consistent level of


19

national and international broadband technology is freely available (van Merrienboer

et al., 2004) across the full range of USQ’s target markets.

As there appears to be no easy short term solution to this problem, CD offers

the most reliable delivery platform for the foreseeable future. The CD gives USQ the

ability to provide access to large quantities of electronic information directly to

student computers, thereby limiting the need for them to access large amounts of

core data from the internet. It also gives the University the ideal opportunity to

directly supply a range of multimedia based enhancements for course materials.

Nonetheless, the web still plays a significant role in the delivery of most courses,

offering support, communication and discussion.

1.5 Courses chosen for hybrid delivery

Two undergraduate courses from the suite of courses offered by the Faculty of

Business at USQ have been chosen for this research project. The first course,

“Macroeconomics for Business and Government” (ECO2000), is a course from an

Economics and Resources Management major, delivered in semester 1 2004. Prior to

this course being involved in hybrid delivery it was offered in both on- and off-

campus mode as both a face-to-face and a print-based course. This course had 133

students enrolled in 2004, 42 studying on-campus in face-to-face mode and 91

studying off-campus by distance education. Since this course was last offered in

Semester 1 2003, it has been converted in the GOOD system, by the DeC, for CD

delivery. It has been further augmented with interactive multimedia based

enhancements and asynchronous discussion forums offered on the USQConnect

student portal.

The second course used in this research, “People Development” (MGT2004),

was offered in Semester 2 of 2004 and is from the Human Resource Development


20

suite of courses. This course had 154 students enrolled, 33 studying on campus in a

face-to-face mode and 121 studying by distance education. This course had also been

previously offered in a face-to-face mode for on-campus students and as print-based

course in off-campus mode. This course was enhanced in a similar way to the

ECO2000 course.

The different subject matter and differing teaching methods used in each

course, ECO2000 and MGT2004, allow for a thorough examination of the generic

design concepts applied to the CD based hybrid delivery and multimedia based

enhancements. That is, the multiple representations and multimedia elements used in

each of these courses are used by students who are unlikely to be taking both

courses, since they come from two distinctly different programs, or majors. The

design differences between the multimedia based enhancements are discussed in

more detail in Section 3.3.

All students in both the ECO2000 and MGT2004 courses, regardless of their

study mode, received identical course materials presented on a hybrid CD. On-

campus students however, were able to attend a one-hour lecture and a two-hour

tutorial once a week. Off-campus students had telephone tutorials scheduled during

the semester (two for ECO2000, three for MGT2004) and were encouraged to make

extensive use of the discussion forums hosted on the USQConnect student portal.

On-campus students also had access to these online discussion forums, though

tended to use this feature less frequently. Weekly PowerPoint presentation slides that

were used as part of the weekly lecture and/or tutorials were also made available to

both on- and off-campus students through this course website.


21

1.6 Design considerations

As noted above, both courses, ECO2000 and MGT2004, have been designed

for, and offered in, both on- and off-campus modes of delivery for many years. The

core design of these materials has not changed substantially for the CD based hybrid

delivery, as they both conform to USQ instructional design templates implemented

for the GOOD system. It is not the intention of this study to investigate the adequacy

or otherwise of these design templates. Rather, the main focus of this study concerns

the design of the multiple representations and multimedia elements used to support

the core teaching materials for each course and the utility of these for students

learning the concepts within the courses.

However, it should also be noted that the researcher, as the instructional

designer for both courses, would prefer to see these courses place a greater

emphasise on a constructivist learning approach, one based in the premise that

learning is a collaborative venture where meaning is negotiated from multiple

perspectives (P. L. Smith & Ragan, 2005). Jonassen (1999) believes that

constructivism is an approach to teaching and learning based on the premise that

students individually and socially construct knowledge as they interpret their

experiences, and that cognition is the result of this “mental construction”. In other

words, students learn by fitting new information together with what they already

know. Consequently learning is affected by the context in which an idea is taught, as

well as by student beliefs and attitudes (Caine & Caine, 1991). Jonassen (1999) also

considers that a constructivist learning environment is one that will “engage learners

in meaning making (knowledge construction)” (p. 217).

It was seen in the ECO2000 course (see Table 1.2), that limited attention has

been paid to this approach to learning in its previous iterations, particularly from the


22

perspective of students studying off-campus. This has not been the case in the

MGT2004 course, which is more congruent with constructivist learning principles. In

an attempt to begin the process of addressing this in the ECO200 course, it is

demonstrated that the design of the multiple representations and multimedia

elements, and the way these have been integrated into the course materials, is one

designed to build a knowledge framework based on students’ existing knowledge.

1.6.1 Instructional design

The Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation (ADDIE)

instructional design model is applied to most courses at USQ. Both of the courses

involved in this project were initially established using this model and continue to be

evaluated and updated by this same process. After an initial, or front-end, analysis is

undertaken to assess the viability of a course, the course enters into a design and then

a development stage. Once development is complete the course is implemented and

finally evaluated. In addition, evaluation is implemented at all stages of the design

process. This process is illustrated in Figure 1.6 (Reiser & Dempsey, 2002). This

ADDIE process is used for both the initial design of a course and ongoing updating

of the course materials.

Figure 1.6. The ADDIE instructional design model (Reiser & Dempsey, 2002).

Implementation

Analysis

Design

Development

Evaluation


23

The design and development of the multiple representations and multimedia

elements used to augment the ECO2000 and MGT2004 courses can also be seen to

use the ADDIE model. For example, an analysis was done on what multimedia based

enhancements would be most appropriate for each course; this was then evaluated

against what had been successfully implemented in other courses. Based on this

analysis a series of enhancements were designed, again evaluated both from previous

experience and from relevant literature in the areas of multimedia learning and

teaching. In this case the review of literature informed the development of the

multimodal design heuristics described in Chapter 2.

Once designed, development of the multimedia based enhancements was

carried out by the multimedia developers in the DeC; these were then evaluated

against the established design criteria, which had been informed by the multimodal

design heuristics. Implementation of these enhancements, into the two CD based

hybrid courses followed and these were then evaluated by the students who had used

them as part of their studies. To complete the ADDIE loop, an analysis of feedback

provided by the students then established whether changes needed to be made to the

existing enhancements, and consequently to the multimodal design, that would then

be used to inform future course designs. A thorough discussion of the creation of the

multimodal design heuristics used in the development of the multiple representation

and multimedia elements used in the ECO2000 and MGT2004 courses is outlined in

Chapter 2.

As previously mentioned, the formatting of these materials uses XML as the

programming language. The use of XML has allowed the study materials to be

rendered onto CD as both HTML and PDF files. The HTML files allow extensive

hyper-linking within the CD based materials. Heavy emphasis is placed on the use of


24

this hyper-linking feature to direct students to discrete bodies of information and/or

to relevant multimedia based enhancements, discussion forums and support material

on the CD.

Table 1.2 illustrates in very general terms the different teaching approaches

used in the two courses, indicating two of the five process fields from the ADDIE

design model (discussed above) that have also been applied to the design of the

additional multimedia based enhancements used in these courses. These process

fields are elaborated more specifically in relation to individual elements in Chapter 3.

It should be noted however that this study does not debate the rights or wrongs of the

particular teaching methodologies employed by each lecturer (against the

researcher’s preferred perspective), who has the final say over their course materials;

rather, it means to draw the reader’s attention to the approaches taken prior to these

courses being prepared for hybrid delivery. It is also important to note that both these

courses do follow an instructional strategy. Though differently applied in each case,

this strategy builds a structure to help learners make the required knowledge

construction needed for their learning (Wilson, 1997).

Table 1.2. Two aspects of the ADDIE design model.

Instructional design phase ECO2000 MGT2004

Teaching methodology Cognitive approach Constructivist approach

Design

• Instructional objectives isolated • Task analysis undertaken • Criterion-referenced assessment

implemented

• Learning goals isolated • Learning sequence identified

(group and/or individual) • Content driven evaluation

implemented

Implementation

• Teacher: conveys information directing activity

• Learner: receives and acquires this information

• Teacher: facilitates the instruction material and engages the learner

• Learner: directs, controls and focuses on problem solving


25

As seen in Table 1.2, the ECO2000 course has previously utilised a cognitive

approach to learning and teaching that has relied heavily on the use of written

exposition, formulae and graphs to convey macroeconomic modelling concepts. The

course was enhanced for Semester 1 2004 with some fundamental social

constructivist learning elements. These consisted of interactive discussion forums,

which allowed students to co-construct an understanding of the course material with

a series of interactive tutorials. Nevertheless, this course still relies heavily on

students progressing through a textbook and associated support workbook. However,

knowledge is not simply tested by recall but is also explored as students apply a

range of economic concepts and interpretations based on accepted modelling

principles.

The new hybrid version of this course contains significant enhancements, with

the incorporation of a number of exploratory learning elements and exercises

(Kynigos & Preen - Kynigou, 1995). These elements allow students to interact and

experiment with graphs and economic models contained on both the course CD and

an additional support CD supplied with the course textbook. These exploratory

learning exercises are designed to help students further investigate the economic

relationships within the macro economy.

In contrast, the MGT2004 course uses a much stronger constructivist approach

in its current design, relying heavily on student interaction with both the lecturer and

fellow students. In this course (MGT2004) students are asked to construct learning

by interacting with each other. In some instances this involves forming teams to find

solutions to particular problems, the answers to which are not necessarily found

within the study materials. To help facilitate this, in the first module of the course the

lecturer establishes what he describes as the “paradigm framework” that students will


26

work within to construct knowledge in a meaningful way. This paradigm is carried

throughout the modules, contextualising what each student contributes. The lecturer

also believes that the computer based environment is ideal for this style of teaching

based in constructivist theory. This notion is supported by de Jong et al. (1998) and

Young (2003), who believe the computer environment can facilitate this supported,

collaborative style of learning.

It was intended that the design of the multiple representations and the

multimedia elements used in both ECO2000 and MGT2004 learning environments

would serve to support the major concepts being elaborated in each course. More

particularly, the plan was that they would facilitate knowledge construction by

catering for a wider range of learning modalities than the previous versions and aid

students who would prefer to receive information in this way.

By utilising hyperlinks in a CD-based environment, alternative representations

become freely accessible, giving students the ability to access these representations

within the context of the materials, without having to seek them from an alternative

source. It is not mandatory for students to access the alternative representations.

However, they are supplied for those students who would prefer to either see or hear

the concepts being explained, thereby catering for a range of learning styles.

In the case of ECO2000, students also have the option to access additional

multimedia support materials via the USQConnect course website. These support

materials were made available by the publisher of the course textbook and contain

further interactive learning tools and formative assessment items to help students

work through the concepts of the course. Similar features for the MGT2004 course

were contained on the course CD.


27

1.6.2 Researching the design

Once both courses had run in their respective semesters, an analysis of student

feedback on their use of the hybrid CD was conducted, particularly the multiple

representations and additional multimedia elements. This is explained in detail in

Chapter 4. This analysis sought to address the following research question:

When a CD based hybrid mode of delivery is chosen as the main delivery

platform of study (course) materials, to what extent do the following factors

impact on students’ perceptions of their learning:

• The multiple representation of key concepts?

• The use of additional multimedia and/or interactive elements?

• The facilitation of an awareness of a student’s preferred learning

modality?

• Access to an alternative print based version of the course material?

• The use of interactive features such as hyperlinking to access further

learning support elements?

In endeavouring to successfully answer this question it is necessary to get an

indication from participants of their prior experience of receiving study materials on

CD or in other interactive ways. The answers may help USQ gain a more thorough

understanding of the implications of hybrid delivery and may bring other issues to

the fore requiring consideration.

1.7 Importance of this study

This study is one of two major studies being conducted at USQ into student

response to the new hybrid CD based delivery of course materials. Since the move to

hybrid delivery is a substantial move away from the traditional provision of print-

based course resources at USQ, it is critical to understand how these materials are


28

being received and used by students. Results from this study will be used to guide

future development of CD based hybrid courses at USQ. The use of and demand for

interactive multimedia in course materials has increased substantially over recent

years at USQ. To date, however, there have been very few studies conducted to

ascertain how effective the use of this style of course material has been. This study

therefore seeks to understand how students perceive these materials being

researched.

More specifically this study seeks to evaluate to what extent the use of multiple

representations and multimedia elements helped the students understand the concepts

within the two courses. As a result this understanding will further inform the future

development of the multimodal design heuristics used to underpin the design and

development of the multiple representations and multimedia elements used in the two

courses researched in this study. It is also intended that from this study a series of

guiding principles may be extrapolated and applied to the future development of

educational multimedia course materials both at USQ and in a broader context.

1.8 Conclusion

As USQ has decided to move towards a CD-based hybrid mode of delivery

over the next three to four years for all its students, it is necessary to undertake

specific research into different aspects of this mode of delivery. This study seeks to

investigate the use of multiple representations and media elements to complement

and potentially improve existing course materials. To do so, this study first

establishes a range of pedagogically sound, cost-effective guiding principles for the

delivery of these materials. These are considered in Chapter 2. In Chapter 3, the

application of these principles in the two learning environments, ECO2000 and

MGT2004 is discussed.


29

Having applied these design principles to the multiple representations and

additional multimedia elements offered in the CD based materials, this study then

seeks to ascertain how students respond to these multimedia based enhancements.

The investigative approach is outlined in Chapter 4. The responses and feedback

received from students during semesters 1 and 2 of 2004 are analysed in Chapter 5.

Chapter 6 then seeks to contextualise this analysis and consider the implications of

this for future course designs. More particularly, it seeks to apply these findings by

reviewing the original set of multimodal design heuristics used in the design and

development of the multimedia based enhancements, and establish whether there is a

need to either alter or add to this original set of 10 heuristics. Finally, Chapter 6

provides recommendations as to what improvements could be made to the delivery

for the two courses involved in this study.


30

Chapter 2

Review of the literature


31

2.1 Introduction

As outlined in Chapter 1, in a major shift in policy at the beginning of 2003,

USQ decided that all courses of study, for both on- and off-campus students, would

be developed in hybrid delivery modes over the next three to four years. Central to

this hybrid delivery is a resource-rich CD-ROM containing all the essential study

materials, supported by extensive multimedia based enhancements. The CD allows

direct linking to a course website hosted on USQ’s learning management system

(LMS) known as USQConnect. In some cases it will be further supported by print

material or other media.

As USQ moves towards this CD based hybrid mode of delivery, the need to

establish a range of sound, cost-effective guidelines for delivery of these materials is

regarded as paramount. Consideration of the most appropriate delivery combinations

related to each course is currently taking place in many course development teams.

This chapter establishes a solid theoretical base (from a survey of related literature)

on which to build a set of reliable multimodal design heuristics to be used when

designing multimedia based enhancements to course materials for CD based

delivery. This research project has applied these principles to the design and

implementation of the multiple representations and multimedia elements used to

augment the learning material for the two hybrid CD courses, ECO2000 and

MGT2004.

In establishing a theoretical base on which to develop the multimodal design

heuristics, outlined later in this chapter (Section 2.3), the following areas are

explored: the role learning styles or modalities play in knowledge acquisition and

how these need to be catered for when designing instructional material; the

importance of visualisation in the representation of concepts; the implications of


32

catering for a multimodal9 or multiliterate clientele with the use of multiple

representations; and considerations on giving students the choice of representation

they would prefer to use.

The heuristics developed from this review of the literature primarily take into

account a range of pedagogical issues associated with the mode of delivery (hybrid)

being trialled by the University. However, at the same time it is important to ensure

there is also a level of generalisability in their development to make possible for

them to be applied across a range of different contexts, or instructional design

scenarios.

This chapter also comments on a selection of previous research projects of a

similar nature and more particularly on a preliminary study conducted at USQ during

2003. This study investigated a course, MGT2102 “Optimisation Applications II”,

that utilised a multimedia learning environment to augment a print based package

provided for both on- and off-campus students. The research conducted on

MGT2102 has helped to inform the development of the multimodal design heuristics

outlined at the end of this chapter and has been used to justify some of the processes

undertaken in developing the multiple representations and multimedia elements for

the ECO2000 and MGT2004 course CDs. Chapter 3 then demonstrates how these

multimodal design heuristics have been applied to the two courses being used for this

research project.

2.2 Establishing a need for multimodal design

A central premise of this study is that students using the course materials for

either ECO20000 or MGT2004 will approach their learning in different ways, and

they will also have different modal preferences. Dunn and Dunn (1987) relate modal

9 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “multimodal”


33

preference to the perceptual function within the broader context of learning styles -

that is, how students perceive information that is presented to them (in this case their

study materials). St Hill (2000) believes that modal preference is a dimension of

learning styles that “brings the focus to the preferences that students have for in-

putting and out-putting information” (p. 1). He considers “modal preferences” to be a

more helpful definition than the broader field of a learning style that carries with it a

range of other connotations. This understanding has helped him “to employ a

teaching strategy based on modal preferences” (St Hill, 2000, p. 4) in courses he has

developed. Further, Fleming (2001a) suggests that most people may be considered

multimodal but will usually have a preference for one or two modalities over others,

and will probably use a combination of modalities when approaching a learning task.

As indicated above, this chapter considers key areas within the literature that

have been central in the development of a set of multimodal design heuristics which

were then used to inform the design and development of the multiple representations

and multimedia elements used to augment the ECO2000 and MGT2004 course

materials. There are five key areas investigated in this review of the literature. These

are: learning styles/modality; multiliteracies; the use of multiple representations;

cognitive constraints; and learner centred environments (see Figure 2.1). These five

areas should not be seen as all-inclusive when designing for multimodal learning

environments; rather, further studies may need to consider other design

considerations. For example, Figure 2.1 indicates other areas or pieces of the puzzle,

such as “Communication”, that are not highlighted in this study. Although other

areas may also be important, the five areas highlighted are those of greater concern to

this particular study and are fundamental to the development of the multimodal

design heuristics outlined later in this chapter.


34

Figure 2.1. The five areas of theoretical interest in this review of the literature.

2.2.1 Learning styles/modalities

When developing CD based multimedia materials many contemporary

educators are beginning to become more aware that learners, for many reasons, use a

variety of learning/cognitive styles to process information. For instance, a study

conducted by Liu and Ginther (1999) found that approximately 20 to 30% of

American students were auditory learners and about 40% visual, while the remaining

30 to 40% were either tactual/kinaesthetic, visual/tactual, or some combinations of

the above. Another study (Vincent & Ross, 2001) found that approximately 50% of

students were auditory, followed by 33% visual and 17% kinaesthetic. Although

these figures vary quite markedly, these results clearly indicate that people perceive

information in different ways.

In a similar vein, it is also recognised that individuals have different cognitive

styles (the way information is processed once received) and that teaching can

become more effective when multiple sensory channels are involved in a

presentation (Kearnsley, 2000; Koc, 2005). Although most researchers agree that

different learning and cognitive styles exist, and freely acknowledge their


35

significance for the learning process, they are unable to reach consensus regarding

the establishment of a single set of accepted principles on which to base this

understanding (Vincent & Ross, 2001).

The debate widens even further when we try to consider the range of ways to

classify different learning styles that have emerged over the years. Pedersen and St

Hill (2000) state that

Broadly speaking, learning styles have been classified in four different

ways. These are: preference for sensory modality, typically classified as

visual, auditory and kinaesthetic; left brain/right brain dominance;

information processing style, typically classified as concrete-reflective,

abstract-reflective, abstract-active and concrete-active; and personal style,

typically classified as extraverts/ introverts, sensors/intuitors,

thinkers/feelers and judgers/perceivers. (p. 556)

This study will limit its consideration to classifying learning styles/modalities

into four main sensory modalities, in the categories of visual (V), aural (A),

read/write (R) and kinaesthetic (K), or VARK10 (Fleming, 2001a). A justification for

this choice is made in Section 4.5.1.

Current research indicates that even with the understanding that students learn

in different ways many instructional events, particularly at university, still only target

generic cognitive styles, or certain types of learners, usually read/write learners

(Sarasin, 1999). This approach inadvertently leads to some students feeling

disenfranchised, in particular students whose learning modalities do not match the

style of the information presentation (McKay, 1999). This in turn may ultimately

result in a student’s performance being impeded (St Hill, 2000).

10 Please see the “Glossary of terms” on p. 268 for a fuller definition of the term “VARK”


36

One primary reason for this disenfranchisement is that “many people don’t

even realise they are favouring one way or the other, because nothing external tells

them they’re any different from anyone else” (De Porter, 1992, p. 114).

Consequently, some students find themselves struggling with the learning materials

they are presented with, particularly the text-based learning materials provided in a

variety of traditional learning environments, and where there is limited interaction

(Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). Oblinger and Oblinger go on to suggest that

Although reading text may be the preferred mode of learning for faculty,

librarians, and other academics, it is not the preferred mode for most of the

population. Students on average retain 10 percent of what they read but

closer to 30 percent of what they see. (p. 2.14)

If however, as is being suggested, multiple sensory channels can be allowed for

in the design of a presentation or course materials, learning can become more

effective (Coffield, Moseley, Hall, & Ecclestone, 2004b; Kearnsley, 2000). This

being the case, Stokes (2002) suggests that “instructional materials, as well as

teaching styles, should be matched with cognitive styles [of students] for greatest

learner benefits” (p. 12). Stokes goes on to suggest that this should become a matter

of priority given the cultural shift that has occurred in today’s media-saturated

environments. In particular, as relates to this study, Koc (2005) believes that,

although there has been substantial research conducted into learning styles associated

with face to face environments, this is inadequate when considering today’s

electronic learning environments.

Although it has been seen that there is a real need to design learning

environments for a range of different learning modalities to aid student cognition,

considering issues of students meta-cognition is equally necessary. There is


37

therefore, a further aspect that needs to be considered, one of individual students

being aware of their own preferred approach to learning, or learning style. It is

suggested that when students are aware of their individual strengths and weaknesses

as learners they become more motivated to learn (Coffield, Moseley, Hall, &

Ecclestone, 2004a). The potential of this awareness is that students can then question

their long-held beliefs or behaviours and be taught to monitor their selection and use

of a range of strategies to aid their learning (Sadler-Smith, 2001). This strategy has

also been shown to increase the confidence and the grades of students by helping

them to make the most of the learning opportunities that match their preferred style

(Coffield, Moseley, Hall, & Ecclestone, 2004a).

As mentioned above, the learning styles/modalities classification used for this

study is the VARK learning styles.

multimodal design for hybrid course materials:...

Documents