hrm-training and development
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Training and Development
1Human Resource Management
OverviewModels of Learning
Reinforcement TheoriesCybernetic & Information TheoriesCognitive Theories & Problem SolvingExperiential Learning Cycle
The ‘learner’ and the organisation’ : transferModel of Training Needs Analysis (TNA) :
individual and organisational levels of analysisSpecial training and development needs :
diversity management
Learning‘Training and developmental activities are
designed to bring about changes in behaviour’ Arnold, Cooper & Robertson (1998)
Learning is ‘a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of practice or experience’
Bass & Vaughan (1966)
How do we learn ? Psychological theories...
Reinforcement TheoriesPavlov (1904) ‘Classical Conditioning’ - making
dogs dribble
Skinner (1965) ‘Operant Conditioning’ - teaching pigeons ‘ping-pong’
Watson & Rayner (1920) ‘little Albert’
Nord (1969) application of Skinner’s ‘positive reinforcement’ principles to org./mgmt practices
N.B. Conditioning by punishment ?
Cybernetic & Information TheoriesHow information is received and monitored (‘’human thermostats’’ - Stammers & Patrick, 1975)
Power Source Monitoring Process(muscular action) (receipt of ‘cues’ through
the senses)
Feedback
Skills Analysis - what ‘cues’ or ‘stimuli’ an experienced worker is being guided by (e.g. typist : ‘hunt & peck’)
Cognitive Theories & Problem SolvingReflect the way in which we learn to
recognise and define problems or experiment to find solutions trial & errordeductive reasoning information seeking
Kohler (1973) Theory of ‘Insight Learning’ or ‘Discovery Learning’ (e.g. Chimps, bananas and sticks or Archimedes ‘Eureka!!’)
Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning
8 major varieties of learning, hierarchically related, each building on earlier, more simple abilities (which therefore act as prerequisites for more complex abilities)Signal Learning (classical conditioning)Stimulus-Response Learning (operant conditioning)Chaining (connecting sequence of 2+ S-R units)Verbal Association (learning ‘verbal’ chains)Discrimination Learning (different responses to similar stimuli)Concept Learning (common response to different stimuli in gp)Rule Learning (a chain of 2 or more concepts I.e. if ‘A’ then ‘B’)Problem Solving (recombining old rules into new ones)
Experiential LearningKolb (1974) : ‘Learning Cycle’
Concrete
Testing experience Observationsimplications of & Reflectionsconcepts in new situations Formation of
abstract concepts & generalisations
Honey & Mumford (1986, 1992) : ‘Learning Styles’activist : open-minded, actively involved, bored with implementationreflector : ponder experiences, cautious, ‘back-seat’, ‘bigger picture’ theorist : adapt & integrate observations, vertical, logical, hierarchicalpragmatist : try out new ideas to see if they work in practice
The ‘Learner-Organisation’ Interaction (I)Learner Motivation
Otto & Glaser (1970) : taxonomy of motivational factors in learning : achievement motivation, anxiety, approval, curiosity, acquisitiveness
Knowledge of results (feedback) form of reinforcementExtrinsic KR Intrinsic KRLearning curves & plateau
Attitude formation & changepredispose learners to actionhaving ‘harmonious attitudes’ (Festinger’s concept of cognitive
dissonance, 1957)group discussion, providing new information
The ‘Learner-Organisation’ Interaction (II)
Ageless brain cells, speeded performance declinesshort-term memory deteriorates (increased errors
in cognitively complex tasks)Welford (1962) older less able to cope with large
amounts of information and vocab. and comprehension increase (reasoning
and numerical ability test scores decreased)Vernon (1960) rate of decline slowest in originally
high scorers.StimulationEducation & Training offset decline in abilities
Transfer‘Training transfer occurs when new learning is used in new
settings beyond those employed for training purposes’ (Arnold, Cooper & Robertson, 1998)
Positive Learning Transfer ‘when learning that has already taken place on one task assists later
learning on another’vertical positive transfer : one subject acts as a basis for another (e.g.
maths to statistics) lateral positive transfer : occurs when the same type of stimulus
requires the same response (e.g. flight simulators)N.B. ‘On-’ vs ‘Off-the-job’ Training
Negative Transfer ‘when an old learning or past experience can hinder performance on a
new task; when the same stimuli requires a different response’ (e.g. driving on right hand side)
Factors that assist TransferIndividualUnderstanding of general principles
facilitated by discovery learning; issue of physical and psychological ‘fidelity’
Overlearningpractising beyond the level of minimum competence
Associationgetting the trainee to associate new learning with
other, previous, learning.OrganisationalSupportive culture ?Congruent norms/values/attitudes
Human Resource Management 13
Introduction to Training
Training is the systematic process of altering employee behavior in a way that will achieve organizational goals It should be related to present job skills and
abilities It helps employees master the specific skills
and abilities needed to be successful
14Human Resource Management
Introduction to Training
A training program is an opportunity for employees to acquire skills, attitudes, and knowledge Learning is the act by which an individual
acquires skills, knowledge, and abilities that result in a relatively permanent change in behavior
Any behavior that has been learned is a skill
Motor, cognitive, and interpersonal skills are training targets
15Human Resource Management
Introduction
Training and development are processes that provide employees with: Information Skills An understanding of the organization and
its goals The ability to make positive contributions in
the form of good performance
16Human Resource Management
High-Leverage TrainingLinked to strategic goals and objectivesUses an instructional design process to
ensure that training is effectiveCompares or benchmarks the company’s
training programs against training programs in other companies
Creates working conditions that encourage continuous learning
Human Resource Management 18
What is Management Development? Development that uses behavioral science
knowledge to deal with problems of change It is a continuous process in the most effective firms
Management development should be planned because it requires: Systematic diagnosis Development of a program The mobilization of resources Top-management commitment for success
There is no best development approach
19Human Resource Management
Training & DevelopmentTraining & development
Represents ongoing investment in employees, and recognition that employees are assets
Importance of training & developmentRapid technological changes cause skill
obsolescenceRedesign of work brings need for new skillsMergers and acquisitions have increased need for
integrating employees into different culturesGlobalization of business requires new knowledge
and skills
20Human Resource Management
Benefits of Training & DevelopmentIndividual employee
Increased employee marketabilityIncreased employee employability security
OrganizationImproved bottom line, efficiency and profitabilityIncreased flexibility in employees who can assume
different and varied responsibilitiesMakes employees more accountable for results
21Human Resource Management
Employee Training
Determining training needs Specific training goals should be based on:
organization’s needs type of work to be done skills necessary to complete the work
Indicators of need for more training: drops in productivity increased rejects inadequate job performance rise in the number of accidents
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Principals of Learning
Learner Attention Importance/Relevance to job
Positive Reinforcement/Corrective Feedback
Transfer of Learning Knowledge of Progress Practice
Whole vs Part
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Learning Theory and Training
Learning principles can be applied to job training: The trainee must be motivated to learn The trainee must be able to learn The learning must be reinforced The training must provide for practice of the
material The material presented must be meaningful The material must be communicated
effectively The training taught must transfer to the job
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Training Process
Identify Training Needs Set Training Objectives
Evaluation Criteria
Choose Training Materials and Methods
Conduct Training Evaluate Training
25Human Resource Management
Needs Assessment
Needs assessment is a process used to determine if, and what type of, training is necessary Organizational analysis: examining a firm’s
mission, resources, and goals Person analysis: determining who needs
training and their readiness for training Task analysis: identification of the tasks,
knowledge, skill, and behaviors that should be included in a training program
26Human Resource Management
27Human Resource Management
Assessing Current Employees’ Training Needs
Performance Appraisals
Job-Related Performance Data
Observations
Interviews
Assessment Center Results
Individual Diaries
Attitude Surveys
Tests
Methods for Identifying
Training Needs
28Human Resource Management
Needs Assessment The information gathering provides a
profile of: What type of training is needed Who should be trained When training should be conducted Whether training is the preferred approach
Instructional objectives lead to the selection and design of instructional programs: If assessment and program design are done
carefully, training and development can be monitored and evaluated
29Human Resource Management
Training Needs and Objectives
Needs assessment involves analyzing: The organization’s needs The knowledge, skill, and ability
needed to perform the job The person or jobholder’s needs The firm’s long- and short-term
objectives
30Human Resource Management
Instructional Methods
This phase of training includes: Selection of content and training methods
The actual training
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On The Job Training Methods
Job instruction training (JIT)CoachingMentoringJob rotationApprenticeship trainingCommittee assignments
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Off The Job Training Methods
Vestibule trainingRole playingLecture methodConference or discussion methodProgrammed instruction
33Human Resource Management
Methods of executive development1.Decision-making skills
2.Interpersonal skills
3.Job knowledge (a) On-the-job experiences
(b) Coaching
(c) Understudy
4.Organisational knowledge (a) Job rotation
5.General knowledge (a) Special courses
(b) Special meetings
(c) Specific readings
6.Specific individual needs (a) Special projects
(b) Committee assignments
(a)In-basket
(b)Business game (c)Case study
(a)Role play(b)Sensitivity training(c) Behaviour Modelling
34Human Resource Management
On-The-Job Training
This is the most widely used method of training Although OJT is simple and relatively
inexpensive, hidden costs can include: Damaged machinery Unsatisfied customers Misfiled forms Poorly taught workers
35Human Resource Management
Computer-Based InstructionBenefits
Self-pacedAdaptive to different
needsCan be customizedEasy to deliverUsually less
expensive to administer
Can be conducted when convenient for employee
DrawbacksLearners must be
self-motivatedCost of producing
online, interactive materials
Lack of interaction with others may work against needs and preferred learning styles
36Human Resource Management
Case Method The case method uses a written description of a
real decision-making situation Managers are asked to study the case in order to:
Identify the problems Analyze the problems Propose solutions Choose the best solution Implement it
More learning takes place if there is interaction with the instructor
37Human Resource Management
Role Playing
Each person is assigned a role in a situation and is asked to react to other players’ role-playing
The player is asked to react to the stimuli as that person would
Players are provided with background information on the situation and the players
A script is usually provided The success of this method depends on the ability
of the players to play the assigned roles believably Role-playing can help a manager become more
aware of, and more sensitive to, the feelings of others
38Human Resource Management
In-Basket Technique The participant is given typical items from a
specific manager’s mail, email, and telephone list Important and pressing matters are mixed in with
routine business matters
The trainee is analyzed and critiqued on: The number of decisions made in the time
allotted The quality of the decisions The priorities chosen for making them
To generate interest, in-basket materials must be: Realistic, job-related, and not impossible to make
decisions on 39Human Resource Management
Behavior Modeling
There are four steps in this process:Modeling of effective behavior (films) Role playingSocial reinforcement (role playing)Transfer of training to the job
Modeling offers promise for developing leadership skills, if used in conjunction with videotape methods Research evidence is generally positive
40Human Resource Management
Programmed Learning
Advantages Reduced training time Self-paced learning Immediate feedback Reduced risk of error for
learner
Presenting questions, facts, or problems to
the learner
Allowing the person to respond
Providing feedback on the
accuracy of answers
41Human Resource Management
Choosing the Best T&D MethodChoice of delivery method depends on:
Organizational culture and valuesT&D objective and contentProfiles of trainees and trainersFinancial and technological resource
availabilityTimeLocation
42Human Resource Management
Choosing the Best T&D MethodDevelopments occurring with regard to delivery methodsShift toward on-the-job trainingIncreased efficiencyExploitation of technology to aid
learningIncreased emphasis on teamsFocus on mentoring
43Human Resource Management
EvaluationIntegral part of overall training program
Provides feedback on effectiveness of training program
Evaluation criteria should be established in tandem with and parallel to training objectives
44Human Resource Management
Four Levels of Training Evaluation
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Impediments to Effective T & D
Commitment lacking
Inadequate budget allocation
Universities award only degrees, not skills
Poaching of trained workers
46Human Resource Management
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