by susan pojer and thomas ross. the “little ice age”: 1350-1700 in the 17c, europe relied on a...

By Susan Pojer and Thomas Ross

The “Little Ice Age”:The “Little Ice Age”:1350-17001350-1700

• In the 17c, Europe relied on a very inefficient agricultural system to feed its population.

• Poor harvests led to higher grain prices and starvation

Feudal Common Field Feudal Common Field SystemSystem

Supplemental Income Supplemental Income Cottage Industries: Cottage Industries: “Putting-Out”“Putting-Out” SystemSystem

Family EconomyFamily Economy

• All family members participateAll family members participate

• Father weaves, rest of family spinsFather weaves, rest of family spins

• Form single production unitForm single production unit

• St. MondaySt. Monday– Pace of work is at families discretion as Pace of work is at families discretion as

long as all work is done on agreed upon long as all work is done on agreed upon due datedue date

Advantages of the Putting-Out Advantages of the Putting-Out SystemSystem

1. Agents of textile manufacturers arranged for peasants to spin wool into thread

2. Peasants could supplement their agricultural incomes.

Take advantage of winter months when farming was impossible.

3. Merchants could avoid the higher wages and often demanding regulations of urban labor.

Easier to reduce the number of workers when the economy was bad.

4. Merchants could acquire capital, which would later play a part in funding industrialization itself.

Peasants acquired future skills.

5. Young people could start separate households earlier, thus contributing to population growth.

Disadvantage of the Putting-Out Disadvantage of the Putting-Out System??System??

When demand rose [which it did in the 18c] this system proved inefficient.

Merchant-capitalists found it difficult to induce peasant-workers to increase their output.

This dilemma eventually led to the factory system

All the workers were concentrated in one place under the supervision of a manager.

Water or steam power could easily be applied there.

Late 18c: French Economic Advantages

Late 18c: French Economic Advantages

V Napoleonic Code.V French communal law.

) Free contracts) Open markets) Uniform & clear commercial

regulationsV Standards weights & measures.V Established technical schools.V The government encouraged & honored

inventors & inventions.V Bank of France European model

providing a reliable currency.

French Economic Disadvantages

French Economic Disadvantages

V Years of war) Supported the American

Revolution.) French Revolution.) Early 19c Napoleonic Wars

V Heavy debts.V High unemployment soldiers

returning from the battlefronts.V French businessmen were afraid to

take risks.

Why England?Why England?

• Single largest free trade zone in Single largest free trade zone in EuropeEurope

• Taxation was moderateTaxation was moderate

• Political structure was stablePolitical structure was stable

That Nation of Shopkeepers! -- Napoleon Bonaparte

The Enclosure Movement

The Enclosure Movement

Characteristics of Enclosure Characteristics of Enclosure

• Well financed by large land ownersWell financed by large land owners• Provides a labor force for factoriesProvides a labor force for factories• Larger concentrated farmsLarger concentrated farms• Social turmoilSocial turmoil• Increased food production, profits, Increased food production, profits,

depopulation of countrysidedepopulation of countryside• Rational land use to create economic Rational land use to create economic

benefitsbenefits• ““Commons” fenced offCommons” fenced off

Technology and AgricultureTechnology and Agriculture

• Jethro Tull = Seed DrillJethro Tull = Seed Drill

• ““Turnip” Townsend = Crop rotationTurnip” Townsend = Crop rotation

• Use of horse, fertilizer etc…Use of horse, fertilizer etc…

• Technology and Enclosure = Technology and Enclosure = increased food productionincreased food production

• Landowners implement these reforms Landowners implement these reforms because demand for food and thus because demand for food and thus prices of food keep risingprices of food keep rising

“Enclosed” Lands Today

“Enclosed” Lands Today

Metals, Woolens, & Canals

Metals, Woolens, & Canals

Early CanalsEarly Canals

Britain’s Earliest Transportation Infrastructure

Mine & Forge [1840-1880]

Mine & Forge [1840-1880]

ù More powerful than water is coal.ù More powerful than wood is iron.ù Innovations make steel feasible. * “Puddling” [1820] – “pig iron.”

ù Henry Cort: produced more and purer iron at low cost

* “Hot blast” [1829] – cheaper, purer steel. * Bessemer process [1856] – strong, flexible steel.

Coalfields & Industrial Areas

Coalfields & Industrial Areas

1800 1 ton of coal 50, 000 miners

1850 30 tons 200, 000 miners

1880300 million tons

500, 000 miners

1914250 million tons

1, 200, 000 miners

Coal Mining in Britain:

1800-1914

Coal Mining in Britain:

1800-1914

Young Coal MinersYoung Coal Miners

Child Labor in the Mines

Child Labor in the Mines

Child “hurriers”

Child “hurriers”

British Pig Iron Production

British Pig Iron Production

Richard Arkwright:“Pioneer of the Factory

System”

Richard Arkwright:“Pioneer of the Factory

System”

The “Water Frame”

Factory ProductionFactory Production) Concentrates production in

oneplace [materials, labor].

) Located near sources of power

[rather than labor or markets].) Requires a lot of capital

investment[factory, machines, etc.] morethan skilled labor.

) Only 10% of English industry in 1850.

Textile FactoryWorkers in England

Textile FactoryWorkers in England

1813 2400 looms 150, 000 workers

1833 85, 000 looms 200, 000 workers

1850224, 000 looms

>1 million workers

The Factory SystemThe Factory System

Rigid schedule.

12-14 hour day.

Dangerous conditions.

Mind-numbing monotony.

Result: uncertainty, layoffs, falling wages

Textile FactoryWorkers in England

Textile FactoryWorkers in England

Young “Bobbin-Doffers”

Young “Bobbin-Doffers”

Jacquard’s LoomJacquard’s Loom

John Kay’s “Flying Shuttle”

John Kay’s “Flying Shuttle”

The Power LoomThe Power Loom

James Watt’s Steam Engine

James Watt’s Steam Engine

• Steam Engine makes Industrial Steam Engine makes Industrial Revolution PossibleRevolution Possible– Undergoing modification since 17Undergoing modification since 17 thth

CenturyCentury– Wood shortages force use of coalWood shortages force use of coal

• Charcoal is scarce, does burn “hot” enough Charcoal is scarce, does burn “hot” enough for iron productionfor iron production

• In 17In 17thth Century demand for Iron is limited Century demand for Iron is limited

Steam TractorSteam Tractor

Steam ShipSteam Ship

An Early Steam LocomotiveAn Early Steam Locomotive

Later LocomotivesLater Locomotives

The Impact of the Railroad

The Impact of the Railroad

Crystal Palace Exhibition: 1851

Crystal Palace Exhibition: 1851

Exhibitions of the new industrial utopia.

Crystal Palace:British Ingenuity on

Display

Crystal Palace:British Ingenuity on

Display

Crystal Palace:American Pavilion

Crystal Palace:American Pavilion

19c Bourgeoisie: The Industrial Nouveau

Riche

19c Bourgeoisie: The Industrial Nouveau

Riche

Criticism of the New Bourgeoisie

Criticism of the New Bourgeoisie

Stereotype of the Factory Owner

Stereotype of the Factory Owner

“Upstairs”/“Downstairs” Life

“Upstairs”/“Downstairs” Life

Factory Wages in Lancashire, 1830

Factory Wages in Lancashire, 1830

Age of Worker Male Wages Female Wages

under 11 2s 3d. 2s. 4d.

11 - 16 4s. 1d. 4s. 3d.

17 - 21 10s. 2d. 7s. 3d.

22 - 26 17s. 2d. 8s. 5d.

27 - 31 20s. 4d. 8s. 7d.

32 - 36 22s. 8d. 8s. 9d.

37 - 41 21s. 7d. 9s. 8d.

42 - 46 20s. 3d. 9s. 3d.

47 - 51 16s. 7d. 8s. 10d.

52 - 56 16s. 4d. 8s. 4d.

57 - 61 13s. 6d. 6s. 4d.

Industrial Staffordshire

Industrial Staffordshire

Women WorkersWomen Workers

• Mostly work in textile and garment Mostly work in textile and garment industryindustry

• Young women vulnerableYoung women vulnerable– Fewer family and community tiesFewer family and community ties– Relationships less enduring, more Relationships less enduring, more

illegitimate birthsillegitimate births– Women’s jobs are considered low skillWomen’s jobs are considered low skill

• Women are not considered independentWomen are not considered independent• Jobs viewed as less valuable than menJobs viewed as less valuable than men

Women WorkersWomen Workers

• Factory dormitories unsafeFactory dormitories unsafe

• Still can’t voteStill can’t vote

• New positions open to women but low New positions open to women but low paypay

• More and more women become More and more women become associated with household dutiesassociated with household duties– Married women = home and familyMarried women = home and family– Key job becomes child careKey job becomes child care

The New Industrial City

The New Industrial City

Early-19c Londonby Gustave Dore

Early-19c Londonby Gustave Dore

Worker Housing in Manchester

Worker Housing in Manchester

Factory Workers at Home

Factory Workers at Home

Workers Housing in Newcastle TodayWorkers Housing in Newcastle Today

The New Urban Poor:A Dickensian Nightmare!The New Urban Poor:A Dickensian Nightmare!

Private Charities: Soup Kitchens

Private Charities: Soup Kitchens

Private Charities: The “Lady Bountifuls”Private Charities:

The “Lady Bountifuls”

The Urban CityThe Urban City

• Centers of industry but filthyCenters of industry but filthy– Cholera, human wasteCholera, human waste– Families in one roomFamilies in one room– One toilet for whole buildingOne toilet for whole building

The Luddites: 1811-1816

The Luddites: 1811-1816

Ned Ludd [a mythical figure supposed to live in Sherwood Forest]

Attacks on the “frames” [power looms].

The Luddite TriangleThe Luddite Triangle

The LudditesThe Luddites

The Neo-Luddites Today

The Neo-Luddites Today

BritishSoldiers Fire on British

Workers:

Let us die like men, and not be sold

like slaves!

BritishSoldiers Fire on British

Workers:

Let us die like men, and not be sold

like slaves!

Peterloo Massacre, 1819

Peterloo Massacre, 1819

The ChartistsThe Chartists

KeyKey

        Chartistsettlements

         Centres of Chartism

      Area of plug riots, 1842

The “Peoples’ Charter”

The “Peoples’ Charter”V Drafted in 1838 by William Lovett.

V Radical campaign for Parliamentary reform of the inequalities created by the Reform Bill of 1832.

Votes for all men. Equal electoral districts. Abolition of the requirement

that Members of Parliament [MPs] be property owners.

Payment for Members of Parliament.

Annual general elections. The secret ballot.

The ChartistsThe Chartists

A physical force—Chartists arming for

the fight.

A female Chartist

Anti-Corn Law League, 1845

Anti-Corn Law League, 1845

Give manufactures more outlets for their products.

Expand employment. Lower the price of bread. Make British agriculture more

efficient and productive. Expose trade and agriculture to

foreign competition. Promote international peace

through trade contact.

Thomas MalthusThomas Malthus

Population growth willoutpace the food supply.

War, disease, or faminecould control population.

The poor should have

less children.

Food supply will then keep up with population.

David RicardoDavid Ricardo

“Iron Law of Wages.”

When wages are high,workers have morechildren.

More children create alarge labor surplus thatdepresses wages.

The Utilitarians:Jeremy Bentham & John

Stuart Mill

The Utilitarians:Jeremy Bentham & John

Stuart Mill The goal of society is the greatest good for the greatest number.

There is a role to play for government

intervention to provide some social safetynet.

The Socialists: Utopians & Marxists The Socialists: Utopians & Marxists

People as a society would operate and own themeans of production, not individuals.

Their goal was a society that benefited everyone, not just a rich, well-connected few.

Tried to build perfect communities [utopias].

Government Response

Government Responsek Abolition of slavery in the

coloniesin 1832 [to raise wages in Britain].

k Sadler Commission to look intoworking conditions * Factory Act [1833] – child labor.

k New Poor Law [1834] – indoor relief. * Poor houses.

k Reform Bill [1832] – broadens thevote for the cities.

By 1850: Zones of

Industrializationon the European

Continent

By 1850: Zones of

Industrializationon the European

Continentù Northeast France.ù Belgium.ù The Netherlands.ù Western German states.ù Northern Italyù East Germany Saxony

Industrialization By 1850Industrialization By 1850

Railroads on the Continent

Railroads on the Continent

European Industrial Production

European Industrial Production

Shares in World Trade:Leading European

Nations

Shares in World Trade:Leading European

Nations

The Politics of IndustrializationThe Politics of

Industrializationù State ownership of some industries.

) RRs Belgium & most of Germany.ù Tariffs British Corn Laws.ù National Banks granted a monopoly on

issuing bank notes.) Bank of England.) Bank of France.

ù Companies required to register with the government & publish annual budgets.

ù New legislation to:) Establish limited liability.) Create rules for the formation of

corporations.ù Postal system.ù Free trade zones Ger. Zollverein

Bibliographic Sources

Bibliographic Sources

) “Images of the Industrial Revolution.”Mt. Holyoke College. http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/ind_rev/images/images-ind-era.html

) “The Peel Web: A Web of English History.”http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/mbloy/c-eight/primary.htm