atomic habits: tiny changes, remarkable results · 2 how your habits shape your identity (and vice...

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Version_1

a·tom·ic

əˈtämik1. anextremelysmallamountofathing;thesingleirreducibleunitofa

largersystem.

2. thesourceofimmenseenergyorpower.hab·it

ˈhabət1. aroutineorpracticeperformedregularly;anautomaticresponsetoa

specificsituation.

Contents

TitlePageCopyright

EpigraphIntroduction:MyStory

TheFundamentalsWhyTinyChangesMakeaBigDifference

1TheSurprisingPowerofAtomicHabits

2HowYourHabitsShapeYourIdentity(andViceVersa)3HowtoBuildBetterHabitsin4SimpleSteps

The1stLawMakeItObvious

4TheManWhoDidn’tLookRight

5TheBestWaytoStartaNewHabit6MotivationIsOverrated;EnvironmentOftenMattersMore

7TheSecrettoSelf-ControlThe2ndLaw

MakeItAttractive

8HowtoMakeaHabitIrresistible9TheRoleofFamilyandFriendsinShapingYourHabits

10HowtoFindandFixtheCausesofYourBadHabitsThe3rdLawMakeItEasy

11WalkSlowly,butNeverBackward12TheLawofLeastEffort

13HowtoStopProcrastinatingbyUsingtheTwo-MinuteRule14HowtoMakeGoodHabitsInevitableandBadHabitsImpossible

The4thLawMakeItSatisfying

15TheCardinalRuleofBehaviorChange

16HowtoStickwithGoodHabitsEveryDay17HowanAccountabilityPartnerCanChangeEverything

AdvancedTacticsHowtoGofromBeingMerelyGoodtoBeingTrulyGreat

18TheTruthAboutTalent(WhenGenesMatterandWhenTheyDon’t)19TheGoldilocksRule:HowtoStayMotivatedinLifeandWork

20TheDownsideofCreatingGoodHabitsConclusion:TheSecrettoResultsThatLast

AppendixWhatShouldYouReadNext?

LittleLessonsfromtheFourLawsHowtoApplyTheseIdeastoBusiness

HowtoApplyTheseIdeastoParentingAcknowledgments

NotesIndex

AbouttheAuthor

Introduction

MyStory

NTHEFINALdayofmysophomoreyearofhighschool,Iwashitinthefacewithabaseballbat.Asmyclassmatetookafullswing,the

batslippedoutofhishandsandcameflyingtowardmebeforestrikingmedirectlybetweentheeyes.Ihavenomemoryofthemomentofimpact.

ThebatsmashedintomyfacewithsuchforcethatitcrushedmynoseintoadistortedU-shape.Thecollisionsentthesofttissueofmybrainslammingintotheinsideofmyskull.Immediately,awaveofswellingsurgedthroughoutmyhead.Inafractionofasecond,Ihadabrokennose,multipleskullfractures,andtwoshatteredeyesockets.

WhenIopenedmyeyes,Isawpeoplestaringatmeandrunningovertohelp.Ilookeddownandnoticedspotsofredonmyclothes.Oneofmyclassmatestooktheshirtoffhisbackandhandedittome.Iusedittoplugthestreamofbloodrushingfrommybrokennose.Shockedandconfused,IwasunawareofhowseriouslyIhadbeeninjured.

Myteacherloopedhisarmaroundmyshoulderandwebeganthelongwalktothenurse’soffice:acrossthefield,downthehill,andbackintoschool.Randomhandstouchedmysides,holdingmeupright.Wetookourtimeandwalkedslowly.Nobodyrealizedthateveryminutemattered.

Whenwearrivedatthenurse’soffice,sheaskedmeaseriesofquestions.

“Whatyearisit?”

“1998,”Ianswered.Itwasactually2002.

“WhoisthepresidentoftheUnitedStates?”

“BillClinton,”Isaid.ThecorrectanswerwasGeorgeW.Bush.

“Whatisyourmom’sname?”

“Uh.Um.”Istalled.Tensecondspassed.

“Patti,”Isaidcasually,ignoringthefactthatithadtakenmetensecondstoremembermyownmother’sname.

ThatisthelastquestionIremember.MybodywasunabletohandletherapidswellinginmybrainandIlostconsciousnessbeforetheambulancearrived.Minuteslater,Iwascarriedoutofschoolandtakentothelocalhospital.

Shortlyafterarriving,mybodybeganshuttingdown.Istruggledwithbasicfunctionslikeswallowingandbreathing.Ihadmyfirstseizureoftheday.ThenIstoppedbreathingentirely.Asthedoctorshurriedtosupplymewithoxygen,theyalsodecidedthelocalhospitalwasunequippedtohandlethesituationandorderedahelicoptertoflymetoalargerhospitalinCincinnati.

Iwasrolledoutoftheemergencyroomdoorsandtowardthehelipadacrossthestreet.Thestretcherrattledonabumpysidewalkasonenursepushedmealongwhileanotherpumpedeachbreathintomebyhand.Mymother,whohadarrivedatthehospitalafewmomentsbefore,climbedintothehelicopterbesideme.Iremainedunconsciousandunabletobreatheonmyownassheheldmyhandduringtheflight.

Whilemymotherrodewithmeinthehelicopter,myfatherwenthometocheckonmybrotherandsisterandbreakthenewstothem.Hechokedbacktearsasheexplainedtomysisterthathewouldmisshereighth-gradegraduationceremonythatnight.Afterpassingmysiblingsofftofamilyandfriends,hedrovetoCincinnatitomeetmymother.

WhenmymomandIlandedontheroofofthehospital,ateamofnearlytwentydoctorsandnursessprintedontothehelipadandwheeledmeintothetraumaunit.Bythistime,theswellinginmybrainhadbecomesoseverethatIwashavingrepeatedpost-traumaticseizures.Mybrokenbonesneededtobefixed,butIwasinnoconditiontoundergosurgery.Afteryetanotherseizure—mythirdoftheday—Iwasputintoamedicallyinducedcomaandplacedonaventilator.

Myparentswerenostrangerstothishospital.Tenyearsearlier,theyhadenteredthesamebuildingonthegroundflooraftermysister

wasdiagnosedwithleukemiaatagethree.Iwasfiveatthetime.Mybrotherwasjustsixmonthsold.Aftertwoandahalfyearsofchemotherapytreatments,spinaltaps,andbonemarrowbiopsies,mylittlesisterfinallywalkedoutofthehospitalhappy,healthy,andcancerfree.Andnow,aftertenyearsofnormallife,myparentsfoundthemselvesbackinthesameplacewithadifferentchild.

WhileIslippedintoacoma,thehospitalsentapriestandasocialworkertocomfortmyparents.Itwasthesamepriestwhohadmetwiththemadecadeearlierontheeveningtheyfoundoutmysisterhadcancer.

Asdayfadedintonight,aseriesofmachineskeptmealive.Myparentssleptrestlesslyonahospitalmattress—onemomenttheywouldcollapsefromfatigue,thenexttheywouldbewideawakewithworry.Mymotherwouldtellmelater,“ItwasoneoftheworstnightsI’veeverhad.”

MYRECOVERY

Mercifully,bythenextmorningmybreathinghadreboundedtothepointwherethedoctorsfeltcomfortablereleasingmefromthecoma.WhenIfinallyregainedconsciousness,IdiscoveredthatIhadlostmyabilitytosmell.Asatest,anurseaskedmetoblowmynoseandsniffanapplejuicebox.Mysenseofsmellreturned,but—toeveryone’ssurprise—theactofblowingmynoseforcedairthroughthefracturesinmyeyesocketandpushedmylefteyeoutward.Myeyeballbulgedoutofthesocket,heldprecariouslyinplacebymyeyelidandtheopticnerveattachingmyeyetomybrain.

Theophthalmologistsaidmyeyewouldgraduallyslidebackintoplaceastheairseepedout,butitwashardtotellhowlongthiswouldtake.Iwasscheduledforsurgeryoneweeklater,whichwouldallowmesomeadditionaltimetoheal.IlookedlikeIhadbeenonthewrongendofaboxingmatch,butIwasclearedtoleavethehospital.Ireturnedhomewithabrokennose,halfadozenfacialfractures,andabulginglefteye.

Thefollowingmonthswerehard.Itfeltlikeeverythinginmylifewasonpause.Ihaddoublevisionforweeks;Iliterallycouldn’tseestraight.Ittookmorethanamonth,butmyeyeballdideventuallyreturntoitsnormallocation.Betweentheseizuresandmyvision

problems,itwaseightmonthsbeforeIcoulddriveacaragain.Atphysicaltherapy,Ipracticedbasicmotorpatternslikewalkinginastraightline.Iwasdeterminednottoletmyinjurygetmedown,butthereweremorethanafewmomentswhenIfeltdepressedandoverwhelmed.

IbecamepainfullyawareofhowfarIhadtogowhenIreturnedtothebaseballfieldoneyearlater.Baseballhadalwaysbeenamajorpartofmylife.MydadhadplayedminorleaguebaseballfortheSt.LouisCardinals,andIhadadreamofplayingprofessionally,too.Aftermonthsofrehabilitation,whatIwantedmorethananythingwastogetbackonthefield.

Butmyreturntobaseballwasnotsmooth.Whentheseasonrolledaround,Iwastheonlyjuniortobecutfromthevarsitybaseballteam.Iwassentdowntoplaywiththesophomoresonjuniorvarsity.Ihadbeenplayingsinceagefour,andforsomeonewhohadspentsomuchtimeandeffortonthesport,gettingcutwashumiliating.Ivividlyrememberthedayithappened.IsatinmycarandcriedasIflippedthroughtheradio,desperatelysearchingforasongthatwouldmakemefeelbetter.

Afterayearofself-doubt,Imanagedtomakethevarsityteamasasenior,butIrarelymadeitonthefield.Intotal,Iplayedeleveninningsofhighschoolvarsitybaseball,barelymorethanasinglegame.

Despitemylacklusterhighschoolcareer,IstillbelievedIcouldbecomeagreatplayer.AndIknewthatifthingsweregoingtoimprove,Iwastheoneresponsibleformakingithappen.Theturningpointcametwoyearsaftermyinjury,whenIbegancollegeatDenisonUniversity.Itwasanewbeginning,anditwastheplacewhereIwoulddiscoverthesurprisingpowerofsmallhabitsforthefirsttime.

HOWILEARNEDABOUTHABITS

AttendingDenisonwasoneofthebestdecisionsofmylife.Iearnedaspotonthebaseballteamand,althoughIwasatthebottomoftherosterasafreshman,Iwasthrilled.Despitethechaosofmyhighschoolyears,Ihadmanagedtobecomeacollegeathlete.

Iwasn’tgoingtobestartingonthebaseballteamanytimesoon,soIfocusedongettingmylifeinorder.Whilemypeersstayeduplateand

playedvideogames,Ibuiltgoodsleephabitsandwenttobedearlyeachnight.Inthemessyworldofacollegedorm,Imadeapointtokeepmyroomneatandtidy.Theseimprovementswereminor,buttheygavemeasenseofcontrolovermylife.Istartedtofeelconfidentagain.AndthisgrowingbeliefinmyselfrippledintotheclassroomasIimprovedmystudyhabitsandmanagedtoearnstraightA’sduringmyfirstyear.

Ahabitisaroutineorbehaviorthatisperformedregularly—and,inmanycases,automatically.Aseachsemesterpassed,IaccumulatedsmallbutconsistenthabitsthatultimatelyledtoresultsthatwereunimaginabletomewhenIstarted.Forexample,forthefirsttimeinmylife,Imadeitahabittoliftweightsmultipletimesperweek,andintheyearsthatfollowed,mysix-foot-four-inchframebulkedupfromafeatherweight170toalean200pounds.

Whenmysophomoreseasonarrived,Iearnedastartingroleonthepitchingstaff.Bymyjunioryear,Iwasvotedteamcaptainandattheendoftheseason,Iwasselectedfortheall-conferenceteam.Butitwasnotuntilmyseniorseasonthatmysleephabits,studyhabits,andstrength-traininghabitsreallybegantopayoff.

SixyearsafterIhadbeenhitinthefacewithabaseballbat,flowntothehospital,andplacedintoacoma,IwasselectedasthetopmaleathleteatDenisonUniversityandnamedtotheESPNAcademicAll-AmericaTeam—anhonorgiventojustthirty-threeplayersacrossthecountry.BythetimeIgraduated,Iwaslistedintheschoolrecordbooksineightdifferentcategories.Thatsameyear,Iwasawardedtheuniversity’shighestacademichonor,thePresident’sMedal.

Ihopeyou’llforgivemeifthissoundsboastful.Tobehonest,therewasnothinglegendaryorhistoricaboutmyathleticcareer.Ineverendedupplayingprofessionally.However,lookingbackonthoseyears,IbelieveIaccomplishedsomethingjustasrare:Ifulfilledmypotential.AndIbelievetheconceptsinthisbookcanhelpyoufulfillyourpotentialaswell.

Weallfacechallengesinlife.Thisinjurywasoneofmine,andtheexperiencetaughtmeacriticallesson:changesthatseemsmallandunimportantatfirstwillcompoundintoremarkableresultsifyou’rewillingtostickwiththemforyears.Wealldealwithsetbacksbutinthelongrun,thequalityofourlivesoftendependsonthequalityofour

habits.Withthesamehabits,you’llendupwiththesameresults.Butwithbetterhabits,anythingispossible.

Maybetherearepeoplewhocanachieveincrediblesuccessovernight.Idon’tknowanyofthem,andI’mcertainlynotoneofthem.Therewasn’tonedefiningmomentonmyjourneyfrommedicallyinducedcomatoAcademicAll-American;thereweremany.Itwasagradualevolution,alongseriesofsmallwinsandtinybreakthroughs.TheonlywayImadeprogress—theonlychoiceIhad—wastostartsmall.AndIemployedthissamestrategyafewyearslaterwhenIstartedmyownbusinessandbeganworkingonthisbook.

HOWANDWHYIWROTETHISBOOK

InNovember2012,Ibeganpublishingarticlesatjamesclear.com.Foryears,IhadbeenkeepingnotesaboutmypersonalexperimentswithhabitsandIwasfinallyreadytosharesomeofthempublicly.IbeganbypublishinganewarticleeveryMondayandThursday.Withinafewmonths,thissimplewritinghabitledtomyfirstonethousandemailsubscribers,andbytheendof2013thatnumberhadgrowntomorethanthirtythousandpeople.

In2014,myemaillistexpandedtooveronehundredthousandsubscribers,whichmadeitoneofthefastest-growingnewslettersontheinternet.IhadfeltlikeanimpostorwhenIbeganwritingtwoyearsearlier,butnowIwasbecomingknownasanexpertonhabits—anewlabelthatexcitedmebutalsofeltuncomfortable.Ihadneverconsideredmyselfamasterofthetopic,butrathersomeonewhowasexperimentingalongsidemyreaders.

In2015,IreachedtwohundredthousandemailsubscribersandsignedabookdealwithPenguinRandomHousetobeginwritingthebookyouarereadingnow.Asmyaudiencegrew,sodidmybusinessopportunities.Iwasincreasinglyaskedtospeakattopcompaniesaboutthescienceofhabitformation,behaviorchange,andcontinuousimprovement.IfoundmyselfdeliveringkeynotespeechesatconferencesintheUnitedStatesandEurope.

In2016,myarticlesbegantoappearregularlyinmajorpublicationslikeTime,Entrepreneur,andForbes.Incredibly,mywritingwasreadbyovereightmillionpeoplethatyear.CoachesintheNFL,NBA,andMLBbeganreadingmyworkandsharingitwiththeirteams.

Atthestartof2017,IlaunchedtheHabitsAcademy,whichbecamethepremiertrainingplatformfororganizationsandindividualsinterestedinbuildingbetterhabitsinlifeandwork.*Fortune500companiesandgrowingstart-upsbegantoenrolltheirleadersandtraintheirstaff.Intotal,overtenthousandleaders,managers,coaches,andteachershavegraduatedfromtheHabitsAcademy,andmyworkwiththemhastaughtmeanincredibleamountaboutwhatittakestomakehabitsworkintherealworld.

AsIputthefinishingtouchesonthisbookin2018,jamesclear.comisreceivingmillionsofvisitorspermonthandnearlyfivehundredthousandpeoplesubscribetomyweeklyemailnewsletter—anumberthatissofarbeyondmyexpectationswhenIbeganthatI’mnotevensurewhattothinkofit.

HOWTHISBOOKWILLBENEFITYOU

TheentrepreneurandinvestorNavalRavikanthassaid,“Towriteagreatbook,youmustfirstbecomethebook.”IoriginallylearnedabouttheideasmentionedherebecauseIhadtolivethem.Ihadtorelyonsmallhabitstoreboundfrommyinjury,togetstrongerinthegym,toperformatahighlevelonthefield,tobecomeawriter,tobuildasuccessfulbusiness,andsimplytodevelopintoaresponsibleadult.Smallhabitshelpedmefulfillmypotential,andsinceyoupickedupthisbook,I’mguessingyou’dliketofulfillyoursaswell.

Inthepagesthatfollow,Iwillshareastep-by-stepplanforbuildingbetterhabits—notfordaysorweeks,butforalifetime.WhilesciencesupportseverythingI’vewritten,thisbookisnotanacademicresearchpaper;it’sanoperatingmanual.You’llfindwisdomandpracticaladvicefrontandcenterasIexplainthescienceofhowtocreateandchangeyourhabitsinawaythatiseasytounderstandandapply.

ThefieldsIdrawon—biology,neuroscience,philosophy,psychology,andmore—havebeenaroundformanyyears.WhatIofferyouisasynthesisofthebestideassmartpeoplefiguredoutalongtimeagoaswellasthemostcompellingdiscoveriesscientistshavemaderecently.Mycontribution,Ihope,istofindtheideasthatmattermostandconnecttheminawaythatishighlyactionable.Anythingwiseinthesepagesyoushouldcredittothemanyexpertswhoprecededme.Anythingfoolish,assumeitismyerror.

Thebackboneofthisbookismyfour-stepmodelofhabits—cue,craving,response,andreward—andthefourlawsofbehaviorchangethatevolveoutofthesesteps.Readerswithapsychologybackgroundmayrecognizesomeofthesetermsfromoperantconditioning,whichwasfirstproposedas“stimulus,response,reward”byB.F.Skinnerinthe1930sandhasbeenpopularizedmorerecentlyas“cue,routine,reward”inThePowerofHabitbyCharlesDuhigg.

BehavioralscientistslikeSkinnerrealizedthatifyouofferedtherightrewardorpunishment,youcouldgetpeopletoactinacertainway.ButwhileSkinner’smodeldidanexcellentjobofexplaininghowexternalstimuliinfluencedourhabits,itlackedagoodexplanationforhowourthoughts,feelings,andbeliefsimpactourbehavior.Internalstates—ourmoodsandemotions—matter,too.Inrecentdecades,scientistshavebeguntodeterminetheconnectionbetweenourthoughts,feelings,andbehavior.Thisresearchwillalsobecoveredinthesepages.

Intotal,theframeworkIofferisanintegratedmodelofthecognitiveandbehavioralsciences.Ibelieveitisoneofthefirstmodelsofhumanbehaviortoaccuratelyaccountforboththeinfluenceofexternalstimuliandinternalemotionsonourhabits.Whilesomeofthelanguagemaybefamiliar,Iamconfidentthatthedetails—andtheapplicationsoftheFourLawsofBehaviorChange—willofferanewwaytothinkaboutyourhabits.

Humanbehaviorisalwayschanging:situationtosituation,momenttomoment,secondtosecond.Butthisbookisaboutwhatdoesn’tchange.It’saboutthefundamentalsofhumanbehavior.Thelastingprinciplesyoucanrelyonyearafteryear.Theideasyoucanbuildabusinessaround,buildafamilyaround,buildalifearound.

Thereisnoonerightwaytocreatebetterhabits,butthisbookdescribesthebestwayIknow—anapproachthatwillbeeffectiveregardlessofwhereyoustartorwhatyou’retryingtochange.ThestrategiesIcoverwillberelevanttoanyonelookingforastep-by-stepsystemforimprovement,whetheryourgoalscenteronhealth,money,productivity,relationships,oralloftheabove.Aslongashumanbehaviorisinvolved,thisbookwillbeyourguide.

THEFUNDAMENTALS

WhyTinyChangesMakeaBigDifference

TheSurprisingPowerofAtomicHabits

HEFATEOFBritishCyclingchangedonedayin2003.Theorganization,whichwasthegoverningbodyforprofessional

cyclinginGreatBritain,hadrecentlyhiredDaveBrailsfordasitsnewperformancedirector.Atthetime,professionalcyclistsinGreatBritainhadendurednearlyonehundredyearsofmediocrity.Since1908,BritishridershadwonjustasinglegoldmedalattheOlympicGames,andtheyhadfaredevenworseincycling’sbiggestrace,theTourdeFrance.In110years,noBritishcyclisthadeverwontheevent.

Infact,theperformanceofBritishridershadbeensounderwhelmingthatoneofthetopbikemanufacturersinEuroperefusedtosellbikestotheteambecausetheywereafraidthatitwouldhurtsalesifotherprofessionalssawtheBritsusingtheirgear.

BrailsfordhadbeenhiredtoputBritishCyclingonanewtrajectory.Whatmadehimdifferentfrompreviouscoacheswashisrelentlesscommitmenttoastrategythathereferredtoas“theaggregationofmarginalgains,”whichwasthephilosophyofsearchingforatinymarginofimprovementineverythingyoudo.Brailsfordsaid,“Thewholeprinciplecamefromtheideathatifyoubrokedowneverythingyoucouldthinkofthatgoesintoridingabike,andthenimproveitby1percent,youwillgetasignificantincreasewhenyouputthemalltogether.”

Brailsfordandhiscoachesbeganbymakingsmalladjustmentsyoumightexpectfromaprofessionalcyclingteam.Theyredesignedthebikeseatstomakethemmorecomfortableandrubbedalcoholonthetiresforabettergrip.Theyaskedriderstowearelectricallyheatedovershortstomaintainidealmuscletemperaturewhileridingandused

biofeedbacksensorstomonitorhoweachathleterespondedtoaparticularworkout.Theteamtestedvariousfabricsinawindtunnelandhadtheiroutdoorridersswitchtoindoorracingsuits,whichprovedtobelighterandmoreaerodynamic.

Buttheydidn’tstopthere.Brailsfordandhisteamcontinuedtofind1percentimprovementsinoverlookedandunexpectedareas.Theytesteddifferenttypesofmassagegelstoseewhichoneledtothefastestmusclerecovery.Theyhiredasurgeontoteacheachriderthebestwaytowashtheirhandstoreducethechancesofcatchingacold.Theydeterminedthetypeofpillowandmattressthatledtothebestnight’ssleepforeachrider.Theyevenpaintedtheinsideoftheteamtruckwhite,whichhelpedthemspotlittlebitsofdustthatwouldnormallyslipbyunnoticedbutcoulddegradetheperformanceofthefinelytunedbikes.

Astheseandhundredsofothersmallimprovementsaccumulated,theresultscamefasterthananyonecouldhaveimagined.

JustfiveyearsafterBrailsfordtookover,theBritishCyclingteamdominatedtheroadandtrackcyclingeventsatthe2008OlympicGamesinBeijing,wheretheywonanastounding60percentofthegoldmedalsavailable.Fouryearslater,whentheOlympicGamescametoLondon,theBritsraisedthebarastheysetnineOlympicrecordsandsevenworldrecords.

Thatsameyear,BradleyWigginsbecamethefirstBritishcyclisttowintheTourdeFrance.Thenextyear,histeammateChrisFroomewontherace,andhewouldgoontowinagainin2015,2016,and2017,givingtheBritishteamfiveTourdeFrancevictoriesinsixyears.

Duringtheten-yearspanfrom2007to2017,Britishcyclistswon178worldchampionshipsandsixty-sixOlympicorParalympicgoldmedalsandcapturedfiveTourdeFrancevictoriesinwhatiswidelyregardedasthemostsuccessfulrunincyclinghistory.*

Howdoesthishappen?Howdoesateamofpreviouslyordinaryathletestransformintoworldchampionswithtinychangesthat,atfirstglance,wouldseemtomakeamodestdifferenceatbest?Whydosmallimprovementsaccumulateintosuchremarkableresults,andhowcanyoureplicatethisapproachinyourownlife?

WHYSMALLHABITSMAKEABIGDIFFERENCE

Itissoeasytooverestimatetheimportanceofonedefiningmomentandunderestimatethevalueofmakingsmallimprovementsonadailybasis.Toooften,weconvinceourselvesthatmassivesuccessrequiresmassiveaction.Whetheritislosingweight,buildingabusiness,writingabook,winningachampionship,orachievinganyothergoal,weputpressureonourselvestomakesomeearth-shatteringimprovementthateveryonewilltalkabout.

Meanwhile,improvingby1percentisn’tparticularlynotable—sometimesitisn’tevennoticeable—butitcanbefarmoremeaningful,especiallyinthelongrun.Thedifferenceatinyimprovementcanmakeovertimeisastounding.Here’showthemathworksout:ifyoucanget1percentbettereachdayforoneyear,you’llendupthirty-seventimesbetterbythetimeyou’redone.Conversely,ifyouget1percentworseeachdayforoneyear,you’lldeclinenearlydowntozero.Whatstartsasasmallwinoraminorsetbackaccumulatesintosomethingmuchmore.

1%BETTEREVERYDAY

1%worseeverydayforoneyear.0.99365=00.03

1%bettereverydayforoneyear.1.01365=37.78

FIGURE1:Theeffectsofsmallhabitscompoundovertime.Forexample,ifyoucangetjust1percentbettereachday,you’llendupwithresultsthatarenearly37timesbetterafteroneyear.

Habitsarethecompoundinterestofself-improvement.Thesamewaythatmoneymultipliesthroughcompoundinterest,theeffectsofyourhabitsmultiplyasyourepeatthem.Theyseemtomakelittledifferenceonanygivendayandyettheimpacttheydeliveroverthemonthsandyearscanbeenormous.Itisonlywhenlookingbacktwo,five,orperhapstenyearslaterthatthevalueofgoodhabitsandthecostofbadonesbecomesstrikinglyapparent.

Thiscanbeadifficultconcepttoappreciateindailylife.Weoftendismisssmallchangesbecausetheydon’tseemtomatterverymuchinthemoment.Ifyousavealittlemoneynow,you’restillnotamillionaire.Ifyougotothegymthreedaysinarow,you’restilloutofshape.IfyoustudyMandarinforanhourtonight,youstillhaven’tlearnedthelanguage.Wemakeafewchanges,buttheresultsneverseemtocomequicklyandsoweslidebackintoourpreviousroutines.

Unfortunately,theslowpaceoftransformationalsomakesiteasytoletabadhabitslide.Ifyoueatanunhealthymealtoday,thescaledoesn’tmovemuch.Ifyouworklatetonightandignoreyourfamily,

theywillforgiveyou.Ifyouprocrastinateandputyourprojectoffuntiltomorrow,therewillusuallybetimetofinishitlater.Asingledecisioniseasytodismiss.

Butwhenwerepeat1percenterrors,dayafterday,byreplicatingpoordecisions,duplicatingtinymistakes,andrationalizinglittleexcuses,oursmallchoicescompoundintotoxicresults.It’stheaccumulationofmanymissteps—a1percentdeclinehereandthere—thateventuallyleadstoaproblem.

Theimpactcreatedbyachangeinyourhabitsissimilartotheeffectofshiftingtherouteofanairplanebyjustafewdegrees.ImagineyouareflyingfromLosAngelestoNewYorkCity.IfapilotleavingfromLAXadjuststheheadingjust3.5degreessouth,youwilllandinWashington,D.C.,insteadofNewYork.Suchasmallchangeisbarelynoticeableattakeoff—thenoseoftheairplanemovesjustafewfeet—butwhenmagnifiedacrosstheentireUnitedStates,youenduphundredsofmilesapart.*

Similarly,aslightchangeinyourdailyhabitscanguideyourlifetoaverydifferentdestination.Makingachoicethatis1percentbetteror1percentworseseemsinsignificantinthemoment,butoverthespanofmomentsthatmakeupalifetimethesechoicesdeterminethedifferencebetweenwhoyouareandwhoyoucouldbe.Successistheproductofdailyhabits—notonce-in-a-lifetimetransformations.

Thatsaid,itdoesn’tmatterhowsuccessfulorunsuccessfulyouarerightnow.Whatmattersiswhetheryourhabitsareputtingyouonthepathtowardsuccess.Youshouldbefarmoreconcernedwithyourcurrenttrajectorythanwithyourcurrentresults.Ifyou’reamillionairebutyouspendmorethanyouearneachmonth,thenyou’reonabadtrajectory.Ifyourspendinghabitsdon’tchange,it’snotgoingtoendwell.Conversely,ifyou’rebroke,butyousavealittlebiteverymonth,thenyou’reonthepathtowardfinancialfreedom—evenifyou’removingslowerthanyou’dlike.

Youroutcomesarealaggingmeasureofyourhabits.Yournetworthisalaggingmeasureofyourfinancialhabits.Yourweightisalaggingmeasureofyoureatinghabits.Yourknowledgeisalaggingmeasureofyourlearninghabits.Yourclutterisalaggingmeasureofyourcleaninghabits.Yougetwhatyourepeat.

Ifyouwanttopredictwhereyou’llendupinlife,allyouhavetodoisfollowthecurveoftinygainsortinylosses,andseehowyourdailychoiceswillcompoundtenortwentyyearsdowntheline.Areyouspendinglessthanyouearneachmonth?Areyoumakingitintothegymeachweek?Areyoureadingbooksandlearningsomethingneweachday?Tinybattleslikethesearetheonesthatwilldefineyourfutureself.

Timemagnifiesthemarginbetweensuccessandfailure.Itwillmultiplywhateveryoufeedit.Goodhabitsmaketimeyourally.Badhabitsmaketimeyourenemy.

Habitsareadouble-edgedsword.Badhabitscancutyoudownjustaseasilyasgoodhabitscanbuildyouup,whichiswhyunderstandingthedetailsiscrucial.Youneedtoknowhowhabitsworkandhowtodesignthemtoyourliking,soyoucanavoidthedangeroushalfoftheblade.

YOURHABITSCANCOMPOUNDFORYOUORAGAINSTYOU

PositiveCompoundingProductivitycompounds.Accomplishingoneextrataskisasmallfeatonanygivenday,butitcountsforalotoveranentirecareer.Theeffectofautomatinganoldtaskormasteringanewskillcanbeevengreater.Themoretasksyoucanhandlewithoutthinking,themoreyourbrainisfreetofocusonotherareas.

Knowledgecompounds.Learningonenewideawon’tmakeyouagenius,butacommitmenttolifelonglearningcanbetransformative.Furthermore,eachbookyoureadnotonlyteachesyousomethingnewbutalsoopensupdifferentwaysofthinkingaboutoldideas.AsWarrenBuffettsays,“That’showknowledgeworks.Itbuildsup,likecompoundinterest.”Relationshipscompound.Peoplereflectyourbehaviorbacktoyou.Themoreyouhelpothers,themoreotherswanttohelpyou.Beingalittlebitnicerineachinteractioncanresultinanetworkofbroadandstrongconnectionsovertime.

NegativeCompoundingStresscompounds.Thefrustrationofatrafficjam.Theweightofparentingresponsibilities.Theworryofmakingendsmeet.Thestrainofslightlyhighbloodpressure.Bythemselves,thesecommoncausesofstressaremanageable.Butwhentheypersistforyears,littlestressescompoundintoserioushealthissues.

Negativethoughtscompound.Themoreyouthinkofyourselfasworthless,stupid,orugly,themoreyouconditionyourselftointerpretlifethatway.Yougettrappedinathoughtloop.Thesameistrueforhowyouthinkaboutothers.Onceyoufallintothehabitofseeingpeopleasangry,unjust,orselfish,youseethosekindofpeopleeverywhere.Outragecompounds.Riots,protests,andmassmovementsarerarelytheresultofasingleevent.Instead,alongseriesofmicroaggressionsanddailyaggravationsslowlymultiplyuntiloneeventtipsthescalesandoutragespreadslikewildfire.

WHATPROGRESSISREALLYLIKE

Imaginethatyouhaveanicecubesittingonthetableinfrontofyou.Theroomiscoldandyoucanseeyourbreath.Itiscurrentlytwenty-fivedegrees.Eversoslowly,theroombeginstoheatup.

Twenty-sixdegrees.

Twenty-seven.

Twenty-eight.

Theicecubeisstillsittingonthetableinfrontofyou.

Twenty-ninedegrees.

Thirty.

Thirty-one.

Still,nothinghashappened.

Then,thirty-twodegrees.Theicebeginstomelt.Aone-degreeshift,seeminglynodifferentfromthetemperatureincreasesbeforeit,hasunlockedahugechange.

Breakthroughmomentsareoftentheresultofmanypreviousactions,whichbuildupthepotentialrequiredtounleashamajorchange.Thispatternshowsupeverywhere.Cancerspends80percentofitslifeundetectable,thentakesoverthebodyinmonths.Bamboocanbarelybeseenforthefirstfiveyearsasitbuildsextensiverootsystemsundergroundbeforeexplodingninetyfeetintotheairwithinsixweeks.

Similarly,habitsoftenappeartomakenodifferenceuntilyoucrossacriticalthresholdandunlockanewlevelofperformance.Intheearlyandmiddlestagesofanyquest,thereisoftenaValleyofDisappointment.Youexpecttomakeprogressinalinearfashionandit’sfrustratinghowineffectivechangescanseemduringthefirstdays,weeks,andevenmonths.Itdoesn’tfeellikeyouaregoinganywhere.It’sahallmarkofanycompoundingprocess:themostpowerfuloutcomesaredelayed.

Thisisoneofthecorereasonswhyitissohardtobuildhabitsthatlast.Peoplemakeafewsmallchanges,failtoseeatangibleresult,anddecidetostop.Youthink,“I’vebeenrunningeverydayforamonth,sowhycan’tIseeanychangeinmybody?”Oncethiskindofthinking

takesover,it’seasytoletgoodhabitsfallbythewayside.Butinordertomakeameaningfuldifference,habitsneedtopersistlongenoughtobreakthroughthisplateau—whatIcallthePlateauofLatentPotential.

Ifyoufindyourselfstrugglingtobuildagoodhabitorbreakabadone,itisnotbecauseyouhavelostyourabilitytoimprove.ItisoftenbecauseyouhavenotyetcrossedthePlateauofLatentPotential.Complainingaboutnotachievingsuccessdespiteworkinghardislikecomplainingaboutanicecubenotmeltingwhenyouheateditfromtwenty-fivetothirty-onedegrees.Yourworkwasnotwasted;itisjustbeingstored.Alltheactionhappensatthirty-twodegrees.

WhenyoufinallybreakthroughthePlateauofLatentPotential,peoplewillcallitanovernightsuccess.Theoutsideworldonlyseesthemostdramaticeventratherthanallthatprecededit.Butyouknowthatit’stheworkyoudidlongago—whenitseemedthatyouweren’tmakinganyprogress—thatmakesthejumptodaypossible.

Itisthehumanequivalentofgeologicalpressure.Twotectonicplatescangrindagainstoneanotherformillionsofyears,thetensionslowlybuildingallthewhile.Then,oneday,theyrubeachotheronceagain,inthesamefashiontheyhaveforages,butthistimethetensionistoogreat.Anearthquakeerupts.Changecantakeyears—beforeithappensallatonce.

Masteryrequirespatience.TheSanAntonioSpurs,oneofthemostsuccessfulteamsinNBAhistory,haveaquotefromsocialreformerJacobRiishangingintheirlockerroom:“Whennothingseemstohelp,Igoandlookatastonecutterhammeringawayathisrock,perhapsahundredtimeswithoutasmuchasacrackshowinginit.Yetatthehundredandfirstblowitwillsplitintwo,andIknowitwasnotthatlastblowthatdidit—butallthathadgonebefore.”

THEPLATEAUOFLATENTPOTENTIAL

FIGURE2:Weoftenexpectprogresstobelinear.Attheveryleast,wehopeitwillcomequickly.Inreality,theresultsofoureffortsareoftendelayed.Itisnotuntilmonthsoryearslaterthatwerealizethetruevalueofthepreviousworkwehavedone.Thiscanresultina“valleyofdisappointment”wherepeoplefeeldiscouragedafterputtinginweeksormonthsofhardworkwithoutexperiencinganyresults.However,thisworkwasnotwasted.Itwassimplybeingstored.Itisnotuntilmuchlaterthatthefullvalueofpreviouseffortsisrevealed.

Allbigthingscomefromsmallbeginnings.Theseedofeveryhabitisasingle,tinydecision.Butasthatdecisionisrepeated,ahabitsproutsandgrowsstronger.Rootsentrenchthemselvesandbranchesgrow.Thetaskofbreakingabadhabitislikeuprootingapowerfuloakwithinus.Andthetaskofbuildingagoodhabitislikecultivatingadelicatefloweronedayatatime.

ButwhatdetermineswhetherwestickwithahabitlongenoughtosurvivethePlateauofLatentPotentialandbreakthroughtotheotherside?Whatisitthatcausessomepeopletoslideintounwantedhabitsandenablesotherstoenjoythecompoundingeffectsofgoodones?

FORGETABOUTGOALS,FOCUSONSYSTEMSINSTEAD

Prevailingwisdomclaimsthatthebestwaytoachievewhatwewantinlife—gettingintobettershape,buildingasuccessfulbusiness,relaxingmoreandworryingless,spendingmoretimewithfriendsandfamily—istosetspecific,actionablegoals.

Formanyyears,thiswashowIapproachedmyhabits,too.Eachonewasagoaltobereached.IsetgoalsforthegradesIwantedtogetinschool,fortheweightsIwantedtoliftinthegym,fortheprofitsIwantedtoearninbusiness.Isucceededatafew,butIfailedatalotofthem.Eventually,IbegantorealizethatmyresultshadverylittletodowiththegoalsIsetandnearlyeverythingtodowiththesystemsIfollowed.

What’sthedifferencebetweensystemsandgoals?It’sadistinctionIfirstlearnedfromScottAdams,thecartoonistbehindtheDilbertcomic.Goalsareabouttheresultsyouwanttoachieve.Systemsareabouttheprocessesthatleadtothoseresults.

Ifyou’reacoach,yourgoalmightbetowinachampionship.Yoursystemisthewayyourecruitplayers,manageyourassistantcoaches,andconductpractice.

Ifyou’reanentrepreneur,yourgoalmightbetobuildamillion-dollarbusiness.Yoursystemishowyoutestproductideas,hireemployees,andrunmarketingcampaigns.

Ifyou’reamusician,yourgoalmightbetoplayanewpiece.Yoursystemishowoftenyoupractice,howyoubreakdownandtackledifficultmeasures,andyourmethodforreceivingfeedbackfromyourinstructor.

Nowfortheinterestingquestion:Ifyoucompletelyignoredyourgoalsandfocusedonlyonyoursystem,wouldyoustillsucceed?Forexample,ifyouwereabasketballcoachandyouignoredyourgoaltowinachampionshipandfocusedonlyonwhatyourteamdoesatpracticeeachday,wouldyoustillgetresults?

Ithinkyouwould.

Thegoalinanysportistofinishwiththebestscore,butitwouldberidiculoustospendthewholegamestaringatthescoreboard.Theonlywaytoactuallywinistogetbettereachday.Inthewordsofthree-timeSuperBowlwinnerBillWalsh,“Thescoretakescareofitself.”Thesameistrueforotherareasoflife.Ifyouwantbetterresults,thenforgetaboutsettinggoals.Focusonyoursysteminstead.

WhatdoImeanbythis?Aregoalscompletelyuseless?Ofcoursenot.Goalsaregoodforsettingadirection,butsystemsarebestfor

makingprogress.Ahandfulofproblemsarisewhenyouspendtoomuchtimethinkingaboutyourgoalsandnotenoughtimedesigningyoursystems.

Problem#1:Winnersandlosershavethesamegoals.

Goalsettingsuffersfromaseriouscaseofsurvivorshipbias.Weconcentrateonthepeoplewhoendupwinning—thesurvivors—andmistakenlyassumethatambitiousgoalsledtotheirsuccesswhileoverlookingallofthepeoplewhohadthesameobjectivebutdidn’tsucceed.

EveryOlympianwantstowinagoldmedal.Everycandidatewantstogetthejob.Andifsuccessfulandunsuccessfulpeoplesharethesamegoals,thenthegoalcannotbewhatdifferentiatesthewinnersfromthelosers.Itwasn’tthegoalofwinningtheTourdeFrancethatpropelledtheBritishcycliststothetopofthesport.Presumably,theyhadwantedtowintheraceeveryyearbefore—justlikeeveryotherprofessionalteam.Thegoalhadalwaysbeenthere.Itwasonlywhentheyimplementedasystemofcontinuoussmallimprovementsthattheyachievedadifferentoutcome.

Problem#2:Achievingagoalisonlyamomentarychange.

Imagineyouhaveamessyroomandyousetagoaltocleanit.Ifyousummontheenergytotidyup,thenyouwillhaveacleanroom—fornow.Butifyoumaintainthesamesloppy,pack-rathabitsthatledtoamessyroominthefirstplace,soonyou’llbelookingatanewpileofclutterandhopingforanotherburstofmotivation.You’releftchasingthesameoutcomebecauseyouneverchangedthesystembehindit.Youtreatedasymptomwithoutaddressingthecause.

Achievingagoalonlychangesyourlifeforthemoment.That’sthecounterintuitivethingaboutimprovement.Wethinkweneedtochangeourresults,buttheresultsarenottheproblem.Whatwereallyneedtochangearethesystemsthatcausethoseresults.Whenyousolveproblemsattheresultslevel,youonlysolvethemtemporarily.Inordertoimproveforgood,youneedtosolveproblemsatthesystemslevel.Fixtheinputsandtheoutputswillfixthemselves.

Problem#3:Goalsrestrictyourhappiness.

Theimplicitassumptionbehindanygoalisthis:“OnceIreachmygoal,thenI’llbehappy.”Theproblemwithagoals-firstmentalityisthatyou’recontinuallyputtinghappinessoffuntilthenextmilestone.I’veslippedintothistrapsomanytimesI’velostcount.Foryears,happinesswasalwayssomethingformyfutureselftoenjoy.IpromisedmyselfthatonceIgainedtwentypoundsofmuscleoraftermybusinesswasfeaturedintheNewYorkTimes,thenIcouldfinallyrelax.

Furthermore,goalscreatean“either-or”conflict:eitheryouachieveyourgoalandaresuccessfuloryoufailandyouareadisappointment.Youmentallyboxyourselfintoanarrowversionofhappiness.Thisismisguided.Itisunlikelythatyouractualpaththroughlifewillmatchtheexactjourneyyouhadinmindwhenyousetout.Itmakesnosensetorestrictyoursatisfactiontoonescenariowhentherearemanypathstosuccess.

Asystems-firstmentalityprovidestheantidote.Whenyoufallinlovewiththeprocessratherthantheproduct,youdon’thavetowaittogiveyourselfpermissiontobehappy.Youcanbesatisfiedanytimeyoursystemisrunning.Andasystemcanbesuccessfulinmanydifferentforms,notjusttheoneyoufirstenvision.

Problem#4:Goalsareatoddswithlong-termprogress.

Finally,agoal-orientedmind-setcancreatea“yo-yo”effect.Manyrunnersworkhardformonths,butassoonastheycrossthefinishline,theystoptraining.Theraceisnolongertheretomotivatethem.Whenallofyourhardworkisfocusedonaparticulargoal,whatislefttopushyouforwardafteryouachieveit?Thisiswhymanypeoplefindthemselvesrevertingtotheiroldhabitsafteraccomplishingagoal.

Thepurposeofsettinggoalsistowinthegame.Thepurposeofbuildingsystemsistocontinueplayingthegame.Truelong-termthinkingisgoal-lessthinking.It’snotaboutanysingleaccomplishment.Itisaboutthecycleofendlessrefinementandcontinuousimprovement.Ultimately,itisyourcommitmenttotheprocessthatwilldetermineyourprogress.

ASYSTEMOFATOMICHABITS

Ifyou’rehavingtroublechangingyourhabits,theproblemisn’tyou.Theproblemisyoursystem.Badhabitsrepeatthemselvesagainandagainnotbecauseyoudon’twanttochange,butbecauseyouhavethewrongsystemforchange.

Youdonotrisetothelevelofyourgoals.Youfalltothelevelofyoursystems.

Focusingontheoverallsystem,ratherthanasinglegoal,isoneofthecorethemesofthisbook.Itisalsooneofthedeepermeaningsbehindthewordatomic.Bynow,you’veprobablyrealizedthatanatomichabitreferstoatinychange,amarginalgain,a1percentimprovement.Butatomichabitsarenotjustanyoldhabits,howeversmall.Theyarelittlehabitsthatarepartofalargersystem.Justasatomsarethebuildingblocksofmolecules,atomichabitsarethebuildingblocksofremarkableresults.

Habitsareliketheatomsofourlives.Eachoneisafundamentalunitthatcontributestoyouroverallimprovement.Atfirst,thesetinyroutinesseeminsignificant,butsoontheybuildoneachotherandfuelbiggerwinsthatmultiplytoadegreethatfaroutweighsthecostoftheirinitialinvestment.Theyarebothsmallandmighty.Thisisthemeaningofthephraseatomichabits—aregularpracticeorroutinethatisnotonlysmallandeasytodo,butalsothesourceofincrediblepower;acomponentofthesystemofcompoundgrowth.

ChapterSummaryHabitsarethecompoundinterestofself-improvement.Getting1percentbettereverydaycountsforalotinthelong-run.

Habitsareadouble-edgedsword.Theycanworkforyouoragainstyou,whichiswhyunderstandingthedetailsisessential.

Smallchangesoftenappeartomakenodifferenceuntilyoucrossacriticalthreshold.Themostpowerfuloutcomesofanycompoundingprocessaredelayed.Youneedtobepatient.

Anatomichabitisalittlehabitthatispartofalargersystem.Justasatomsarethebuildingblocksofmolecules,atomichabitsarethebuildingblocksofremarkableresults.

Ifyouwantbetterresults,thenforgetaboutsettinggoals.Focusonyoursysteminstead.

Youdonotrisetothelevelofyourgoals.Youfalltothelevelofyoursystems.

HowYourHabitsShapeYourIdentity(andViceVersa)

HYISITsoeasytorepeatbadhabitsandsohardtoformgoodones?Fewthingscanhaveamorepowerfulimpactonyourlife

thanimprovingyourdailyhabits.Andyetitislikelythatthistimenextyearyou’llbedoingthesamethingratherthansomethingbetter.

Itoftenfeelsdifficulttokeepgoodhabitsgoingformorethanafewdays,evenwithsincereeffortandtheoccasionalburstofmotivation.Habitslikeexercise,meditation,journaling,andcookingarereasonableforadayortwoandthenbecomeahassle.

However,onceyourhabitsareestablished,theyseemtostickaroundforever—especiallytheunwantedones.Despiteourbestintentions,unhealthyhabitslikeeatingjunkfood,watchingtoomuchtelevision,procrastinating,andsmokingcanfeelimpossibletobreak.

Changingourhabitsischallengingfortworeasons:(1)wetrytochangethewrongthingand(2)wetrytochangeourhabitsinthewrongway.Inthischapter,I’lladdressthefirstpoint.Inthechaptersthatfollow,I’llanswerthesecond.

Ourfirstmistakeisthatwetrytochangethewrongthing.TounderstandwhatImean,considerthattherearethreelevelsatwhichchangecanoccur.Youcanimaginethemlikethelayersofanonion.

THREELAYERSOFBEHAVIORCHANGE

FIGURE3:Therearethreelayersofbehaviorchange:achangeinyouroutcomes,achangeinyourprocesses,orachangeinyouridentity.

Thefirstlayerischangingyouroutcomes.Thislevelisconcernedwithchangingyourresults:losingweight,publishingabook,winningachampionship.Mostofthegoalsyousetareassociatedwiththislevelofchange.

Thesecondlayerischangingyourprocess.Thislevelisconcernedwithchangingyourhabitsandsystems:implementinganewroutineatthegym,declutteringyourdeskforbetterworkflow,developingameditationpractice.Mostofthehabitsyoubuildareassociatedwiththislevel.

Thethirdanddeepestlayerischangingyouridentity.Thislevelisconcernedwithchangingyourbeliefs:yourworldview,yourself-image,yourjudgmentsaboutyourselfandothers.Mostofthebeliefs,assumptions,andbiasesyouholdareassociatedwiththislevel.

Outcomesareaboutwhatyouget.Processesareaboutwhatyoudo.Identityisaboutwhatyoubelieve.Whenitcomestobuildinghabitsthatlast—whenitcomestobuildingasystemof1percentimprovements—theproblemisnotthatonelevelis“better”or“worse”thananother.Alllevelsofchangeareusefulintheirownway.Theproblemisthedirectionofchange.

Manypeoplebegintheprocessofchangingtheirhabitsbyfocusingonwhattheywanttoachieve.Thisleadsustooutcome-basedhabits.Thealternativeistobuildidentity-basedhabits.Withthisapproach,westartbyfocusingonwhowewishtobecome.

OUTCOME-BASEDHABITS

IDENTITY-BASEDHABITS

FIGURE4:Withoutcome-basedhabits,thefocusisonwhatyouwanttoachieve.Withidentity-basedhabits,thefocusisonwhoyouwishtobecome.

Imaginetwopeopleresistingacigarette.Whenofferedasmoke,thefirstpersonsays,“Nothanks.I’mtryingtoquit.”Itsoundslikeareasonableresponse,butthispersonstillbelievestheyareasmokerwhoistryingtobesomethingelse.Theyarehopingtheirbehaviorwillchangewhilecarryingaroundthesamebeliefs.

Thesecondpersondeclinesbysaying,“Nothanks.I’mnotasmoker.”It’sasmalldifference,butthisstatementsignalsashiftinidentity.Smokingwaspartoftheirformerlife,nottheircurrentone.Theynolongeridentifyassomeonewhosmokes.

Mostpeopledon’tevenconsideridentitychangewhentheysetouttoimprove.Theyjustthink,“Iwanttobeskinny(outcome)andifIsticktothisdiet,thenI’llbeskinny(process).”Theysetgoalsanddeterminetheactionstheyshouldtaketoachievethosegoalswithoutconsideringthebeliefsthatdrivetheiractions.Theynevershiftthe

waytheylookatthemselves,andtheydon’trealizethattheiroldidentitycansabotagetheirnewplansforchange.

Behindeverysystemofactionsareasystemofbeliefs.Thesystemofademocracyisfoundedonbeliefslikefreedom,majorityrule,andsocialequality.Thesystemofadictatorshiphasaverydifferentsetofbeliefslikeabsoluteauthorityandstrictobedience.Youcanimaginemanywaystotrytogetmorepeopletovoteinademocracy,butsuchbehaviorchangewouldnevergetoffthegroundinadictatorship.That’snottheidentityofthesystem.Votingisabehaviorthatisimpossibleunderacertainsetofbeliefs.

Asimilarpatternexistswhetherwearediscussingindividuals,organizations,orsocieties.Thereareasetofbeliefsandassumptionsthatshapethesystem,anidentitybehindthehabits.

Behaviorthatisincongruentwiththeselfwillnotlast.Youmaywantmoremoney,butifyouridentityissomeonewhoconsumesratherthancreates,thenyou’llcontinuetobepulledtowardspendingratherthanearning.Youmaywantbetterhealth,butifyoucontinuetoprioritizecomfortoveraccomplishment,you’llbedrawntorelaxingratherthantraining.It’shardtochangeyourhabitsifyouneverchangetheunderlyingbeliefsthatledtoyourpastbehavior.Youhaveanewgoalandanewplan,butyouhaven’tchangedwhoyouare.

ThestoryofBrianClark,anentrepreneurfromBoulder,Colorado,providesagoodexample.“ForaslongasIcanremember,I’vechewedmyfingernails,”Clarktoldme.“ItstartedasanervoushabitwhenIwasyoung,andthenmorphedintoanundesirablegroomingritual.Oneday,Iresolvedtostopchewingmynailsuntiltheygrewoutabit.Throughmindfulwillpoweralone,Imanagedtodoit.”

Then,Clarkdidsomethingsurprising.

“Iaskedmywifetoschedulemyfirst-evermanicure,”hesaid.“MythoughtwasthatifIstartedpayingtomaintainmynails,Iwouldn’tchewthem.Anditworked,butnotforthemonetaryreason.Whathappenedwasthemanicuremademyfingerslookreallyniceforthefirsttime.Themanicuristevensaidthat—otherthanthechewing—Ihadreallyhealthy,attractivenails.Suddenly,Iwasproudofmyfingernails.Andeventhoughthat’ssomethingIhadneveraspiredto,itmadeallthedifference.I’veneverchewedmynailssince;notevena

singleclosecall.Andit’sbecauseInowtakeprideinproperlycaringforthem.”

Theultimateformofintrinsicmotivationiswhenahabitbecomespartofyouridentity.It’sonethingtosayI’mthetypeofpersonwhowantsthis.It’ssomethingverydifferenttosayI’mthetypeofpersonwhoisthis.

Themoreprideyouhaveinaparticularaspectofyouridentity,themoremotivatedyouwillbetomaintainthehabitsassociatedwithit.Ifyou’reproudofhowyourhairlooks,you’lldevelopallsortsofhabitstocareforandmaintainit.Ifyou’reproudofthesizeofyourbiceps,you’llmakesureyouneverskipanupper-bodyworkout.Ifyou’reproudofthescarvesyouknit,you’llbemorelikelytospendhoursknittingeachweek.Onceyourpridegetsinvolved,you’llfighttoothandnailtomaintainyourhabits.

Truebehaviorchangeisidentitychange.Youmightstartahabitbecauseofmotivation,buttheonlyreasonyou’llstickwithoneisthatitbecomespartofyouridentity.Anyonecanconvincethemselvestovisitthegymoreathealthyonceortwice,butifyoudon’tshiftthebeliefbehindthebehavior,thenitishardtostickwithlong-termchanges.Improvementsareonlytemporaryuntiltheybecomepartofwhoyouare.

Thegoalisnottoreadabook,thegoalistobecomeareader.

Thegoalisnottorunamarathon,thegoalistobecomearunner.

Thegoalisnottolearnaninstrument,thegoalistobecomeamusician.

Yourbehaviorsareusuallyareflectionofyouridentity.Whatyoudoisanindicationofthetypeofpersonyoubelievethatyouare—eitherconsciouslyornonconsciously.*Researchhasshownthatonceapersonbelievesinaparticularaspectoftheiridentity,theyaremorelikelytoactinalignmentwiththatbelief.Forexample,peoplewhoidentifiedas“beingavoter”weremorelikelytovotethanthosewhosimplyclaimed“voting”wasanactiontheywantedtoperform.Similarly,thepersonwhoincorporatesexerciseintotheiridentitydoesn’thavetoconvincethemselvestotrain.Doingtherightthingiseasy.Afterall,whenyourbehaviorandyouridentityarefullyaligned,

youarenolongerpursuingbehaviorchange.Youaresimplyactinglikethetypeofpersonyoualreadybelieveyourselftobe.

Likeallaspectsofhabitformation,this,too,isadouble-edgedsword.Whenworkingforyou,identitychangecanbeapowerfulforceforself-improvement.Whenworkingagainstyou,though,identitychangecanbeacurse.Onceyouhaveadoptedanidentity,itcanbeeasytoletyourallegiancetoitimpactyourabilitytochange.Manypeoplewalkthroughlifeinacognitiveslumber,blindlyfollowingthenormsattachedtotheiridentity.

“I’mterriblewithdirections.”

“I’mnotamorningperson.”

“I’mbadatrememberingpeople’snames.”

“I’malwayslate.”

“I’mnotgoodwithtechnology.”

“I’mhorribleatmath.”

...andathousandothervariations.

Whenyouhaverepeatedastorytoyourselfforyears,itiseasytoslideintothesementalgroovesandacceptthemasafact.Intime,youbegintoresistcertainactionsbecause“that’snotwhoIam.”Thereisinternalpressuretomaintainyourself-imageandbehaveinawaythatisconsistentwithyourbeliefs.Youfindwhateverwayyoucantoavoidcontradictingyourself.

Themoredeeplyathoughtoractionistiedtoyouridentity,themoredifficultitistochangeit.Itcanfeelcomfortabletobelievewhatyourculturebelieves(groupidentity)ortodowhatupholdsyourself-image(personalidentity),evenifit’swrong.Thebiggestbarriertopositivechangeatanylevel—individual,team,society—isidentityconflict.Goodhabitscanmakerationalsense,butiftheyconflictwithyouridentity,youwillfailtoputthemintoaction.

Onanygivenday,youmaystrugglewithyourhabitsbecauseyou’retoobusyortootiredortoooverwhelmedorhundredsofotherreasons.Overthelongrun,however,therealreasonyoufailtostickwithhabitsisthatyourself-imagegetsintheway.Thisiswhyyoucan’tgettooattachedtooneversionofyouridentity.Progressrequiresunlearning.

Becomingthebestversionofyourselfrequiresyoutocontinuouslyedityourbeliefs,andtoupgradeandexpandyouridentity.

Thisbringsustoanimportantquestion:Ifyourbeliefsandworldviewplaysuchanimportantroleinyourbehavior,wheredotheycomefrominthefirstplace?How,exactly,isyouridentityformed?Andhowcanyouemphasizenewaspectsofyouridentitythatserveyouandgraduallyerasethepiecesthathinderyou?

THETWO-STEPPROCESSTOCHANGINGYOURIDENTITY

Youridentityemergesoutofyourhabits.Youarenotbornwithpresetbeliefs.Everybelief,includingthoseaboutyourself,islearnedandconditionedthroughexperience.*

Moreprecisely,yourhabitsarehowyouembodyyouridentity.Whenyoumakeyourbedeachday,youembodytheidentityofanorganizedperson.Whenyouwriteeachday,youembodytheidentityofacreativeperson.Whenyoutraineachday,youembodytheidentityofanathleticperson.

Themoreyourepeatabehavior,themoreyoureinforcetheidentityassociatedwiththatbehavior.Infact,thewordidentitywasoriginallyderivedfromtheLatinwordsessentitas,whichmeansbeing,andidentidem,whichmeansrepeatedly.Youridentityisliterallyyour“repeatedbeingness.”

Whateveryouridentityisrightnow,youonlybelieveitbecauseyouhaveproofofit.IfyougotochurcheverySundayfortwentyyears,youhaveevidencethatyouarereligious.Ifyoustudybiologyforonehoureverynight,youhaveevidencethatyouarestudious.Ifyougotothegymevenwhenit’ssnowing,youhaveevidencethatyouarecommittedtofitness.Themoreevidenceyouhaveforabelief,themorestronglyyouwillbelieveit.

Formostofmyearlylife,Ididn’tconsidermyselfawriter.Ifyouweretoaskanyofmyhighschoolteachersorcollegeprofessors,theywouldtellyouIwasanaveragewriteratbest:certainlynotastandout.WhenIbeganmywritingcareer,IpublishedanewarticleeveryMondayandThursdayforthefirstfewyears.Astheevidencegrew,sodidmyidentityasawriter.Ididn’tstartoutasawriter.Ibecameonethroughmyhabits.

Ofcourse,yourhabitsarenottheonlyactionsthatinfluenceyouridentity,butbyvirtueoftheirfrequencytheyareusuallythemostimportantones.Eachexperienceinlifemodifiesyourself-image,butit’sunlikelyyouwouldconsideryourselfasoccerplayerbecauseyoukickedaballonceoranartistbecauseyouscribbledapicture.Asyourepeattheseactions,however,theevidenceaccumulatesandyourself-imagebeginstochange.Theeffectofone-offexperiencestendstofadeawaywhiletheeffectofhabitsgetsreinforcedwithtime,whichmeansyourhabitscontributemostoftheevidencethatshapesyouridentity.Inthisway,theprocessofbuildinghabitsisactuallytheprocessofbecomingyourself.

Thisisagradualevolution.Wedonotchangebysnappingourfingersanddecidingtobesomeoneentirelynew.Wechangebitbybit,daybyday,habitbyhabit.Wearecontinuallyundergoingmicroevolutionsoftheself.

Eachhabitislikeasuggestion:“Hey,maybethisiswhoIam.”Ifyoufinishabook,thenperhapsyouarethetypeofpersonwholikesreading.Ifyougotothegym,thenperhapsyouarethetypeofpersonwholikesexercise.Ifyoupracticeplayingtheguitar,perhapsyouarethetypeofpersonwholikesmusic.

Everyactionyoutakeisavoteforthetypeofpersonyouwishtobecome.Nosingleinstancewilltransformyourbeliefs,butasthevotesbuildup,sodoestheevidenceofyournewidentity.Thisisonereasonwhymeaningfulchangedoesnotrequireradicalchange.Smallhabitscanmakeameaningfuldifferencebyprovidingevidenceofanewidentity.Andifachangeismeaningful,itactuallyisbig.That’stheparadoxofmakingsmallimprovements.

Puttingthisalltogether,youcanseethathabitsarethepathtochangingyouridentity.Themostpracticalwaytochangewhoyouareistochangewhatyoudo.

Eachtimeyouwriteapage,youareawriter.

Eachtimeyoupracticetheviolin,youareamusician.

Eachtimeyoustartaworkout,youareanathlete.

Eachtimeyouencourageyouremployees,youarealeader.

Eachhabitnotonlygetsresultsbutalsoteachesyousomethingfarmoreimportant:totrustyourself.Youstarttobelieveyoucanactuallyaccomplishthesethings.Whenthevotesmountupandtheevidencebeginstochange,thestoryyoutellyourselfbeginstochangeaswell.

Ofcourse,itworkstheoppositeway,too.Everytimeyouchoosetoperformabadhabit,it’savoteforthatidentity.Thegoodnewsisthatyoudon’tneedtobeperfect.Inanyelection,therearegoingtobevotesforbothsides.Youdon’tneedaunanimousvotetowinanelection;youjustneedamajority.Itdoesn’tmatterifyoucastafewvotesforabadbehaviororanunproductivehabit.Yourgoalissimplytowinthemajorityofthetime.

Newidentitiesrequirenewevidence.Ifyoukeepcastingthesamevotesyou’vealwayscast,you’regoingtogetthesameresultsyou’vealwayshad.Ifnothingchanges,nothingisgoingtochange.

Itisasimpletwo-stepprocess:

1. Decidethetypeofpersonyouwanttobe.

2. Proveittoyourselfwithsmallwins.

First,decidewhoyouwanttobe.Thisholdsatanylevel—asanindividual,asateam,asacommunity,asanation.Whatdoyouwanttostandfor?Whatareyourprinciplesandvalues?Whodoyouwishtobecome?

Thesearebigquestions,andmanypeoplearen’tsurewheretobegin—buttheydoknowwhatkindofresultstheywant:togetsix-packabsortofeellessanxiousortodoubletheirsalary.That’sfine.Startthereandworkbackwardfromtheresultsyouwanttothetypeofpersonwhocouldgetthoseresults.Askyourself,“WhoisthetypeofpersonthatcouldgettheoutcomeIwant?”Whoisthetypeofpersonthatcouldlosefortypounds?Whoisthetypeofpersonthatcouldlearnanewlanguage?Whoisthetypeofpersonthatcouldrunasuccessfulstart-up?

Forexample,“Whoisthetypeofpersonwhocouldwriteabook?”It’sprobablysomeonewhoisconsistentandreliable.Nowyourfocusshiftsfromwritingabook(outcome-based)tobeingthetypeofpersonwhoisconsistentandreliable(identity-based).

Thisprocesscanleadtobeliefslike:

“I’mthekindofteacherwhostandsupforherstudents.”

“I’mthekindofdoctorwhogiveseachpatientthetimeandempathytheyneed.”

“I’mthekindofmanagerwhoadvocatesforheremployees.”

Onceyouhaveahandleonthetypeofpersonyouwanttobe,youcanbegintakingsmallstepstoreinforceyourdesiredidentity.Ihaveafriendwholostover100poundsbyaskingherself,“Whatwouldahealthypersondo?”Alldaylong,shewouldusethisquestionasaguide.Wouldahealthypersonwalkortakeacab?Wouldahealthypersonorderaburritoorasalad?Shefiguredifsheactedlikeahealthypersonlongenough,eventuallyshewouldbecomethatperson.Shewasright.

Theconceptofidentity-basedhabitsisourfirstintroductiontoanotherkeythemeinthisbook:feedbackloops.Yourhabitsshapeyouridentity,andyouridentityshapesyourhabits.It’satwo-waystreet.Theformationofallhabitsisafeedbackloop(aconceptwewillexploreindepthinthenextchapter),butit’simportanttoletyourvalues,principles,andidentitydrivetheloopratherthanyourresults.Thefocusshouldalwaysbeonbecomingthattypeofperson,notgettingaparticularoutcome.

THEREALREASONHABITSMATTER

IdentitychangeistheNorthStarofhabitchange.Theremainderofthisbookwillprovideyouwithstep-by-stepinstructionsonhowtobuildbetterhabitsinyourself,yourfamily,yourteam,yourcompany,andanywhereelseyouwish.Butthetruequestionis:“Areyoubecomingthetypeofpersonyouwanttobecome?”Thefirststepisnotwhatorhow,butwho.Youneedtoknowwhoyouwanttobe.Otherwise,yourquestforchangeislikeaboatwithoutarudder.Andthat’swhywearestartinghere.

Youhavethepowertochangeyourbeliefsaboutyourself.Youridentityisnotsetinstone.Youhaveachoiceineverymoment.Youcanchoosetheidentityyouwanttoreinforcetodaywiththehabitsyouchoosetoday.Andthisbringsustothedeeperpurposeofthisbookandtherealreasonhabitsmatter.

Buildingbetterhabitsisn’taboutlitteringyourdaywithlifehacks.It’snotaboutflossingonetootheachnightortakingacoldshowereachmorningorwearingthesameoutfiteachday.It’snotaboutachievingexternalmeasuresofsuccesslikeearningmoremoney,losingweight,orreducingstress.Habitscanhelpyouachieveallofthesethings,butfundamentallytheyarenotabouthavingsomething.Theyareaboutbecomingsomeone.

Ultimately,yourhabitsmatterbecausetheyhelpyoubecomethetypeofpersonyouwishtobe.Theyarethechannelthroughwhichyoudevelopyourdeepestbeliefsaboutyourself.Quiteliterally,youbecomeyourhabits.

ChapterSummaryTherearethreelevelsofchange:outcomechange,processchange,andidentitychange.

Themosteffectivewaytochangeyourhabitsistofocusnotonwhatyouwanttoachieve,butonwhoyouwishtobecome.

Youridentityemergesoutofyourhabits.Everyactionisavoteforthetypeofpersonyouwishtobecome.

Becomingthebestversionofyourselfrequiresyoutocontinuouslyedityourbeliefs,andtoupgradeandexpandyouridentity.

Therealreasonhabitsmatterisnotbecausetheycangetyoubetterresults(althoughtheycandothat),butbecausetheycanchangeyourbeliefsaboutyourself.

HowtoBuildBetterHabitsin4SimpleSteps

N1898,ApsychologistnamedEdwardThorndikeconductedanexperimentthatwouldlaythefoundationforourunderstandingof

howhabitsformandtherulesthatguideourbehavior.Thorndikewasinterestedinstudyingthebehaviorofanimals,andhestartedbyworkingwithcats.

Hewouldplaceeachcatinsideadeviceknownasapuzzlebox.Theboxwasdesignedsothatthecatcouldescapethroughadoor“bysomesimpleact,suchaspullingataloopofcord,pressingalever,orsteppingonaplatform.”Forexample,oneboxcontainedaleverthat,whenpressed,wouldopenadooronthesideofthebox.Oncethedoorhadbeenopened,thecatcoulddartoutandrunovertoabowloffood.

Mostcatswantedtoescapeassoonastheywereplacedinsidethebox.Theywouldpoketheirnoseintothecorners,sticktheirpawsthroughopenings,andclawatlooseobjects.Afterafewminutesofexploration,thecatswouldhappentopressthemagicallever,thedoorwouldopen,andtheywouldescape.

Thorndiketrackedthebehaviorofeachcatacrossmanytrials.Inthebeginning,theanimalsmovedaroundtheboxatrandom.Butassoonastheleverhadbeenpressedandthedooropened,theprocessoflearningbegan.Gradually,eachcatlearnedtoassociatetheactionofpressingtheleverwiththerewardofescapingtheboxandgettingtothefood.

Aftertwentytothirtytrials,thisbehaviorbecamesoautomaticandhabitualthatthecatcouldescapewithinafewseconds.Forexample,

Thorndikenoted,“Cat12tookthefollowingtimestoperformtheact.160seconds,30seconds,90seconds,60,15,28,20,30,22,11,15,20,12,10,14,10,8,8,5,10,8,6,6,7.”

Duringthefirstthreetrials,thecatescapedinanaverageof1.5minutes.Duringthelastthreetrials,itescapedinanaverageof6.3seconds.Withpractice,eachcatmadefewererrorsandtheiractionsbecamequickerandmoreautomatic.Ratherthanrepeatthesamemistakes,thecatbegantocutstraighttothesolution.

Fromhisstudies,Thorndikedescribedthelearningprocessbystating,“behaviorsfollowedbysatisfyingconsequencestendtoberepeatedandthosethatproduceunpleasantconsequencesarelesslikelytoberepeated.”Hisworkprovidestheperfectstartingpointfordiscussinghowhabitsforminourownlives.Italsoprovidesanswerstosomefundamentalquestionslike:Whatarehabits?Andwhydoesthebrainbotherbuildingthematall?

WHYYOURBRAINBUILDSHABITS

Ahabitisabehaviorthathasbeenrepeatedenoughtimestobecomeautomatic.Theprocessofhabitformationbeginswithtrialanderror.Wheneveryouencounteranewsituationinlife,yourbrainhastomakeadecision.HowdoIrespondtothis?Thefirsttimeyoucomeacrossaproblem,you’renotsurehowtosolveit.LikeThorndike’scat,you’rejusttryingthingsouttoseewhatworks.

Neurologicalactivityinthebrainishighduringthisperiod.Youarecarefullyanalyzingthesituationandmakingconsciousdecisionsabouthowtoact.You’retakingintonsofnewinformationandtryingtomakesenseofitall.Thebrainisbusylearningthemosteffectivecourseofaction.

Occasionally,likeacatpressingonalever,youstumbleacrossasolution.You’refeelinganxious,andyoudiscoverthatgoingforaruncalmsyoudown.You’rementallyexhaustedfromalongdayofwork,andyoulearnthatplayingvideogamesrelaxesyou.You’reexploring,exploring,exploring,andthen—BAM—areward.

Afteryoustumbleuponanunexpectedreward,youalteryourstrategyfornexttime.Yourbrainimmediatelybeginstocatalogthe

eventsthatprecededthereward.Waitaminute—thatfeltgood.WhatdidIdorightbeforethat?

Thisisthefeedbackloopbehindallhumanbehavior:try,fail,learn,trydifferently.Withpractice,theuselessmovementsfadeawayandtheusefulactionsgetreinforced.That’sahabitforming.

Wheneveryoufaceaproblemrepeatedly,yourbrainbeginstoautomatetheprocessofsolvingit.Yourhabitsarejustaseriesofautomaticsolutionsthatsolvetheproblemsandstressesyoufaceregularly.AsbehavioralscientistJasonHrehawrites,“Habitsare,simply,reliablesolutionstorecurringproblemsinourenvironment.”

Ashabitsarecreated,thelevelofactivityinthebraindecreases.Youlearntolockinonthecuesthatpredictsuccessandtuneouteverythingelse.Whenasimilarsituationarisesinthefuture,youknowexactlywhattolookfor.Thereisnolongeraneedtoanalyzeeveryangleofasituation.Yourbrainskipstheprocessoftrialanderrorandcreatesamentalrule:ifthis,thenthat.Thesecognitivescriptscanbefollowedautomaticallywheneverthesituationisappropriate.Now,wheneveryoufeelstressed,yougettheitchtorun.Assoonasyouwalkinthedoorfromwork,yougrabthevideogamecontroller.Achoicethatoncerequiredeffortisnowautomatic.Ahabithasbeencreated.

Habitsarementalshortcutslearnedfromexperience.Inasense,ahabitisjustamemoryofthestepsyoupreviouslyfollowedtosolveaprobleminthepast.Whenevertheconditionsareright,youcandrawonthismemoryandautomaticallyapplythesamesolution.Theprimaryreasonthebrainremembersthepastistobetterpredictwhatwillworkinthefuture.

Habitformationisincrediblyusefulbecausetheconsciousmindisthebottleneckofthebrain.Itcanonlypayattentiontooneproblematatime.Asaresult,yourbrainisalwaysworkingtopreserveyourconsciousattentionforwhatevertaskismostessential.Wheneverpossible,theconsciousmindlikestopawnofftaskstothenonconsciousmindtodoautomatically.Thisispreciselywhathappenswhenahabitisformed.Habitsreducecognitiveloadandfreeupmentalcapacity,soyoucanallocateyourattentiontoothertasks.

Despitetheirefficiency,somepeoplestillwonderaboutthebenefitsofhabits.Theargumentgoeslikethis:“Willhabitsmakemylifedull?Idon’twanttopigeonholemyselfintoalifestyleIdon’tenjoy.Doesn’t

somuchroutinetakeawaythevibrancyandspontaneityoflife?”Hardly.Suchquestionssetupafalsedichotomy.Theymakeyouthinkthatyouhavetochoosebetweenbuildinghabitsandattainingfreedom.Inreality,thetwocomplementeachother.

Habitsdonotrestrictfreedom.Theycreateit.Infact,thepeoplewhodon’thavetheirhabitshandledareoftentheoneswiththeleastamountoffreedom.Withoutgoodfinancialhabits,youwillalwaysbestrugglingforthenextdollar.Withoutgoodhealthhabits,youwillalwaysseemtobeshortonenergy.Withoutgoodlearninghabits,youwillalwaysfeellikeyou’rebehindthecurve.Ifyou’realwaysbeingforcedtomakedecisionsaboutsimpletasks—whenshouldIworkout,wheredoIgotowrite,whendoIpaythebills—thenyouhavelesstimeforfreedom.It’sonlybymakingthefundamentalsoflifeeasierthatyoucancreatethementalspaceneededforfreethinkingandcreativity.

Conversely,whenyouhaveyourhabitsdialedinandthebasicsoflifearehandledanddone,yourmindisfreetofocusonnewchallengesandmasterthenextsetofproblems.Buildinghabitsinthepresentallowsyoutodomoreofwhatyouwantinthefuture.

THESCIENCEOFHOWHABITSWORK

Theprocessofbuildingahabitcanbedividedintofoursimplesteps:cue,craving,response,andreward.*Breakingitdownintothesefundamentalpartscanhelpusunderstandwhatahabitis,howitworks,andhowtoimproveit.

FIGURE5:Allhabitsproceedthroughfourstagesinthesameorder:cue,craving,response,andreward.

Thisfour-steppatternisthebackboneofeveryhabit,andyourbrainrunsthroughthesestepsinthesameordereachtime.

First,thereisthecue.Thecuetriggersyourbraintoinitiateabehavior.Itisabitofinformationthatpredictsareward.Ourprehistoricancestorswerepayingattentiontocuesthatsignaledthelocationofprimaryrewardslikefood,water,andsex.Today,wespendmostofourtimelearningcuesthatpredictsecondaryrewardslikemoneyandfame,powerandstatus,praiseandapproval,loveandfriendship,orasenseofpersonalsatisfaction.(Ofcourse,thesepursuitsalsoindirectlyimproveouroddsofsurvivalandreproduction,whichisthedeepermotivebehindeverythingwedo.)

Yourmindiscontinuouslyanalyzingyourinternalandexternalenvironmentforhintsofwhererewardsarelocated.Becausethecueisthefirstindicationthatwe’reclosetoareward,itnaturallyleadstoacraving.

Cravingsarethesecondstep,andtheyarethemotivationalforcebehindeveryhabit.Withoutsomelevelofmotivationordesire—withoutcravingachange—wehavenoreasontoact.Whatyoucraveisnotthehabititselfbutthechangeinstateitdelivers.Youdonotcravesmokingacigarette,youcravethefeelingofreliefitprovides.Youarenotmotivatedbybrushingyourteethbutratherbythefeelingofacleanmouth.Youdonotwanttoturnonthetelevision,youwanttobeentertained.Everycravingislinkedtoadesiretochangeyourinternalstate.Thisisanimportantpointthatwewilldiscussindetaillater.

Cravingsdifferfrompersontoperson.Intheory,anypieceofinformationcouldtriggeracraving,butinpractice,peoplearenotmotivatedbythesamecues.Foragambler,thesoundofslotmachinescanbeapotenttriggerthatsparksanintensewaveofdesire.Forsomeonewhorarelygambles,thejinglesandchimesofthecasinoarejustbackgroundnoise.Cuesaremeaninglessuntiltheyareinterpreted.Thethoughts,feelings,andemotionsoftheobserverarewhattransformacueintoacraving.

Thethirdstepistheresponse.Theresponseistheactualhabityouperform,whichcantaketheformofathoughtoranaction.Whetheraresponseoccursdependsonhowmotivatedyouareandhowmuchfrictionisassociatedwiththebehavior.Ifaparticularactionrequiresmorephysicalormentaleffortthanyouarewillingtoexpend,thenyouwon’tdoit.Yourresponsealsodependsonyourability.Itsoundssimple,butahabitcanoccuronlyifyouarecapableofdoingit.Ifyou

wanttodunkabasketballbutcan’tjumphighenoughtoreachthehoop,well,you’reoutofluck.

Finally,theresponsedeliversareward.Rewardsaretheendgoalofeveryhabit.Thecueisaboutnoticingthereward.Thecravingisaboutwantingthereward.Theresponseisaboutobtainingthereward.Wechaserewardsbecausetheyservetwopurposes:(1)theysatisfyusand(2)theyteachus.

Thefirstpurposeofrewardsistosatisfyyourcraving.Yes,rewardsprovidebenefitsontheirown.Foodandwaterdelivertheenergyyouneedtosurvive.Gettingapromotionbringsmoremoneyandrespect.Gettinginshapeimprovesyourhealthandyourdatingprospects.Butthemoreimmediatebenefitisthatrewardssatisfyyourcravingtoeatortogainstatusortowinapproval.Atleastforamoment,rewardsdelivercontentmentandrelieffromcraving.

Second,rewardsteachuswhichactionsareworthrememberinginthefuture.Yourbrainisarewarddetector.Asyougoaboutyourlife,yoursensorynervoussystemiscontinuouslymonitoringwhichactionssatisfyyourdesiresanddeliverpleasure.Feelingsofpleasureanddisappointmentarepartofthefeedbackmechanismthathelpsyourbraindistinguishusefulactionsfromuselessones.Rewardsclosethefeedbackloopandcompletethehabitcycle.

Ifabehaviorisinsufficientinanyofthefourstages,itwillnotbecomeahabit.Eliminatethecueandyourhabitwillneverstart.Reducethecravingandyouwon’texperienceenoughmotivationtoact.Makethebehaviordifficultandyouwon’tbeabletodoit.Andiftherewardfailstosatisfyyourdesire,thenyou’llhavenoreasontodoitagaininthefuture.Withoutthefirstthreesteps,abehaviorwillnotoccur.Withoutallfour,abehaviorwillnotberepeated.

THEHABITLOOP

FIGURE6:Thefourstagesofhabitarebestdescribedasafeedbackloop.Theyformanendlesscyclethatisrunningeverymomentyouarealive.This“habitloop”iscontinuallyscanningtheenvironment,predictingwhatwillhappennext,tryingoutdifferentresponses,andlearningfromtheresults.*

Insummary,thecuetriggersacraving,whichmotivatesaresponse,whichprovidesareward,whichsatisfiesthecravingand,ultimately,becomesassociatedwiththecue.Together,thesefourstepsformaneurologicalfeedbackloop—cue,craving,response,reward;cue,craving,response,reward—thatultimatelyallowsyoutocreateautomatichabits.Thiscycleisknownasthehabitloop.

Thisfour-stepprocessisnotsomethingthathappensoccasionally,butratheritisanendlessfeedbackloopthatisrunningandactiveduringeverymomentyouarealive—evennow.Thebrainiscontinuallyscanningtheenvironment,predictingwhatwillhappennext,tryingoutdifferentresponses,andlearningfromtheresults.Theentireprocessiscompletedinasplitsecond,andweuseitagainandagainwithoutrealizingeverythingthathasbeenpackedintothepreviousmoment.

Wecansplitthesefourstepsintotwophases:theproblemphaseandthesolutionphase.Theproblemphaseincludesthecueandthecraving,anditiswhenyourealizethatsomethingneedstochange.Thesolutionphaseincludestheresponseandthereward,anditiswhenyoutakeactionandachievethechangeyoudesire.

Problemphase1.Cue2.Craving

Solutionphase3.Response4.Reward

Allbehaviorisdrivenbythedesiretosolveaproblem.Sometimestheproblemisthatyounoticesomethinggoodandyouwanttoobtainit.Sometimestheproblemisthatyouareexperiencingpainandyouwanttorelieveit.Eitherway,thepurposeofeveryhabitistosolvetheproblemsyouface.

Inthetableonthefollowingpage,youcanseeafewexamplesofwhatthislookslikeinreallife.

Imaginewalkingintoadarkroomandflippingonthelightswitch.Youhaveperformedthissimplehabitsomanytimesthatitoccurswithoutthinking.Youproceedthroughallfourstagesinthefractionofasecond.Theurgetoactstrikesyouwithoutthinking.

Problemphase1.Cue:Yourphonebuzzeswithanewtextmessage.2.Craving:Youwanttolearnthecontentsofthemessage.

Solutionphase3.Response:Yougrabyourphoneandreadthetext.4.Reward:Yousatisfyyourcravingtoreadthemessage.Grabbingyourphonebecomes

associatedwithyourphonebuzzing.

Problemphase1.Cue:Youareansweringemails.2.Craving:Youbegintofeelstressedandoverwhelmedbywork.Youwanttofeelincontrol.

Solutionphase3.Response:Youbiteyournails.4.Reward:Yousatisfyyourcravingtoreducestress.Bitingyournailsbecomesassociated

withansweringemail.

Problemphase1.Cue:Youwakeup.2.Craving:Youwanttofeelalert.

Solutionphase

3.Response:Youdrinkacupofcoffee.4.Reward:Yousatisfyyourcravingtofeelalert.Drinkingcoffeebecomesassociatedwith

wakingup.

Problemphase1.Cue:Yousmelladoughnutshopasyouwalkdownthestreetnearyouroffice.2.Craving:Youbegintocraveadoughnut.

Solutionphase3.Response:Youbuyadoughnutandeatit.4.Reward:Yousatisfyyourcravingtoeatadoughnut.Buyingadoughnutbecomes

associatedwithwalkingdownthestreetnearyouroffice.

Problemphase1.Cue:Youhitastumblingblockonaprojectatwork.2.Craving:Youfeelstuckandwanttorelieveyourfrustration.

Solutionphase3.Response:Youpulloutyourphoneandchecksocialmedia.4.Reward:Yousatisfyyourcravingtofeelrelieved.Checkingsocialmediabecomes

associatedwithfeelingstalledatwork.

Problemphase1.Cue:Youwalkintoadarkroom.2.Craving:Youwanttobeabletosee.

Solutionphase3.Response:Youflipthelightswitch.4.Reward:Yousatisfyyourcravingtosee.Turningonthelightswitchbecomesassociated

withbeinginadarkroom.

Bythetimewebecomeadults,werarelynoticethehabitsthatarerunningourlives.Mostofusnevergiveasecondthoughttothefactthatwetiethesameshoefirsteachmorning,orunplugthetoasteraftereachuse,oralwayschangeintocomfortableclothesaftergettinghomefromwork.Afterdecadesofmentalprogramming,weautomaticallyslipintothesepatternsofthinkingandacting.

THEFOURLAWSOFBEHAVIORCHANGE

Inthefollowingchapters,wewillseetimeandagainhowthefourstagesofcue,craving,response,andrewardinfluencenearlyeverythingwedoeachday.Butbeforewedothat,weneedto

transformthesefourstepsintoapracticalframeworkthatwecanusetodesigngoodhabitsandeliminatebadones.

IrefertothisframeworkastheFourLawsofBehaviorChange,anditprovidesasimplesetofrulesforcreatinggoodhabitsandbreakingbadones.Youcanthinkofeachlawasaleverthatinfluenceshumanbehavior.Whentheleversareintherightpositions,creatinggoodhabitsiseffortless.Whentheyareinthewrongpositions,itisnearlyimpossible.

HowtoCreateaGoodHabitThe1stlaw(Cue):Makeitobvious.The2ndlaw(Craving):Makeitattractive.The3rdlaw(Response):Makeiteasy.The4thlaw(Reward):Makeitsatisfying.

Wecaninverttheselawstolearnhowtobreakabadhabit.

HowtoBreakaBadHabitInversionofthe1stlaw(Cue):Makeitinvisible.Inversionofthe2ndlaw(Craving):Makeitunattractive.Inversionofthe3rdlaw(Response):Makeitdifficult.Inversionofthe4thlaw(Reward):Makeitunsatisfying.

Itwouldbeirresponsibleformetoclaimthatthesefourlawsareanexhaustiveframeworkforchanginganyhumanbehavior,butIthinkthey’reclose.Asyouwillsoonsee,theFourLawsofBehaviorChangeapplytonearlyeveryfield,fromsportstopolitics,arttomedicine,comedytomanagement.Theselawscanbeusednomatterwhatchallengeyouarefacing.Thereisnoneedforcompletelydifferentstrategiesforeachhabit.

Wheneveryouwanttochangeyourbehavior,youcansimplyaskyourself:

1. HowcanImakeitobvious?

2. HowcanImakeitattractive?

3. HowcanImakeiteasy?

4. HowcanImakeitsatisfying?

Ifyouhaveeverwondered,“Whydon’tIdowhatIsayI’mgoingtodo?Whydon’tIlosetheweightorstopsmokingorsaveforretirementorstartthatsidebusiness?WhydoIsaysomethingisimportantbutneverseemtomaketimeforit?”Theanswerstothosequestionscanbefoundsomewhereinthesefourlaws.Thekeytocreatinggoodhabitsandbreakingbadonesistounderstandthesefundamentallawsandhowtoalterthemtoyourspecifications.Everygoalisdoomedtofailifitgoesagainstthegrainofhumannature.

Yourhabitsareshapedbythesystemsinyourlife.Inthechaptersthatfollow,wewilldiscusstheselawsonebyoneandshowhowyoucanusethemtocreateasysteminwhichgoodhabitsemergenaturallyandbadhabitswitheraway.

ChapterSummaryAhabitisabehaviorthathasbeenrepeatedenoughtimestobecomeautomatic.

Theultimatepurposeofhabitsistosolvetheproblemsoflifewithaslittleenergyandeffortaspossible.

Anyhabitcanbebrokendownintoafeedbackloopthatinvolvesfoursteps:cue,craving,response,andreward.

TheFourLawsofBehaviorChangeareasimplesetofruleswecanusetobuildbetterhabits.Theyare(1)makeitobvious,(2)makeitattractive,(3)makeiteasy,and(4)makeitsatisfying.

THE1STLAW

MakeItObvious

TheManWhoDidn’tLookRight

THEPSYCHOLOGISTGARYKleinoncetoldmeastoryaboutawomanwhoattendedafamilygathering.Shehadspentyearsworkingasaparamedicand,uponarrivingattheevent,tookonelookatherfather-in-lawandgotveryconcerned.

“Idon’tlikethewayyoulook,”shesaid.

Herfather-in-law,whowasfeelingperfectlyfine,jokinglyreplied,“Well,Idon’tlikeyourlooks,either.”

“No,”sheinsisted.“Youneedtogotothehospitalnow.”

Afewhourslater,themanwasundergoinglifesavingsurgeryafteranexaminationhadrevealedthathehadablockagetoamajorarteryandwasatimmediateriskofaheartattack.Withouthisdaughter-in-law’sintuition,hecouldhavedied.

Whatdidtheparamedicsee?Howdidshepredicthisimpendingheartattack?

Whenmajorarteriesareobstructed,thebodyfocusesonsendingbloodtocriticalorgansandawayfromperipherallocationsnearthesurfaceoftheskin.Theresultisachangeinthepatternofdistributionofbloodintheface.Aftermanyyearsofworkingwithpeoplewithheartfailure,thewomanhadunknowinglydevelopedtheabilitytorecognizethispatternonsight.Shecouldn’texplainwhatitwasthatshenoticedinherfather-in-law’sface,butsheknewsomethingwaswrong.

Similarstoriesexistinotherfields.Forexample,militaryanalystscanidentifywhichbliponaradarscreenisanenemymissileand

whichoneisaplanefromtheirownfleeteventhoughtheyaretravelingatthesamespeed,flyingatthesamealtitude,andlookidenticalonradarinnearlyeveryrespect.DuringtheGulfWar,LieutenantCommanderMichaelRileysavedanentirebattleshipwhenheorderedamissileshotdown—despitethefactthatitlookedexactlylikethebattleship’sownplanesonradar.Hemadetherightcall,butevenhissuperiorofficerscouldn’texplainhowhedidit.

Museumcuratorshavebeenknowntodiscernthedifferencebetweenanauthenticpieceofartandanexpertlyproducedcounterfeiteventhoughtheycan’ttellyoupreciselywhichdetailstippedthemoff.Experiencedradiologistscanlookatabrainscanandpredicttheareawhereastrokewilldevelopbeforeanyobvioussignsarevisibletotheuntrainedeye.I’veevenheardofhairdressersnoticingwhetheraclientispregnantbasedonlyonthefeelofherhair.

Thehumanbrainisapredictionmachine.Itiscontinuouslytakinginyoursurroundingsandanalyzingtheinformationitcomesacross.Wheneveryouexperiencesomethingrepeatedly—likeaparamedicseeingthefaceofaheartattackpatientoramilitaryanalystseeingamissileonaradarscreen—yourbrainbeginsnoticingwhatisimportant,sortingthroughthedetailsandhighlightingtherelevantcues,andcatalogingthatinformationforfutureuse.

Withenoughpractice,youcanpickuponthecuesthatpredictcertainoutcomeswithoutconsciouslythinkingaboutit.Automatically,yourbrainencodesthelessonslearnedthroughexperience.Wecan’talwaysexplainwhatitiswearelearning,butlearningishappeningallalongtheway,andyourabilitytonoticetherelevantcuesinagivensituationisthefoundationforeveryhabityouhave.

Weunderestimatehowmuchourbrainsandbodiescandowithoutthinking.Youdonottellyourhairtogrow,yourhearttopump,yourlungstobreathe,oryourstomachtodigest.Andyetyourbodyhandlesallthisandmoreonautopilot.Youaremuchmorethanyourconsciousself.

Considerhunger.Howdoyouknowwhenyou’rehungry?Youdon’tnecessarilyhavetoseeacookieonthecountertorealizethatitistimetoeat.Appetiteandhungeraregovernednonconsciously.Yourbodyhasavarietyoffeedbackloopsthatgraduallyalertyouwhenitistimetoeatagainandthattrackwhatisgoingonaroundyouandwithinyou.Cravingscanarisethankstohormonesandchemicalscirculating

throughyourbody.Suddenly,you’rehungryeventhoughyou’renotquitesurewhattippedyouoff.

Thisisoneofthemostsurprisinginsightsaboutourhabits:youdon’tneedtobeawareofthecueforahabittobegin.Youcannoticeanopportunityandtakeactionwithoutdedicatingconsciousattentiontoit.Thisiswhatmakeshabitsuseful.

It’salsowhatmakesthemdangerous.Ashabitsform,youractionscomeunderthedirectionofyourautomaticandnonconsciousmind.Youfallintooldpatternsbeforeyourealizewhat’shappening.Unlesssomeonepointsitout,youmaynotnoticethatyoucoveryourmouthwithyourhandwheneveryoulaugh,thatyouapologizebeforeaskingaquestion,orthatyouhaveahabitoffinishingotherpeople’ssentences.Andthemoreyourepeatthesepatterns,thelesslikelyyoubecometoquestionwhatyou’redoingandwhyyou’redoingit.

Ionceheardofaretailclerkwhowasinstructedtocutupemptygiftcardsaftercustomershadusedupthebalanceonthecard.Oneday,theclerkcashedoutafewcustomersinarowwhopurchasedwithgiftcards.Whenthenextpersonwalkedup,theclerkswipedthecustomer’sactualcreditcard,pickedupthescissors,andthencutitinhalf—entirelyonautopilot—beforelookingupatthestunnedcustomerandrealizingwhathadjusthappened.

AnotherwomanIcameacrossinmyresearchwasaformerpreschoolteacherwhohadswitchedtoacorporatejob.Eventhoughshewasnowworkingwithadults,heroldhabitswouldkickinandshekeptaskingcoworkersiftheyhadwashedtheirhandsaftergoingtothebathroom.Ialsofoundthestoryofamanwhohadspentyearsworkingasalifeguardandwouldoccasionallyyell“Walk!”wheneverhesawachildrunning.

Overtime,thecuesthatsparkourhabitsbecomesocommonthattheyareessentiallyinvisible:thetreatsonthekitchencounter,theremotecontrolnexttothecouch,thephoneinourpocket.Ourresponsestothesecuesaresodeeplyencodedthatitmayfeelliketheurgetoactcomesfromnowhere.Forthisreason,wemustbegintheprocessofbehaviorchangewithawareness.

Beforewecaneffectivelybuildnewhabits,weneedtogetahandleonourcurrentones.Thiscanbemorechallengingthanitsoundsbecauseonceahabitisfirmlyrootedinyourlife,itismostly

nonconsciousandautomatic.Ifahabitremainsmindless,youcan’texpecttoimproveit.AsthepsychologistCarlJungsaid,“Untilyoumaketheunconsciousconscious,itwilldirectyourlifeandyouwillcallitfate.”

THEHABITSSCORECARD

TheJapaneserailwaysystemisregardedasoneofthebestintheworld.IfyoueverfindyourselfridingatraininTokyo,you’llnoticethattheconductorshaveapeculiarhabit.

Aseachoperatorrunsthetrain,theyproceedthrougharitualofpointingatdifferentobjectsandcallingoutcommands.Whenthetrainapproachesasignal,theoperatorwillpointatitandsay,“Signalisgreen.”Asthetrainpullsintoandoutofeachstation,theoperatorwillpointatthespeedometerandcallouttheexactspeed.Whenit’stimetoleave,theoperatorwillpointatthetimetableandstatethetime.Outontheplatform,otheremployeesareperformingsimilaractions.Beforeeachtraindeparts,staffmemberswillpointalongtheedgeoftheplatformanddeclare,“Allclear!”Everydetailisidentified,pointedat,andnamedaloud.*

Thisprocess,knownasPointing-and-Calling,isasafetysystemdesignedtoreducemistakes.Itseemssilly,butitworksincrediblywell.Pointing-and-Callingreduceserrorsbyupto85percentandcutsaccidentsby30percent.TheMTAsubwaysysteminNewYorkCityadoptedamodifiedversionthatis“point-only,”and“withintwoyearsofimplementation,incidentsofincorrectlyberthedsubwaysfell57percent.”

Pointing-and-Callingissoeffectivebecauseitraisesthelevelofawarenessfromanonconscioushabittoamoreconsciouslevel.Becausethetrainoperatorsmustusetheireyes,hands,mouth,andears,theyaremorelikelytonoticeproblemsbeforesomethinggoeswrong.

Mywifedoessomethingsimilar.Wheneverwearepreparingtowalkoutthedoorforatrip,sheverballycallsoutthemostessentialitemsinherpackinglist.“I’vegotmykeys.I’vegotmywallet.I’vegotmyglasses.I’vegotmyhusband.”

Themoreautomaticabehaviorbecomes,thelesslikelywearetoconsciouslythinkaboutit.Andwhenwe’vedonesomethingathousandtimesbefore,webegintooverlookthings.Weassumethatthenexttimewillbejustlikethelast.We’resousedtodoingwhatwe’vealwaysdonethatwedon’tstoptoquestionwhetherit’stherightthingtodoatall.Manyofourfailuresinperformancearelargelyattributabletoalackofself-awareness.

Oneofourgreatestchallengesinchanginghabitsismaintainingawarenessofwhatweareactuallydoing.Thishelpsexplainwhytheconsequencesofbadhabitscansneakuponus.Weneeda“point-and-call”systemforourpersonallives.That’stheoriginoftheHabitsScorecard,whichisasimpleexerciseyoucanusetobecomemoreawareofyourbehavior.Tocreateyourown,makealistofyourdailyhabits.

Here’sasampleofwhereyourlistmightstart:

Wakeup

Turnoffalarm

Checkmyphone

Gotothebathroom

Weighmyself

Takeashower

Brushmyteeth

Flossmyteeth

Putondeodorant

Hanguptoweltodry

Getdressed

Makeacupoftea

...andsoon.

Onceyouhaveafulllist,lookateachbehavior,andaskyourself,“Isthisagoodhabit,abadhabit,oraneutralhabit?”Ifitisagoodhabit,write“+”nexttoit.Ifitisabadhabit,write“–”.Ifitisaneutralhabit,write“=”.

Forexample,thelistabovemightlooklikethis:

Wakeup=

Turnoffalarm=

Checkmyphone–

Gotothebathroom=

Weighmyself+

Takeashower+

Brushmyteeth+

Flossmyteeth+

Putondeodorant+

Hanguptoweltodry=

Getdressed=

Makeacupoftea+

Themarksyougivetoaparticularhabitwilldependonyoursituationandyourgoals.Forsomeonewhoistryingtoloseweight,eatingabagelwithpeanutbuttereverymorningmightbeabadhabit.Forsomeonewhoistryingtobulkupandaddmuscle,thesamebehaviormightbeagoodhabit.Italldependsonwhatyou’reworkingtoward.*

Scoringyourhabitscanbeabitmorecomplexforanotherreasonaswell.Thelabels“goodhabit”and“badhabit”areslightlyinaccurate.Therearenogoodhabitsorbadhabits.Thereareonlyeffectivehabits.Thatis,effectiveatsolvingproblems.Allhabitsserveyouinsomeway—eventhebadones—whichiswhyyourepeatthem.Forthisexercise,categorizeyourhabitsbyhowtheywillbenefityouinthelongrun.Generallyspeaking,goodhabitswillhavenetpositiveoutcomes.Badhabitshavenetnegativeoutcomes.Smokingacigarettemayreducestressrightnow(that’showit’sservingyou),butit’snotahealthylong-termbehavior.

Ifyou’restillhavingtroubledetermininghowtorateaparticularhabit,hereisaquestionIliketouse:“DoesthisbehaviorhelpmebecomethetypeofpersonIwishtobe?Doesthishabitcastavotefor

oragainstmydesiredidentity?”Habitsthatreinforceyourdesiredidentityareusuallygood.Habitsthatconflictwithyourdesiredidentityareusuallybad.

AsyoucreateyourHabitsScorecard,thereisnoneedtochangeanythingatfirst.Thegoalistosimplynoticewhatisactuallygoingon.Observeyourthoughtsandactionswithoutjudgmentorinternalcriticism.Don’tblameyourselfforyourfaults.Don’tpraiseyourselfforyoursuccesses.

Ifyoueatachocolatebareverymorning,acknowledgeit,almostasifyouwerewatchingsomeoneelse.Oh,howinterestingthattheywoulddosuchathing.Ifyoubinge-eat,simplynoticethatyouareeatingmorecaloriesthanyoushould.Ifyouwastetimeonline,noticethatyouarespendingyourlifeinawaythatyoudonotwantto.

Thefirststeptochangingbadhabitsistobeonthelookoutforthem.Ifyoufeellikeyouneedextrahelp,thenyoucantryPointing-and-Callinginyourownlife.Sayoutloudtheactionthatyouarethinkingoftakingandwhattheoutcomewillbe.Ifyouwanttocutbackonyourjunkfoodhabitbutnoticeyourselfgrabbinganothercookie,sayoutloud,“I’mabouttoeatthiscookie,butIdon’tneedit.Eatingitwillcausemetogainweightandhurtmyhealth.”

Hearingyourbadhabitsspokenaloudmakestheconsequencesseemmorereal.Itaddsweighttotheactionratherthanlettingyourselfmindlesslyslipintoanoldroutine.Thisapproachisusefulevenifyou’resimplytryingtorememberataskonyourto-dolist.Justsayingoutloud,“Tomorrow,Ineedtogotothepostofficeafterlunch,”increasestheoddsthatyou’llactuallydoit.You’regettingyourselftoacknowledgetheneedforaction—andthatcanmakeallthedifference.

Theprocessofbehaviorchangealwaysstartswithawareness.StrategieslikePointing-and-CallingandtheHabitsScorecardarefocusedongettingyoutorecognizeyourhabitsandacknowledgethecuesthattriggerthem,whichmakesitpossibletorespondinawaythatbenefitsyou.

ChapterSummaryWithenoughpractice,yourbrainwillpickuponthecuesthatpredictcertainoutcomeswithoutconsciouslythinkingaboutit.

Onceourhabitsbecomeautomatic,westoppayingattentiontowhatwearedoing.

Theprocessofbehaviorchangealwaysstartswithawareness.Youneedtobeawareofyourhabitsbeforeyoucanchangethem.

Pointing-and-Callingraisesyourlevelofawarenessfromanonconscioushabittoamoreconsciouslevelbyverbalizingyouractions.

TheHabitsScorecardisasimpleexerciseyoucanusetobecomemoreawareofyourbehavior.

TheBestWaytoStartaNewHabit

N2001,RESEARCHERSinGreatBritainbeganworkingwith248peopletobuildbetterexercisehabitsoverthecourseoftwoweeks.The

subjectsweredividedintothreegroups.

Thefirstgroupwasthecontrolgroup.Theyweresimplyaskedtotrackhowoftentheyexercised.

Thesecondgroupwasthe“motivation”group.Theywereaskednotonlytotracktheirworkoutsbutalsotoreadsomematerialonthebenefitsofexercise.Theresearchersalsoexplainedtothegrouphowexercisecouldreducetheriskofcoronaryheartdiseaseandimprovehearthealth.

Finally,therewasthethirdgroup.Thesesubjectsreceivedthesamepresentationasthesecondgroup,whichensuredthattheyhadequallevelsofmotivation.However,theywerealsoaskedtoformulateaplanforwhenandwheretheywouldexerciseoverthefollowingweek.Specifically,eachmemberofthethirdgroupcompletedthefollowingsentence:“Duringthenextweek,Iwillpartakeinatleast20minutesofvigorousexerciseon[DAY]at[TIME]in[PLACE].”

Inthefirstandsecondgroups,35to38percentofpeopleexercisedatleastonceperweek.(Interestingly,themotivationalpresentationgiventothesecondgroupseemedtohavenomeaningfulimpactonbehavior.)But91percentofthethirdgroupexercisedatleastonceperweek—morethandoublethenormalrate.

Thesentencetheyfilledoutiswhatresearchersrefertoasanimplementationintention,whichisaplanyoumakebeforehandabout

whenandwheretoact.Thatis,howyouintendtoimplementaparticularhabit.

Thecuesthatcantriggerahabitcomeinawiderangeofforms—thefeelofyourphonebuzzinginyourpocket,thesmellofchocolatechipcookies,thesoundofambulancesirens—butthetwomostcommoncuesaretimeandlocation.Implementationintentionsleveragebothofthesecues.

Broadlyspeaking,theformatforcreatinganimplementationintentionis:

“WhensituationXarises,IwillperformresponseY.”

Hundredsofstudieshaveshownthatimplementationintentionsareeffectiveforstickingtoourgoals,whetherit’swritingdowntheexacttimeanddateofwhenyouwillgetaflushotorrecordingthetimeofyourcolonoscopyappointment.Theyincreasetheoddsthatpeoplewillstickwithhabitslikerecycling,studying,goingtosleepearly,andstoppingsmoking.

Researchershaveevenfoundthatvoterturnoutincreaseswhenpeopleareforcedtocreateimplementationintentionsbyansweringquestionslike:“Whatrouteareyoutakingtothepollingstation?Atwhattimeareyouplanningtogo?Whatbuswillgetyouthere?”Othersuccessfulgovernmentprogramshavepromptedcitizenstomakeaclearplantosendtaxesinontimeorprovideddirectionsonwhenandwheretopaylatetrafficbills.

Thepunchlineisclear:peoplewhomakeaspecificplanforwhenandwheretheywillperformanewhabitaremorelikelytofollowthrough.Toomanypeopletrytochangetheirhabitswithoutthesebasicdetailsfiguredout.Wetellourselves,“I’mgoingtoeathealthier”or“I’mgoingtowritemore,”butweneversaywhenandwherethesehabitsaregoingtohappen.Weleaveituptochanceandhopethatwewill“justremembertodoit”orfeelmotivatedattherighttime.Animplementationintentionsweepsawayfoggynotionslike“Iwanttoworkoutmore”or“Iwanttobemoreproductive”or“Ishouldvote”andtransformsthemintoaconcreteplanofaction.

Manypeoplethinktheylackmotivationwhenwhattheyreallylackisclarity.Itisnotalwaysobviouswhenandwheretotakeaction.Somepeoplespendtheirentireliveswaitingforthetimetoberighttomakeanimprovement.

Onceanimplementationintentionhasbeenset,youdon’thavetowaitforinspirationtostrike.DoIwriteachaptertodayornot?DoImeditatethismorningoratlunch?Whenthemomentofactionoccurs,thereisnoneedtomakeadecision.Simplyfollowyourpredeterminedplan.

Thesimplewaytoapplythisstrategytoyourhabitsistofilloutthissentence:

Iwill[BEHAVIOR]at[TIME]in[LOCATION].

Meditation.Iwillmeditateforoneminuteat7a.m.inmykitchen.

Studying.IwillstudySpanishfortwentyminutesat6p.m.inmybedroom.

Exercise.Iwillexerciseforonehourat5p.m.inmylocalgym.

Marriage.Iwillmakemypartneracupofteaat8a.m.inthekitchen.

Ifyouaren’tsurewhentostartyourhabit,trythefirstdayoftheweek,month,oryear.Peoplearemorelikelytotakeactionatthosetimesbecausehopeisusuallyhigher.Ifwehavehope,wehaveareasontotakeaction.Afreshstartfeelsmotivating.

Thereisanotherbenefittoimplementationintentions.Beingspecificaboutwhatyouwantandhowyouwillachieveithelpsyousaynotothingsthatderailprogress,distractyourattention,andpullyouoffcourse.Weoftensayyestolittlerequestsbecausewearenotclearenoughaboutwhatweneedtobedoinginstead.Whenyourdreamsarevague,it’seasytorationalizelittleexceptionsalldaylongandnevergetaroundtothespecificthingsyouneedtodotosucceed.

Giveyourhabitsatimeandaspacetoliveintheworld.Thegoalistomakethetimeandlocationsoobviousthat,withenoughrepetition,yougetanurgetodotherightthingattherighttime,evenifyoucan’tsaywhy.AsthewriterJasonZweignoted,“Obviouslyyou’renevergoingtojustworkoutwithoutconsciousthought.Butlikeadogsalivatingatabell,maybeyoustarttogetantsyaroundthetimeofdayyounormallyworkout.”

Therearemanywaystouseimplementationintentionsinyourlifeandwork.MyfavoriteapproachisoneIlearnedfromStanfordprofessorBJFogganditisastrategyIrefertoashabitstacking.

HABITSTACKING:ASIMPLEPLANTOOVERHAULYOURHABITS

TheFrenchphilosopherDenisDiderotlivednearlyhisentirelifeinpoverty,butthatallchangedonedayin1765.

Diderot’sdaughterwasabouttobemarriedandhecouldnotaffordtopayforthewedding.Despitehislackofwealth,Diderotwaswellknownforhisroleastheco-founderandwriterofEncyclopédie,oneofthemostcomprehensiveencyclopediasofthetime.WhenCatherinetheGreat,theEmpressofRussia,heardofDiderot’sfinancialtroubles,herheartwentouttohim.Shewasabookloverandgreatlyenjoyedhisencyclopedia.SheofferedtobuyDiderot’spersonallibraryfor£1,000—morethan$150,000today.*Suddenly,Diderothadmoneytospare.Withhisnewwealth,henotonlypaidfortheweddingbutalsoacquiredascarletrobeforhimself.

Diderot’sscarletrobewasbeautiful.Sobeautiful,infact,thatheimmediatelynoticedhowoutofplaceitseemedwhensurroundedbyhismorecommonpossessions.Hewrotethattherewas“nomorecoordination,nomoreunity,nomorebeauty”betweenhiselegantrobeandtherestofhisstuff.

Diderotsoonfelttheurgetoupgradehispossessions.HereplacedhisrugwithonefromDamascus.Hedecoratedhishomewithexpensivesculptures.Heboughtamirrortoplaceabovethemantel,andabetterkitchentable.Hetossedasidehisoldstrawchairforaleatherone.Likefallingdominoes,onepurchaseledtothenext.

Diderot’sbehaviorisnotuncommon.Infact,thetendencyforonepurchasetoleadtoanotheronehasaname:theDiderotEffect.TheDiderotEffectstatesthatobtaininganewpossessionoftencreatesaspiralofconsumptionthatleadstoadditionalpurchases.

Youcanspotthispatterneverywhere.Youbuyadressandhavetogetnewshoesandearringstomatch.Youbuyacouchandsuddenlyquestionthelayoutofyourentirelivingroom.Youbuyatoyforyourchildandsoonfindyourselfpurchasingalloftheaccessoriesthatgowithit.It’sachainreactionofpurchases.

Manyhumanbehaviorsfollowthiscycle.Youoftendecidewhattodonextbasedonwhatyouhavejustfinisheddoing.Goingtothebathroomleadstowashinganddryingyourhands,whichremindsyouthatyouneedtoputthedirtytowelsinthelaundry,soyouaddlaundry

detergenttotheshoppinglist,andsoon.Nobehaviorhappensinisolation.Eachactionbecomesacuethattriggersthenextbehavior.

Whyisthisimportant?

Whenitcomestobuildingnewhabits,youcanusetheconnectednessofbehaviortoyouradvantage.Oneofthebestwaystobuildanewhabitistoidentifyacurrenthabityoualreadydoeachdayandthenstackyournewbehaviorontop.Thisiscalledhabitstacking.

Habitstackingisaspecialformofanimplementationintention.Ratherthanpairingyournewhabitwithaparticulartimeandlocation,youpairitwithacurrenthabit.Thismethod,whichwascreatedbyBJFoggaspartofhisTinyHabitsprogram,canbeusedtodesignanobviouscuefornearlyanyhabit.*

Thehabitstackingformulais:

“After[CURRENTHABIT],Iwill[NEWHABIT].”

Forexample:

Meditation.AfterIpourmycupofcoffeeeachmorning,Iwillmeditateforoneminute.

Exercise.AfterItakeoffmyworkshoes,Iwillimmediatelychangeintomyworkoutclothes.

Gratitude.AfterIsitdowntodinner,IwillsayonethingI’mgratefulforthathappenedtoday.

Marriage.AfterIgetintobedatnight,Iwillgivemypartnerakiss.

Safety.AfterIputonmyrunningshoes,IwilltextafriendorfamilymemberwhereIamrunningandhowlongitwilltake.

Thekeyistotieyourdesiredbehaviorintosomethingyoualreadydoeachday.Onceyouhavemasteredthisbasicstructure,youcanbegintocreatelargerstacksbychainingsmallhabitstogether.Thisallowsyoutotakeadvantageofthenaturalmomentumthatcomesfromonebehaviorleadingintothenext—apositiveversionoftheDiderotEffect.

HABITSTACKING

FIGURE7:Habitstackingincreasesthelikelihoodthatyou’llstickwithahabitbystackingyournewbehaviorontopofanoldone.Thisprocesscanberepeatedtochainnumeroushabitstogether,eachoneactingasthecueforthenext.

Yourmorningroutinehabitstackmightlooklikethis:

1. AfterIpourmymorningcupofcoffee,Iwillmeditateforsixtyseconds.

2. AfterImeditateforsixtyseconds,Iwillwritemyto-dolistfortheday.

3. AfterIwritemyto-dolistfortheday,Iwillimmediatelybeginmyfirsttask.

Or,considerthishabitstackintheevening:

1. AfterIfinisheatingdinner,Iwillputmyplatedirectlyintothedishwasher.

2. AfterIputmydishesaway,Iwillimmediatelywipedownthecounter.

3. AfterIwipedownthecounter,Iwillsetoutmycoffeemugfortomorrowmorning.

Youcanalsoinsertnewbehaviorsintothemiddleofyourcurrentroutines.Forexample,youmayalreadyhaveamorningroutinethatlookslikethis:Wakeup>Makemybed>Takeashower.Let’ssayyouwanttodevelopthehabitofreadingmoreeachnight.Youcanexpandyourhabitstackandtrysomethinglike:Wakeup>Makemybed>Placeabookonmypillow>Takeashower.Now,whenyouclimbintobedeachnight,abookwillbesittingtherewaitingforyoutoenjoy.

Overall,habitstackingallowsyoutocreateasetofsimplerulesthatguideyourfuturebehavior.It’slikeyoualwayshaveagameplanforwhichactionshouldcomenext.Onceyougetcomfortablewiththisapproach,youcandevelopgeneralhabitstackstoguideyouwheneverthesituationisappropriate:

Exercise.WhenIseeasetofstairs,Iwilltaketheminsteadofusingtheelevator.

Socialskills.WhenIwalkintoaparty,IwillintroducemyselftosomeoneIdon’tknowyet.

Finances.WhenIwanttobuysomethingover$100,Iwillwaittwenty-fourhoursbeforepurchasing.

Healthyeating.WhenIservemyselfameal,Iwillalwaysputveggiesonmyplatefirst.

Minimalism.WhenIbuyanewitem,Iwillgivesomethingaway.(“Onein,oneout.”)

Mood.Whenthephonerings,Iwilltakeonedeepbreathandsmilebeforeanswering.

Forgetfulness.WhenIleaveapublicplace,IwillcheckthetableandchairstomakesureIdon’tleaveanythingbehind.

Nomatterhowyouusethisstrategy,thesecrettocreatingasuccessfulhabitstackisselectingtherightcuetokickthingsoff.Unlikeanimplementationintention,whichspecificallystatesthetimeandlocationforagivenbehavior,habitstackingimplicitlyhasthetimeandlocationbuiltintoit.Whenandwhereyouchoosetoinsertahabitintoyourdailyroutinecanmakeabigdifference.Ifyou’retryingtoaddmeditationintoyourmorningroutinebutmorningsarechaoticandyourkidskeeprunningintotheroom,thenthatmaybethewrongplaceandtime.Considerwhenyouaremostlikelytobesuccessful.Don’taskyourselftodoahabitwhenyou’relikelytobeoccupiedwithsomethingelse.

Yourcueshouldalsohavethesamefrequencyasyourdesiredhabit.Ifyouwanttodoahabiteveryday,butyoustackitontopofahabitthatonlyhappensonMondays,that’snotagoodchoice.

Onewaytofindtherighttriggerforyourhabitstackisbybrainstormingalistofyourcurrenthabits.YoucanuseyourHabitsScorecardfromthelastchapterasastartingpoint.Alternatively,youcancreatealistwithtwocolumns.Inthefirstcolumn,writedownthehabitsyoudoeachdaywithoutfail.*

Forexample:

Getoutofbed.

Takeashower.

Brushyourteeth.

Getdressed.

Brewacupofcoffee.

Eatbreakfast.

Takethekidstoschool.

Starttheworkday.

Eatlunch.

Endtheworkday.

Changeoutofworkclothes.

Sitdownfordinner.

Turnoffthelights.

Getintobed.

Yourlistcanbemuchlonger,butyougettheidea.Inthesecondcolumn,writedownallofthethingsthathappentoyoueachdaywithoutfail.Forexample:

Thesunrises.

Yougetatextmessage.

Thesongyouarelisteningtoends.

Thesunsets.

Armedwiththesetwolists,youcanbeginsearchingforthebestplacetolayeryournewhabitintoyourlifestyle.

Habitstackingworksbestwhenthecueishighlyspecificandimmediatelyactionable.Manypeopleselectcuesthataretoovague.Imadethismistakemyself.WhenIwantedtostartapush-uphabit,myhabitstackwas“WhenItakeabreakforlunch,Iwilldotenpush-ups.”Atfirstglance,thissoundedreasonable.Butsoon,Irealizedthetriggerwasunclear.WouldIdomypush-upsbeforeIatelunch?AfterIatelunch?WherewouldIdothem?Afterafewinconsistentdays,Ichangedmyhabitstackto:“WhenIclosemylaptopforlunch,Iwilldotenpush-upsnexttomydesk.”Ambiguitygone.

Habitslike“readmore”or“eatbetter”areworthycauses,butthesegoalsdonotprovideinstructiononhowandwhentoact.Bespecificandclear:AfterIclosethedoor.AfterIbrushmyteeth.AfterIsitdownatthetable.Thespecificityisimportant.Themoretightlyboundyournewhabitistoaspecificcue,thebettertheoddsarethatyouwillnoticewhenthetimecomestoact.

The1stLawofBehaviorChangeistomakeitobvious.Strategieslikeimplementationintentionsandhabitstackingareamongthemostpracticalwaystocreateobviouscuesforyourhabitsanddesignaclearplanforwhenandwheretotakeaction.

ChapterSummaryThe1stLawofBehaviorChangeismakeitobvious.

Thetwomostcommoncuesaretimeandlocation.

Creatinganimplementationintentionisastrategyyoucanusetopairanewhabitwithaspecifictimeandlocation.

Theimplementationintentionformulais:Iwill[BEHAVIOR]at[TIME]in[LOCATION].

Habitstackingisastrategyyoucanusetopairanewhabitwithacurrenthabit.

Thehabitstackingformulais:After[CURRENTHABIT],Iwill[NEWHABIT].

MotivationIsOverrated;EnvironmentOftenMattersMore

ANNETHORNDIKE,AprimarycarephysicianatMassachusettsGeneralHospitalinBoston,hadacrazyidea.Shebelievedshecouldimprovetheeatinghabitsofthousandsofhospitalstaffandvisitorswithoutchangingtheirwillpowerormotivationintheslightestway.Infact,shedidn’tplanontalkingtothematall.

Thorndikeandhercolleaguesdesignedasix-monthstudytoalterthe“choicearchitecture”ofthehospitalcafeteria.Theystartedbychanginghowdrinkswerearrangedintheroom.Originally,therefrigeratorslocatednexttothecashregistersinthecafeteriawerefilledwithonlysoda.Theresearchersaddedwaterasanoptiontoeachone.Additionally,theyplacedbasketsofbottledwaternexttothefoodstationsthroughouttheroom.Sodawasstillintheprimaryrefrigerators,butwaterwasnowavailableatalldrinklocations.

Overthenextthreemonths,thenumberofsodasalesatthehospitaldroppedby11.4percent.Meanwhile,salesofbottledwaterincreasedby25.8percent.Theymadesimilaradjustments—andsawsimilarresults—withthefoodinthecafeteria.Nobodyhadsaidawordtoanyoneeatingthere.

BEFORE

FIGURE8:Hereisarepresentationofwhatthecafeterialookedlikebeforetheenvironmentdesignchangesweremade(left)andafter(right).Theshadedboxesindicateareaswherebottledwaterwasavailableineachinstance.Becausetheamountofwaterintheenvironmentwasincreased,behaviorshiftednaturallyandwithoutadditionalmotivation.

Peopleoftenchooseproductsnotbecauseofwhattheyare,butbecauseofwheretheyare.IfIwalkintothekitchenandseeaplateofcookiesonthecounter,I’llpickuphalfadozenandstarteating,evenifIhadn’tbeenthinkingaboutthembeforehandanddidn’tnecessarilyfeelhungry.Ifthecommunaltableattheofficeisalwaysfilledwithdoughnutsandbagels,it’sgoingtobehardnottograboneeverynowandthen.Yourhabitschangedependingontheroomyouareinandthecuesinfrontofyou.

Environmentistheinvisiblehandthatshapeshumanbehavior.Despiteouruniquepersonalities,certainbehaviorstendtoariseagainandagainundercertainenvironmentalconditions.Inchurch,peopletendtotalkinwhispers.Onadarkstreet,peopleactwaryandguarded.Inthisway,themostcommonformofchangeisnotinternal,butexternal:wearechangedbytheworldaroundus.Everyhabitiscontextdependent.

In1936,psychologistKurtLewinwroteasimpleequationthatmakesapowerfulstatement:BehaviorisafunctionofthePersonintheirEnvironment,orB=f(P,E).

Itdidn’ttakelongforLewin’sEquationtobetestedinbusiness.In1952,theeconomistHawkinsSterndescribedaphenomenonhecalledSuggestionImpulseBuying,which“istriggeredwhenashopperseesaproductforthefirsttimeandvisualizesaneedforit.”Inotherwords,customerswilloccasionallybuyproductsnotbecausetheywantthembutbecauseofhowtheyarepresentedtothem.

Forexample,itemsateyeleveltendtobepurchasedmorethanthosedownnearthefloor.Forthisreason,you’llfindexpensivebrandnamesfeaturedineasy-to-reachlocationsonstoreshelvesbecausetheydrivethemostprofit,whilecheaperalternativesaretuckedawayinharder-to-reachspots.Thesamegoesforendcaps,whicharetheunitsattheendofaisles.Endcapsaremoneymakingmachinesforretailersbecausetheyareobviouslocationsthatencounteralotoffoottraffic.Forexample,45percentofCoca-Colasalescomespecificallyfromend-of-the-aisleracks.

Themoreobviouslyavailableaproductorserviceis,themorelikelyyouaretotryit.PeopledrinkBudLightbecauseitisineverybarandvisitStarbucksbecauseitisoneverycorner.Weliketothinkthatweareincontrol.Ifwechoosewateroversoda,weassumeitisbecausewewantedtodoso.Thetruth,however,isthatmanyoftheactionswetakeeachdayareshapednotbypurposefuldriveandchoicebutbythemostobviousoption.

Everylivingbeinghasitsownmethodsforsensingandunderstandingtheworld.Eagleshaveremarkablelong-distancevision.Snakescansmellby“tastingtheair”withtheirhighlysensitivetongues.Sharkscandetectsmallamountsofelectricityandvibrationsinthewatercausedbynearbyfish.Evenbacteriahavechemoreceptors—tinysensorycellsthatallowthemtodetecttoxicchemicalsintheirenvironment.

Inhumans,perceptionisdirectedbythesensorynervoussystem.Weperceivetheworldthroughsight,sound,smell,touch,andtaste.Butwealsohaveotherwaysofsensingstimuli.Someareconscious,butmanyarenonconscious.Forinstance,youcan“notice”whenthetemperaturedropsbeforeastorm,orwhenthepaininyourgutrisesduringastomachache,orwhenyoufalloffbalancewhilewalkingonrockyground.Receptorsinyourbodypickuponawiderangeofinternalstimuli,suchastheamountofsaltinyourbloodortheneedtodrinkwhenthirsty.

Themostpowerfulofallhumansensoryabilities,however,isvision.Thehumanbodyhasaboutelevenmillionsensoryreceptors.Approximatelytenmillionofthosearededicatedtosight.Someexpertsestimatethathalfofthebrain’sresourcesareusedonvision.Giventhatwearemoredependentonvisionthanonanyothersense,itshouldcomeasnosurprisethatvisualcuesarethegreatestcatalystofourbehavior.Forthisreason,asmallchangeinwhatyouseecanleadtoabigshiftinwhatyoudo.Asaresult,youcanimaginehowimportantitistoliveandworkinenvironmentsthatarefilledwithproductivecuesanddevoidofunproductiveones.

Thankfully,thereisgoodnewsinthisrespect.Youdon’thavetobethevictimofyourenvironment.Youcanalsobethearchitectofit.

HOWTODESIGNYOURENVIRONMENTFORSUCCESS

Duringtheenergycrisisandoilembargoofthe1970s,Dutchresearchersbegantopaycloseattentiontothecountry’senergyusage.InonesuburbnearAmsterdam,theyfoundthatsomehomeownersused30percentlessenergythantheirneighbors—despitethehomesbeingofsimilarsizeandgettingelectricityforthesameprice.

Itturnedoutthehousesinthisneighborhoodwerenearlyidenticalexceptforonefeature:thelocationoftheelectricalmeter.Somehadoneinthebasement.Othershadtheelectricalmeterupstairsinthemainhallway.Asyoumayguess,thehomeswiththemeterslocatedinthemainhallwayusedlesselectricity.Whentheirenergyusewasobviousandeasytotrack,peoplechangedtheirbehavior.

Everyhabitisinitiatedbyacue,andwearemorelikelytonoticecuesthatstandout.Unfortunately,theenvironmentswhereweliveandworkoftenmakeiteasynottodocertainactionsbecausethereisnoobviouscuetotriggerthebehavior.It’seasynottopracticetheguitarwhenit’stuckedawayinthecloset.It’seasynottoreadabookwhenthebookshelfisinthecorneroftheguestroom.It’seasynottotakeyourvitaminswhentheyareoutofsightinthepantry.Whenthecuesthatsparkahabitaresubtleorhidden,theyareeasytoignore.

Bycomparison,creatingobviousvisualcuescandrawyourattentiontowardadesiredhabit.Intheearly1990s,thecleaningstaffatSchipholAirportinAmsterdaminstalledasmallstickerthatlookedlikeaflynearthecenterofeachurinal.Apparently,whenmenstepped

uptotheurinals,theyaimedforwhattheythoughtwasabug.Thestickersimprovedtheiraimandsignificantlyreduced“spillage”aroundtheurinals.Furtheranalysisdeterminedthatthestickerscutbathroomcleaningcostsby8percentperyear.

I’veexperiencedthepowerofobviouscuesinmyownlife.Iusedtobuyapplesfromthestore,puttheminthecrisperinthebottomoftherefrigerator,andforgetallaboutthem.BythetimeIremembered,theappleswouldhavegonebad.Ineversawthem,soIneveratethem.

Eventually,Itookmyownadviceandredesignedmyenvironment.Iboughtalargedisplaybowlandplaceditinthemiddleofthekitchencounter.ThenexttimeIboughtapples,thatwaswheretheywent—outintheopenwhereIcouldseethem.Almostlikemagic,Ibeganeatingafewappleseachdaysimplybecausetheywereobviousratherthanoutofsight.

Hereareafewwaysyoucanredesignyourenvironmentandmakethecuesforyourpreferredhabitsmoreobvious:

Ifyouwanttoremembertotakeyourmedicationeachnight,putyourpillbottledirectlynexttothefaucetonthebathroomcounter.

Ifyouwanttopracticeguitarmorefrequently,placeyourguitarstandinthemiddleofthelivingroom.

Ifyouwanttoremembertosendmorethank-younotes,keepastackofstationeryonyourdesk.

Ifyouwanttodrinkmorewater,fillupafewwaterbottleseachmorningandplacethemincommonlocationsaroundthehouse.

Ifyouwanttomakeahabitabigpartofyourlife,makethecueabigpartofyourenvironment.Themostpersistentbehaviorsusuallyhavemultiplecues.Considerhowmanydifferentwaysasmokercouldbepromptedtopulloutacigarette:drivinginthecar,seeingafriendsmoke,feelingstressedatwork,andsoon.

Thesamestrategycanbeemployedforgoodhabits.Bysprinklingtriggersthroughoutyoursurroundings,youincreasetheoddsthatyou’llthinkaboutyourhabitthroughouttheday.Makesurethebestchoiceisthemostobviousone.Makingabetterdecisioniseasyandnaturalwhenthecuesforgoodhabitsarerightinfrontofyou.

Environmentdesignispowerfulnotonlybecauseitinfluenceshowweengagewiththeworldbutalsobecausewerarelydoit.Mostpeopleliveinaworldothershavecreatedforthem.Butyoucanalterthespaceswhereyouliveandworktoincreaseyourexposuretopositivecuesandreduceyourexposuretonegativeones.Environmentdesignallowsyoutotakebackcontrolandbecomethearchitectofyourlife.Bethedesignerofyourworldandnotmerelytheconsumerofit.

THECONTEXTISTHECUE

Thecuesthattriggerahabitcanstartoutveryspecific,butovertimeyourhabitsbecomeassociatednotwithasingletriggerbutwiththeentirecontextsurroundingthebehavior.

Forexample,manypeopledrinkmoreinsocialsituationsthantheywouldeverdrinkalone.Thetriggerisrarelyasinglecue,butratherthewholesituation:watchingyourfriendsorderdrinks,hearingthemusicatthebar,seeingthebeersontap.

Wementallyassignourhabitstothelocationsinwhichtheyoccur:thehome,theoffice,thegym.Eachlocationdevelopsaconnectiontocertainhabitsandroutines.Youestablishaparticularrelationshipwiththeobjectsonyourdesk,theitemsonyourkitchencounter,thethingsinyourbedroom.

Ourbehaviorisnotdefinedbytheobjectsintheenvironmentbutbyourrelationshiptothem.Infact,thisisausefulwaytothinkabouttheinfluenceoftheenvironmentonyourbehavior.Stopthinkingaboutyourenvironmentasfilledwithobjects.Startthinkingaboutitasfilledwithrelationships.Thinkintermsofhowyouinteractwiththespacesaroundyou.Foroneperson,hercouchistheplacewhereshereadsforanhoureachnight.Forsomeoneelse,thecouchiswherehewatchestelevisionandeatsabowloficecreamafterwork.Differentpeoplecanhavedifferentmemories—andthusdifferenthabits—associatedwiththesameplace.

Thegoodnews?Youcantrainyourselftolinkaparticularhabitwithaparticularcontext.

Inonestudy,scientistsinstructedinsomniacstogetintobedonlywhentheyweretired.Iftheycouldn’tfallasleep,theyweretoldtositinadifferentroomuntiltheybecamesleepy.Overtime,subjectsbegan

toassociatethecontextoftheirbedwiththeactionofsleeping,anditbecameeasiertoquicklyfallasleepwhentheyclimbedinbed.Theirbrainslearnedthatsleeping—notbrowsingontheirphones,notwatchingtelevision,notstaringattheclock—wastheonlyactionthathappenedinthatroom.

Thepowerofcontextalsorevealsanimportantstrategy:habitscanbeeasiertochangeinanewenvironment.Ithelpstoescapethesubtletriggersandcuesthatnudgeyoutowardyourcurrenthabits.Gotoanewplace—adifferentcoffeeshop,abenchinthepark,acornerofyourroomyouseldomuse—andcreateanewroutinethere.

Itiseasiertoassociateanewhabitwithanewcontextthantobuildanewhabitinthefaceofcompetingcues.Itcanbedifficulttogotobedearlyifyouwatchtelevisioninyourbedroomeachnight.Itcanbehardtostudyinthelivingroomwithoutgettingdistractedifthat’swhereyoualwaysplayvideogames.Butwhenyoustepoutsideyournormalenvironment,youleaveyourbehavioralbiasesbehind.Youaren’tbattlingoldenvironmentalcues,whichallowsnewhabitstoformwithoutinterruption.

Wanttothinkmorecreatively?Movetoabiggerroom,arooftoppatio,orabuildingwithexpansivearchitecture.Takeabreakfromthespacewhereyoudoyourdailywork,whichisalsolinkedtoyourcurrentthoughtpatterns.

Tryingtoeathealthier?Itislikelythatyoushoponautopilotatyourregularsupermarket.Tryanewgrocerystore.Youmayfinditeasiertoavoidunhealthyfoodwhenyourbraindoesn’tautomaticallyknowwhereitislocatedinthestore.

Whenyoucan’tmanagetogettoanentirelynewenvironment,redefineorrearrangeyourcurrentone.Createaseparatespaceforwork,study,exercise,entertainment,andcooking.ThemantraIfindusefulis“Onespace,oneuse.”

WhenIstartedmycareerasanentrepreneur,Iwouldoftenworkfrommycouchoratthekitchentable.Intheevenings,Ifounditverydifficulttostopworking.Therewasnocleardivisionbetweentheendofworktimeandthebeginningofpersonaltime.WasthekitchentablemyofficeorthespacewhereIatemeals?WasthecouchwhereIrelaxedorwhereIsentemails?Everythinghappenedinthesameplace.

Afewyearslater,Icouldfinallyaffordtomovetoahomewithaseparateroomformyoffice.Suddenly,workwassomethingthathappened“inhere”andpersonallifewassomethingthathappened“outthere.”Itwaseasierformetoturnofftheprofessionalsideofmybrainwhentherewasacleardividinglinebetweenworklifeandhomelife.Eachroomhadoneprimaryuse.Thekitchenwasforcooking.Theofficewasforworking.

Wheneverpossible,avoidmixingthecontextofonehabitwithanother.Whenyoustartmixingcontexts,you’llstartmixinghabits—andtheeasieroneswillusuallywinout.Thisisonereasonwhytheversatilityofmoderntechnologyisbothastrengthandaweakness.Youcanuseyourphoneforallsortsoftasks,whichmakesitapowerfuldevice.Butwhenyoucanuseyourphonetodonearlyanything,itbecomeshardtoassociateitwithonetask.Youwanttobeproductive,butyou’realsoconditionedtobrowsesocialmedia,checkemail,andplayvideogameswheneveryouopenyourphone.It’samishmashofcues.

Youmaybethinking,“Youdon’tunderstand.IliveinNewYorkCity.Myapartmentisthesizeofasmartphone.Ineedeachroomtoplaymultipleroles.”Fairenough.Ifyourspaceislimited,divideyourroomintoactivityzones:achairforreading,adeskforwriting,atableforeating.Youcandothesamewithyourdigitalspaces.Iknowawriterwhouseshiscomputeronlyforwriting,histabletonlyforreading,andhisphoneonlyforsocialmediaandtexting.Everyhabitshouldhaveahome.

Ifyoucanmanagetostickwiththisstrategy,eachcontextwillbecomeassociatedwithaparticularhabitandmodeofthought.Habitsthriveunderpredictablecircumstanceslikethese.Focuscomesautomaticallywhenyouaresittingatyourworkdesk.Relaxationiseasierwhenyouareinaspacedesignedforthatpurpose.Sleepcomesquicklywhenitistheonlythingthathappensinyourbedroom.Ifyouwantbehaviorsthatarestableandpredictable,youneedanenvironmentthatisstableandpredictable.

Astableenvironmentwhereeverythinghasaplaceandapurposeisanenvironmentwherehabitscaneasilyform.

ChapterSummary

Smallchangesincontextcanleadtolargechangesinbehaviorovertime.

Everyhabitisinitiatedbyacue.Wearemorelikelytonoticecuesthatstandout.

Makethecuesofgoodhabitsobviousinyourenvironment.

Gradually,yourhabitsbecomeassociatednotwithasingletriggerbutwiththeentirecontextsurroundingthebehavior.Thecontextbecomesthecue.

Itiseasiertobuildnewhabitsinanewenvironmentbecauseyouarenotfightingagainstoldcues.

TheSecrettoSelf-Control

N1971,astheVietnamWarwasheadingintoitssixteenthyear,congressmenRobertSteelefromConnecticutandMorganMurphy

fromIllinoismadeadiscoverythatstunnedtheAmericanpublic.Whilevisitingthetroops,theyhadlearnedthatover15percentofU.S.soldiersstationedtherewereheroinaddicts.Follow-upresearchrevealedthat35percentofservicemembersinVietnamhadtriedheroinandasmanyas20percentwereaddicted—theproblemwasevenworsethantheyhadinitiallythought.

ThediscoveryledtoaflurryofactivityinWashington,includingthecreationoftheSpecialActionOfficeofDrugAbusePreventionunderPresidentNixontopromotepreventionandrehabilitationandtotrackaddictedservicememberswhentheyreturnedhome.

LeeRobinswasoneoftheresearchersincharge.Inafindingthatcompletelyupendedtheacceptedbeliefsaboutaddiction,Robinsfoundthatwhensoldierswhohadbeenheroinusersreturnedhome,only5percentofthembecamere-addictedwithinayear,andjust12percentrelapsedwithinthreeyears.Inotherwords,approximatelynineoutoftensoldierswhousedheroininVietnameliminatedtheiraddictionnearlyovernight.

Thisfindingcontradictedtheprevailingviewatthetime,whichconsideredheroinaddictiontobeapermanentandirreversiblecondition.Instead,Robinsrevealedthataddictionscouldspontaneouslydissolveiftherewasaradicalchangeintheenvironment.InVietnam,soldiersspentalldaysurroundedbycuestriggeringheroinuse:itwaseasytoaccess,theywereengulfedbytheconstantstressofwar,theybuiltfriendshipswithfellowsoldierswho

werealsoheroinusers,andtheywerethousandsofmilesfromhome.OnceasoldierreturnedtotheUnitedStates,though,hefoundhimselfinanenvironmentdevoidofthosetriggers.Whenthecontextchanged,sodidthehabit.

Comparethissituationtothatofatypicaldruguser.Someonebecomesaddictedathomeorwithfriends,goestoaclinictogetclean—whichisdevoidofalltheenvironmentalstimulithatprompttheirhabit—thenreturnstotheiroldneighborhoodwithalloftheirpreviouscuesthatcausedthemtogetaddictedinthefirstplace.It’snowonderthatusuallyyouseenumbersthataretheexactoppositeofthoseintheVietnamstudy.Typically,90percentofheroinusersbecomere-addictedoncetheyreturnhomefromrehab.

TheVietnamstudiesrancountertomanyofourculturalbeliefsaboutbadhabitsbecauseitchallengedtheconventionalassociationofunhealthybehaviorasamoralweakness.Ifyou’reoverweight,asmoker,oranaddict,you’vebeentoldyourentirelifethatitisbecauseyoulackself-control—maybeeventhatyou’reabadperson.Theideathatalittlebitofdisciplinewouldsolveallourproblemsisdeeplyembeddedinourculture.

Recentresearch,however,showssomethingdifferent.Whenscientistsanalyzepeoplewhoappeartohavetremendousself-control,itturnsoutthoseindividualsaren’tallthatdifferentfromthosewhoarestruggling.Instead,“disciplined”peoplearebetteratstructuringtheirlivesinawaythatdoesnotrequireheroicwillpowerandself-control.Inotherwords,theyspendlesstimeintemptingsituations.

Thepeoplewiththebestself-controlaretypicallytheoneswhoneedtouseittheleast.It’seasiertopracticeself-restraintwhenyoudon’thavetouseitveryoften.So,yes,perseverance,grit,andwillpowerareessentialtosuccess,butthewaytoimprovethesequalitiesisnotbywishingyouwereamoredisciplinedperson,butbycreatingamoredisciplinedenvironment.

Thiscounterintuitiveideamakesevenmoresenseonceyouunderstandwhathappenswhenahabitisformedinthebrain.Ahabitthathasbeenencodedinthemindisreadytobeusedwhenevertherelevantsituationarises.WhenPattyOlwell,atherapistfromAustin,Texas,startedsmoking,shewouldoftenlightupwhileridinghorseswithafriend.Eventually,shequitsmokingandavoideditforyears.Shehadalsostoppedriding.Decadeslater,shehoppedonahorse

againandfoundherselfcravingacigaretteforthefirsttimeinforever.Thecueswerestillinternalized;shejusthadn’tbeenexposedtotheminalongtime.

Onceahabithasbeenencoded,theurgetoactfollowswhenevertheenvironmentalcuesreappear.Thisisonereasonbehaviorchangetechniquescanbackfire.Shamingobesepeoplewithweight-losspresentationscanmakethemfeelstressed,andasaresultmanypeoplereturntotheirfavoritecopingstrategy:overeating.Showingpicturesofblackenedlungstosmokersleadstohigherlevelsofanxiety,whichdrivesmanypeopletoreachforacigarette.Ifyou’renotcarefulaboutcues,youcancausetheverybehavioryouwanttostop.

Badhabitsareautocatalytic:theprocessfeedsitself.Theyfosterthefeelingstheytrytonumb.Youfeelbad,soyoueatjunkfood.Becauseyoueatjunkfood,youfeelbad.Watchingtelevisionmakesyoufeelsluggish,soyouwatchmoretelevisionbecauseyoudon’thavetheenergytodoanythingelse.Worryingaboutyourhealthmakesyoufeelanxious,whichcausesyoutosmoketoeaseyouranxiety,whichmakesyourhealthevenworseandsoonyou’refeelingmoreanxious.It’sadownwardspiral,arunawaytrainofbadhabits.

Researchersrefertothisphenomenonas“cue-inducedwanting”:anexternaltriggercausesacompulsivecravingtorepeatabadhabit.Onceyounoticesomething,youbegintowantit.Thisprocessishappeningallthetime—oftenwithoutusrealizingit.Scientistshavefoundthatshowingaddictsapictureofcocaineforjustthirty-threemillisecondsstimulatestherewardpathwayinthebrainandsparksdesire.Thisspeedistoofastforthebraintoconsciouslyregister—theaddictscouldn’teventellyouwhattheyhadseen—buttheycravedthedrugallthesame.

Here’sthepunchline:Youcanbreakahabit,butyou’reunlikelytoforgetit.Oncethementalgroovesofhabithavebeencarvedintoyourbrain,theyarenearlyimpossibletoremoveentirely—eveniftheygounusedforquiteawhile.Andthatmeansthatsimplyresistingtemptationisanineffectivestrategy.ItishardtomaintainaZenattitudeinalifefilledwithinterruptions.Ittakestoomuchenergy.Intheshort-run,youcanchoosetooverpowertemptation.Inthelong-run,webecomeaproductoftheenvironmentthatwelivein.Toputitbluntly,Ihaveneverseensomeoneconsistentlysticktopositivehabitsinanegativeenvironment.

Amorereliableapproachistocutbadhabitsoffatthesource.Oneofthemostpracticalwaystoeliminateabadhabitistoreduceexposuretothecuethatcausesit.

Ifyoucan’tseemtogetanyworkdone,leaveyourphoneinanotherroomforafewhours.

Ifyou’recontinuallyfeelinglikeyou’renotenough,stopfollowingsocialmediaaccountsthattriggerjealousyandenvy.

Ifyou’rewastingtoomuchtimewatchingtelevision,movetheTVoutofthebedroom.

Ifyou’respendingtoomuchmoneyonelectronics,quitreadingreviewsofthelatesttechgear.

Ifyou’replayingtoomanyvideogames,unplugtheconsoleandputitinaclosetaftereachuse.

Thispracticeisaninversionofthe1stLawofBehaviorChange.Ratherthanmakeitobvious,youcanmakeitinvisible.I’moftensurprisedbyhoweffectivesimplechangeslikethesecanbe.Removeasinglecueandtheentirehabitoftenfadesaway.

Self-controlisashort-termstrategy,notalong-termone.Youmaybeabletoresisttemptationonceortwice,butit’sunlikelyyoucanmusterthewillpowertooverrideyourdesireseverytime.Insteadofsummoninganewdoseofwillpowerwheneveryouwanttodotherightthing,yourenergywouldbebetterspentoptimizingyourenvironment.Thisisthesecrettoself-control.Makethecuesofyourgoodhabitsobviousandthecuesofyourbadhabitsinvisible.

ChapterSummaryTheinversionofthe1stLawofBehaviorChangeismakeitinvisible.

Onceahabitisformed,itisunlikelytobeforgotten.

Peoplewithhighself-controltendtospendlesstimeintemptingsituations.It’seasiertoavoidtemptationthanresistit.

Oneofthemostpracticalwaystoeliminateabadhabitistoreduceexposuretothecuethatcausesit.

Self-controlisashort-termstrategy,notalong-termone.

HOWTOCREATEAGOODHABIT

The1stLaw:MakeItObvious1.1:FillouttheHabitsScorecard.Writedownyourcurrenthabitstobecomeawareofthem.

1.2:Useimplementationintentions:“Iwill[BEHAVIOR]at[TIME]in[LOCATION].”1.3:Usehabitstacking:“After[CURRENTHABIT],Iwill[NEWHABIT].”

1.4:Designyourenvironment.Makethecuesofgoodhabitsobviousandvisible.The2ndLaw:MakeItAttractive

The3rdLaw:MakeItEasyThe4thLaw:MakeItSatisfying

HOWTOBREAKABADHABIT

Inversionofthe1stLaw:MakeItInvisible1.5:Reduceexposure.Removethecuesofyourbadhabitsfromyourenvironment.

Inversionofthe2ndLaw:MakeItUnattractiveInversionofthe3rdLaw:MakeItDifficult

Inversionofthe4thLaw:MakeItUnsatisfying

Youcandownloadaprintableversionofthishabitscheatsheetat:atomichabits.com/cheatsheet

THE2NDLAW

MakeItAttractive

HowtoMakeaHabitIrresistible

NTHE1940S,aDutchscientistnamedNikoTinbergenperformedaseriesofexperimentsthattransformedourunderstandingofwhat

motivatesus.Tinbergen—whoeventuallywonaNobelPrizeforhiswork—wasinvestigatingherringgulls,thegrayandwhitebirdsoftenseenflyingalongtheseashoresofNorthAmerica.

Adultherringgullshaveasmallreddotontheirbeak,andTinbergennoticedthatnewlyhatchedchickswouldpeckthisspotwhenevertheywantedfood.Tobeginoneexperiment,hecreatedacollectionoffakecardboardbeaks,justaheadwithoutabody.Whentheparentshadflownaway,hewentovertothenestandofferedthesedummybeakstothechicks.Thebeakswereobviousfakes,andheassumedthebabybirdswouldrejectthemaltogether.

However,whenthetinygullssawtheredspotonthecardboardbeak,theypeckedawayjustasifitwereattachedtotheirownmother.Theyhadaclearpreferenceforthoseredspots—asiftheyhadbeengeneticallyprogrammedatbirth.SoonTinbergendiscoveredthatthebiggertheredspot,thefasterthechickspecked.Eventually,hecreatedabeakwiththreelargereddotsonit.Whenheplaceditoverthenest,thebabybirdswentcrazywithdelight.Theypeckedatthelittleredpatchesasifitwasthegreatestbeaktheyhadeverseen.

Tinbergenandhiscolleaguesdiscoveredsimilarbehaviorinotheranimals.Forexample,thegreylaggooseisaground-nestingbird.Occasionally,asthemothermovesaroundonthenest,oneoftheeggswillrolloutandsettleonthegrassnearby.Wheneverthishappens,thegoosewillwaddleovertotheegganduseitsbeakandnecktopullitbackintothenest.

Tinbergendiscoveredthatthegoosewillpullanynearbyroundobject,suchasabilliardballoralightbulb,backintothenest.Thebiggertheobject,thegreatertheirresponse.Onegooseevenmadeatremendousefforttorollavolleyballbackandsitontop.Likethebabygullsautomaticallypeckingatreddots,thegreylaggoosewasfollowinganinstinctiverule:WhenIseearoundobjectnearby,Imustrollitbackintothenest.Thebiggertheroundobject,theharderIshouldtrytogetit.

It’slikethebrainofeachanimalispreloadedwithcertainrulesforbehavior,andwhenitcomesacrossanexaggeratedversionofthatrule,itlightsuplikeaChristmastree.Scientistsrefertotheseexaggeratedcuesassupernormalstimuli.Asupernormalstimulusisaheightenedversionofreality—likeabeakwiththreereddotsoraneggthesizeofavolleyball—anditelicitsastrongerresponsethanusual.

Humansarealsopronetofallforexaggeratedversionsofreality.Junkfood,forexample,drivesourrewardsystemsintoafrenzy.Afterspendinghundredsofthousandsofyearshuntingandforagingforfoodinthewild,thehumanbrainhasevolvedtoplaceahighvalueonsalt,sugar,andfat.Suchfoodsareoftencalorie-denseandtheywerequiterarewhenourancientancestorswereroamingthesavannah.Whenyoudon’tknowwhereyournextmealiscomingfrom,eatingasmuchaspossibleisanexcellentstrategyforsurvival.

Today,however,weliveinacalorie-richenvironment.Foodisabundant,butyourbraincontinuestocraveitlikeitisscarce.Placingahighvalueonsalt,sugar,andfatisnolongeradvantageoustoourhealth,butthecravingpersistsbecausethebrain’srewardcentershavenotchangedforapproximatelyfiftythousandyears.ThemodernfoodindustryreliesonstretchingourPaleolithicinstinctsbeyondtheirevolutionarypurpose.

Aprimarygoaloffoodscienceistocreateproductsthataremoreattractivetoconsumers.Nearlyeveryfoodinabag,box,orjarhasbeenenhancedinsomeway,ifonlywithadditionalflavoring.Companiesspendmillionsofdollarstodiscoverthemostsatisfyinglevelofcrunchinapotatochiportheperfectamountoffizzinasoda.Entiredepartmentsarededicatedtooptimizinghowaproductfeelsinyourmouth—aqualityknownasorosensation.Frenchfries,forexample,areapotentcombination—goldenbrownandcrunchyontheoutside,lightandsmoothontheinside.

Otherprocessedfoodsenhancedynamiccontrast,whichreferstoitemswithacombinationofsensations,likecrunchyandcreamy.Imaginethegooeynessofmeltedcheeseontopofacrispypizzacrust,orthecrunchofanOreocookiecombinedwithitssmoothcenter.Withnatural,unprocessedfoods,youtendtoexperiencethesamesensationsoverandover—how’sthatseventeenthbiteofkaletaste?Afterafewminutes,yourbrainlosesinterestandyoubegintofeelfull.Butfoodsthatarehighindynamiccontrastkeeptheexperiencenovelandinteresting,encouragingyoutoeatmore.

Ultimately,suchstrategiesenablefoodscientiststofindthe“blisspoint”foreachproduct—theprecisecombinationofsalt,sugar,andfatthatexcitesyourbrainandkeepsyoucomingbackformore.Theresult,ofcourse,isthatyouovereatbecausehyperpalatablefoodsaremoreattractivetothehumanbrain.AsStephanGuyenet,aneuroscientistwhospecializesineatingbehaviorandobesity,says,“We’vegottentoogoodatpushingourownbuttons.”

Themodernfoodindustry,andtheovereatinghabitsithasspawned,isjustoneexampleofthe2ndLawofBehaviorChange:Makeitattractive.Themoreattractiveanopportunityis,themorelikelyitistobecomehabit-forming.

Lookaround.Societyisfilledwithhighlyengineeredversionsofrealitythataremoreattractivethantheworldourancestorsevolvedin.Storesfeaturemannequinswithexaggeratedhipsandbreaststosellclothes.Socialmediadeliversmore“likes”andpraiseinafewminutesthanwecouldevergetintheofficeorathome.Onlinepornsplicestogetherstimulatingscenesataratethatwouldbeimpossibletoreplicateinreallife.Advertisementsarecreatedwithacombinationofideallighting,professionalmakeup,andPhotoshoppededits—eventhemodeldoesn’tlooklikethepersoninthefinalimage.Thesearethesupernormalstimuliofourmodernworld.Theyexaggeratefeaturesthatarenaturallyattractivetous,andourinstinctsgowildasaresult,drivingusintoexcessiveshoppinghabits,socialmediahabits,pornhabits,eatinghabits,andmanyothers.

Ifhistoryservesasaguide,theopportunitiesofthefuturewillbemoreattractivethanthoseoftoday.Thetrendisforrewardstobecomemoreconcentratedandstimulitobecomemoreenticing.Junkfoodisamoreconcentratedformofcaloriesthannaturalfoods.Hardliquorisamoreconcentratedformofalcoholthanbeer.Videogamesareamore

concentratedformofplaythanboardgames.Comparedtonature,thesepleasure-packedexperiencesarehardtoresist.Wehavethebrainsofourancestorsbuttemptationstheyneverhadtoface.

Ifyouwanttoincreasetheoddsthatabehaviorwilloccur,thenyouneedtomakeitattractive.Throughoutourdiscussionofthe2ndLaw,ourgoalistolearnhowtomakeourhabitsirresistible.Whileitisnotpossibletotransformeveryhabitintoasupernormalstimulus,wecanmakeanyhabitmoreenticing.Todothis,wemuststartbyunderstandingwhatacravingisandhowitworks.

Webeginbyexaminingabiologicalsignaturethatallhabitsshare—thedopaminespike.

THEDOPAMINE-DRIVENFEEDBACKLOOP

Scientistscantracktheprecisemomentacravingoccursbymeasuringaneurotransmittercalleddopamine.*Theimportanceofdopaminebecameapparentin1954whentheneuroscientistsJamesOldsandPeterMilnerrananexperimentthatrevealedtheneurologicalprocessesbehindcravinganddesire.Byimplantingelectrodesinthebrainsofrats,theresearchersblockedthereleaseofdopamine.Tothesurpriseofthescientists,theratslostallwilltolive.Theywouldn’teat.Theywouldn’thavesex.Theydidn’tcraveanything.Withinafewdays,theanimalsdiedofthirst.

Infollow-upstudies,otherscientistsalsoinhibitedthedopamine-releasingpartsofthebrain,butthistime,theysquirtedlittledropletsofsugarintothemouthsofthedopamine-depletedrats.Theirlittleratfaceslitupwithpleasurablegrinsfromthetastysubstance.Eventhoughdopaminewasblocked,theylikedthesugarjustasmuchasbefore;theyjustdidn’twantitanymore.Theabilitytoexperiencepleasureremained,butwithoutdopamine,desiredied.Andwithoutdesire,actionstopped.

Whenotherresearchersreversedthisprocessandfloodedtherewardsystemofthebrainwithdopamine,animalsperformedhabitsatbreakneckspeed.Inonestudy,micereceivedapowerfulhitofdopamineeachtimetheypokedtheirnoseinabox.Withinminutes,themicedevelopedacravingsostrongtheybeganpokingtheirnoseintotheboxeighthundredtimesperhour.(Humansarenotso

different:theaverageslotmachineplayerwillspinthewheelsixhundredtimesperhour.)

Habitsareadopamine-drivenfeedbackloop.Everybehaviorthatishighlyhabit-forming—takingdrugs,eatingjunkfood,playingvideogames,browsingsocialmedia—isassociatedwithhigherlevelsofdopamine.Thesamecanbesaidforourmostbasichabitualbehaviorslikeeatingfood,drinkingwater,havingsex,andinteractingsocially.

Foryears,scientistsassumeddopaminewasallaboutpleasure,butnowweknowitplaysacentralroleinmanyneurologicalprocesses,includingmotivation,learningandmemory,punishmentandaversion,andvoluntarymovement.

Whenitcomestohabits,thekeytakeawayisthis:dopamineisreleasednotonlywhenyouexperiencepleasure,butalsowhenyouanticipateit.Gamblingaddictshaveadopaminespikerightbeforetheyplaceabet,notaftertheywin.Cocaineaddictsgetasurgeofdopaminewhentheyseethepowder,notaftertheytakeit.Wheneveryoupredictthatanopportunitywillberewarding,yourlevelsofdopaminespikeinanticipation.Andwheneverdopaminerises,sodoesyourmotivationtoact.

Itistheanticipationofareward—notthefulfillmentofit—thatgetsustotakeaction.

Interestingly,therewardsystemthatisactivatedinthebrainwhenyoureceivearewardisthesamesystemthatisactivatedwhenyouanticipateareward.Thisisonereasontheanticipationofanexperiencecanoftenfeelbetterthantheattainmentofit.Asachild,thinkingaboutChristmasmorningcanbebetterthanopeningthegifts.Asanadult,daydreamingaboutanupcomingvacationcanbemoreenjoyablethanactuallybeingonvacation.Scientistsrefertothisasthedifferencebetween“wanting”and“liking.”

THEDOPAMINESPIKE

FIGURE9:Beforeahabitislearned(A),dopamineisreleasedwhentherewardisexperiencedforthefirsttime.Thenexttimearound(B),dopaminerisesbeforetakingaction,immediatelyafteracueisrecognized.Thisspikeleadstoafeelingofdesireandacravingtotakeactionwheneverthecueisspotted.Onceahabitislearned,dopaminewillnotrisewhenarewardisexperiencedbecauseyoualreadyexpectthereward.However,ifyouseeacueandexpectareward,butdonotgetone,thendopaminewilldropindisappointment(C).Thesensitivityofthedopamineresponsecanclearlybeseenwhenarewardisprovidedlate(D).First,thecueisidentifiedanddopaminerisesasacravingbuilds.Next,aresponseistakenbuttherewarddoesnotcomeasquicklyasexpectedanddopaminebeginstodrop.Finally,whentherewardcomesalittlelaterthanyouhadhoped,dopaminespikesagain.Itisasifthebrainissaying,“See!IknewIwasright.Don’tforgettorepeatthisactionnexttime.”

Yourbrainhasfarmoreneuralcircuitryallocatedforwantingrewardsthanforlikingthem.Thewantingcentersinthebrainarelarge:thebrainstem,thenucleusaccumbens,theventraltegmentalarea,thedorsalstriatum,theamygdala,andportionsoftheprefrontalcortex.Bycomparison,thelikingcentersofthebrainaremuchsmaller.Theyareoftenreferredtoas“hedonichotspots”andaredistributedliketinyislandsthroughoutthebrain.Forinstance,researchershavefoundthat100percentofthenucleusaccumbensisactivatedduringwanting.Meanwhile,only10percentofthestructureisactivatedduringliking.

Thefactthatthebrainallocatessomuchpreciousspacetotheregionsresponsibleforcravinganddesireprovidesfurtherevidenceofthecrucialroletheseprocessesplay.Desireistheenginethatdrivesbehavior.Everyactionistakenbecauseoftheanticipationthatprecedesit.Itisthecravingthatleadstotheresponse.

Theseinsightsrevealtheimportanceofthe2ndLawofBehaviorChange.Weneedtomakeourhabitsattractivebecauseitistheexpectationofarewardingexperiencethatmotivatesustoactinthefirstplace.Thisiswhereastrategyknownastemptationbundlingcomesintoplay.

HOWTOUSETEMPTATIONBUNDLINGTOMAKEYOURHABITSMOREATTRACTIVE

RonanByrne,anelectricalengineeringstudentinDublin,Ireland,enjoyedwatchingNetflix,buthealsoknewthatheshouldexercisemoreoftenthanhedid.Puttinghisengineeringskillstouse,Byrnehackedhisstationarybikeandconnectedittohislaptopandtelevision.ThenhewroteacomputerprogramthatwouldallowNetflixtorunonlyifhewascyclingatacertainspeed.Ifhesloweddownfortoolong,whatevershowhewaswatchingwouldpauseuntilhestartedpedalingagain.Hewas,inthewordsofonefan,“eliminatingobesityoneNetflixbingeatatime.”

Hewasalsoemployingtemptationbundlingtomakehisexercisehabitmoreattractive.Temptationbundlingworksbylinkinganactionyouwanttodowithanactionyouneedtodo.InByrne’scase,hebundledwatchingNetflix(thethinghewantedtodo)withridinghisstationarybike(thethingheneededtodo).

Businessesaremastersattemptationbundling.Forinstance,whentheAmericanBroadcastingCompany,morecommonlyknownasABC,launcheditsThursday-nighttelevisionlineupforthe2014–2015season,theypromotedtemptationbundlingonamassivescale.

EveryThursday,thecompanywouldairthreeshowscreatedbyscreenwriterShondaRhimes—Grey’sAnatomy,Scandal,andHowtoGetAwaywithMurder.Theybrandeditas“TGITonABC”(TGITstandsforThankGodIt’sThursday).Inadditiontopromotingtheshows,ABCencouragedviewerstomakepopcorn,drinkredwine,andenjoytheevening.

AndrewKubitz,headofschedulingforABC,describedtheideabehindthecampaign:“WeseeThursdaynightasaviewershipopportunity,witheithercouplesorwomenbythemselveswhowanttositdownandescapeandhavefunanddrinktheirredwineandhavesomepopcorn.”ThebrillianceofthisstrategyisthatABCwasassociatingthethingtheyneededviewerstodo(watchtheirshows)withactivitiestheirviewersalreadywantedtodo(relax,drinkwine,andeatpopcorn).

Overtime,peoplebegantoconnectwatchingABCwithfeelingrelaxedandentertained.Ifyoudrinkredwineandeatpopcornat8p.m.everyThursday,theneventually“8p.m.onThursday”meansrelaxationandentertainment.Therewardgetsassociatedwiththecue,andthehabitofturningonthetelevisionbecomesmoreattractive.

You’remorelikelytofindabehaviorattractiveifyougettodooneofyourfavoritethingsatthesametime.Perhapsyouwanttohearaboutthelatestcelebritygossip,butyouneedtogetinshape.Usingtemptationbundling,youcouldonlyreadthetabloidsandwatchrealityshowsatthegym.Maybeyouwanttogetapedicure,butyouneedtocleanoutyouremailinbox.Solution:onlygetapedicurewhileprocessingoverdueworkemails.

TemptationbundlingisonewaytoapplyapsychologytheoryknownasPremack’sPrinciple.NamedaftertheworkofprofessorDavidPremack,theprinciplestatesthat“moreprobablebehaviorswillreinforcelessprobablebehaviors.”Inotherwords,evenifyoudon’treallywanttoprocessoverdueworkemails,you’llbecomeconditionedtodoitifitmeansyougettodosomethingyoureallywanttodoalongtheway.

YoucanevencombinetemptationbundlingwiththehabitstackingstrategywediscussedinChapter5tocreateasetofrulestoguideyourbehavior.

Thehabitstacking+temptationbundlingformulais:

1. After[CURRENTHABIT],Iwill[HABITINEED].

2. After[HABITINEED],Iwill[HABITIWANT].

Ifyouwanttoreadthenews,butyouneedtoexpressmoregratitude:

1. AfterIgetmymorningcoffee,IwillsayonethingI’mgratefulforthathappenedyesterday(need).

2. AfterIsayonethingI’mgratefulfor,Iwillreadthenews(want).

Ifyouwanttowatchsports,butyouneedtomakesalescalls:

1. AfterIgetbackfrommylunchbreak,Iwillcallthreepotentialclients(need).

2. AfterIcallthreepotentialclients,IwillcheckESPN(want).

IfyouwanttocheckFacebook,butyouneedtoexercisemore:

1. AfterIpulloutmyphone,Iwilldotenburpees(need).

2. AfterIdotenburpees,IwillcheckFacebook(want).

Thehopeisthateventuallyyou’lllookforwardtocallingthreeclientsordoingtenburpeesbecauseitmeansyougettoreadthelatestsportsnewsorcheckFacebook.Doingthethingyouneedtodomeansyougettodothethingyouwanttodo.

Webeganthischapterbydiscussingsupernormalstimuli,whichareheightenedversionsofrealitythatincreaseourdesiretotakeaction.Temptationbundlingisonewaytocreateaheightenedversionofanyhabitbyconnectingitwithsomethingyoualreadywant.Engineeringatrulyirresistiblehabitisahardtask,butthissimplestrategycanbe

employedtomakenearlyanyhabitmoreattractivethanitwouldbeotherwise.

ChapterSummaryThe2ndLawofBehaviorChangeismakeitattractive.

Themoreattractiveanopportunityis,themorelikelyitistobecomehabit-forming.

Habitsareadopamine-drivenfeedbackloop.Whendopaminerises,sodoesourmotivationtoact.

Itistheanticipationofareward—notthefulfillmentofit—thatgetsustotakeaction.Thegreatertheanticipation,thegreaterthedopaminespike.

Temptationbundlingisonewaytomakeyourhabitsmoreattractive.Thestrategyistopairanactionyouwanttodowithanactionyouneedtodo.

TheRoleofFamilyandFriendsinShapingYourHabits

N1965,aHungarianmannamedLaszloPolgarwroteaseriesofstrangeletterstoawomannamedKlara.

Laszlowasafirmbelieverinhardwork.Infact,itwasallhebelievedin:hecompletelyrejectedtheideaofinnatetalent.Heclaimedthatwithdeliberatepracticeandthedevelopmentofgoodhabits,achildcouldbecomeageniusinanyfield.Hismantrawas“Ageniusisnotborn,butiseducatedandtrained.”

Laszlobelievedinthisideasostronglythathewantedtotestitwithhisownchildren—andhewaswritingtoKlarabecausehe“neededawifewillingtojumponboard.”Klarawasateacherand,althoughshemaynothavebeenasadamantasLaszlo,shealsobelievedthatwithproperinstruction,anyonecouldadvancetheirskills.

Laszlodecidedchesswouldbeasuitablefieldfortheexperiment,andhelaidoutaplantoraisehischildrentobecomechessprodigies.Thekidswouldbehome-schooled,ararityinHungaryatthetime.Thehousewouldbefilledwithchessbooksandpicturesoffamouschessplayers.Thechildrenwouldplayagainsteachotherconstantlyandcompeteinthebesttournamentstheycouldfind.Thefamilywouldkeepameticulousfilesystemofthetournamenthistoryofeverycompetitorthechildrenfaced.Theirliveswouldbededicatedtochess.

LaszlosuccessfullycourtedKlara,andwithinafewyears,thePolgarswereparentstothreeyounggirls:Susan,Sofia,andJudit.

Susan,theoldest,beganplayingchesswhenshewasfouryearsold.Withinsixmonths,shewasdefeatingadults.

Sofia,themiddlechild,didevenbetter.Byfourteen,shewasaworldchampion,andafewyearslater,shebecameagrandmaster.

Judit,theyoungest,wasthebestofall.Byagefive,shecouldbeatherfather.Attwelve,shewastheyoungestplayereverlistedamongthetoponehundredchessplayersintheworld.Atfifteenyearsandfourmonthsold,shebecametheyoungestgrandmasterofalltime—youngerthanBobbyFischer,thepreviousrecordholder.Fortwenty-sevenyears,shewasthenumber-one-rankedfemalechessplayerintheworld.

ThechildhoodofthePolgarsisterswasatypical,tosaytheleast.Andyet,ifyouaskthemaboutit,theyclaimtheirlifestylewasattractive,evenenjoyable.Ininterviews,thesisterstalkabouttheirchildhoodasentertainingratherthangrueling.Theylovedplayingchess.Theycouldn’tgetenoughofit.Once,LaszloreportedlyfoundSofiaplayingchessinthebathroominthemiddleofthenight.Encouraginghertogobacktosleep,hesaid,“Sofia,leavethepiecesalone!”Towhichshereplied,“Daddy,theywon’tleavemealone!”

ThePolgarsistersgrewupinaculturethatprioritizedchessaboveallelse—praisedthemforit,rewardedthemforit.Intheirworld,anobsessionwithchesswasnormal.Andasweareabouttosee,whateverhabitsarenormalinyourcultureareamongthemostattractivebehaviorsyou’llfind.

THESEDUCTIVEPULLOFSOCIALNORMS

Humansareherdanimals.Wewanttofitin,tobondwithothers,andtoearntherespectandapprovalofourpeers.Suchinclinationsareessentialtooursurvival.Formostofourevolutionaryhistory,ourancestorslivedintribes.Becomingseparatedfromthetribe—orworse,beingcastout—wasadeathsentence.“Thelonewolfdies,butthepacksurvives.”*

Meanwhile,thosewhocollaboratedandbondedwithothersenjoyedincreasedsafety,matingopportunities,andaccesstoresources.AsCharlesDarwinnoted,“Inthelonghistoryofhumankind,thosewholearnedtocollaborateandimprovisemosteffectivelyhaveprevailed.”Asaresult,oneofthedeepesthumandesiresistobelong.Andthisancientpreferenceexertsapowerfulinfluenceonourmodernbehavior.

Wedon’tchooseourearliesthabits,weimitatethem.Wefollowthescripthandeddownbyourfriendsandfamily,ourchurchorschool,ourlocalcommunityandsocietyatlarge.Eachoftheseculturesandgroupscomeswithitsownsetofexpectationsandstandards—whenandwhethertogetmarried,howmanychildrentohave,whichholidaystocelebrate,howmuchmoneytospendonyourchild’sbirthdayparty.Inmanyways,thesesocialnormsaretheinvisiblerulesthatguideyourbehavioreachday.You’realwayskeepingtheminmind,eveniftheyareatthenottopofyourmind.Often,youfollowthehabitsofyourculturewithoutthinking,withoutquestioning,andsometimeswithoutremembering.AstheFrenchphilosopherMicheldeMontaignewrote,“Thecustomsandpracticesoflifeinsocietysweepusalong.”

Mostofthetime,goingalongwiththegroupdoesnotfeellikeaburden.Everyonewantstobelong.Ifyougrowupinafamilythatrewardsyouforyourchessskills,playingchesswillseemlikeaveryattractivethingtodo.Ifyouworkinajobwhereeveryonewearsexpensivesuits,thenyou’llbeinclinedtosplurgeononeaswell.Ifallofyourfriendsaresharinganinsidejokeorusinganewphrase,you’llwanttodoit,too,sotheyknowthatyou“getit.”Behaviorsareattractivewhentheyhelpusfitin.

Weimitatethehabitsofthreegroupsinparticular:

1. Theclose.

2. Themany.

3. Thepowerful.

Eachgroupoffersanopportunitytoleveragethe2ndLawofBehaviorChangeandmakeourhabitsmoreattractive.

1.ImitatingtheClose

Proximityhasapowerfuleffectonourbehavior.Thisistrueofthephysicalenvironment,aswediscussedinChapter6,butitisalsotrueofthesocialenvironment.

Wepickuphabitsfromthepeoplearoundus.Wecopythewayourparentshandlearguments,thewayourpeersflirtwithoneanother,

thewayourcoworkersgetresults.Whenyourfriendssmokepot,yougiveitatry,too.Whenyourwifehasahabitofdouble-checkingthatthedoorislockedbeforegoingtobed,youpickitupaswell.

IfindthatIoftenimitatethebehaviorofthosearoundmewithoutrealizingit.Inconversation,I’llautomaticallyassumethebodypostureoftheotherperson.Incollege,Ibegantotalklikemyroommates.Whentravelingtoothercountries,Iunconsciouslyimitatethelocalaccentdespiteremindingmyselftostop.

Asageneralrule,thecloserwearetosomeone,themorelikelywearetoimitatesomeoftheirhabits.Onegroundbreakingstudytrackedtwelvethousandpeopleforthirty-twoyearsandfoundthat“aperson’schancesofbecomingobeseincreasedby57percentifheorshehadafriendwhobecameobese.”Itworkstheotherway,too.Anotherstudyfoundthatifonepersoninarelationshiplostweight,theotherpartnerwouldalsoslimdownaboutonethirdofthetime.Ourfriendsandfamilyprovideasortofinvisiblepeerpressurethatpullsusintheirdirection.

Ofcourse,peerpressureisbadonlyifyou’resurroundedbybadinfluences.WhenastronautMikeMassiminowasagraduatestudentatMIT,hetookasmallroboticsclass.Ofthetenpeopleintheclass,fourbecameastronauts.Ifyourgoalwastomakeitintospace,thenthatroomwasaboutthebestcultureyoucouldaskfor.Similarly,onestudyfoundthatthehigheryourbestfriend’sIQatageelevenortwelve,thehigheryourIQwouldbeatagefifteen,evenaftercontrollingfornaturallevelsofintelligence.Wesoakupthequalitiesandpracticesofthosearoundus.

Oneofthemosteffectivethingsyoucandotobuildbetterhabitsistojoinaculturewhereyourdesiredbehavioristhenormalbehavior.Newhabitsseemachievablewhenyouseeothersdoingthemeveryday.Ifyouaresurroundedbyfitpeople,you’remorelikelytoconsiderworkingouttobeacommonhabit.Ifyou’resurroundedbyjazzlovers,you’remorelikelytobelieveit’sreasonabletoplayjazzeveryday.Yourculturesetsyourexpectationforwhatis“normal.”Surroundyourselfwithpeoplewhohavethehabitsyouwanttohaveyourself.You’llrisetogether.

Tomakeyourhabitsevenmoreattractive,youcantakethisstrategyonestepfurther.

Joinaculturewhere(1)yourdesiredbehavioristhenormalbehaviorand(2)youalreadyhavesomethingincommonwiththegroup.SteveKamb,anentrepreneurinNewYorkCity,runsacompanycalledNerdFitness,which“helpsnerds,misfits,andmutantsloseweight,getstrong,andgethealthy.”Hisclientsincludevideogamelovers,moviefanatics,andaverageJoeswhowanttogetinshape.Manypeoplefeeloutofplacethefirsttimetheygotothegymortrytochangetheirdiet,butifyouarealreadysimilartotheothermembersofthegroupinsomeway—say,yourmutualloveofStarWars—changebecomesmoreappealingbecauseitfeelslikesomethingpeoplelikeyoualreadydo.

Nothingsustainsmotivationbetterthanbelongingtothetribe.Ittransformsapersonalquestintoasharedone.Previously,youwereonyourown.Youridentitywassingular.Youareareader.Youareamusician.Youareanathlete.Whenyoujoinabookcluborabandoracyclinggroup,youridentitybecomeslinkedtothosearoundyou.Growthandchangeisnolongeranindividualpursuit.Wearereaders.Wearemusicians.Wearecyclists.Thesharedidentitybeginstoreinforceyourpersonalidentity.Thisiswhyremainingpartofagroupafterachievingagoaliscrucialtomaintainingyourhabits.It’sfriendshipandcommunitythatembedanewidentityandhelpbehaviorslastoverthelongrun.

2.ImitatingtheMany

Inthe1950s,psychologistSolomonAschconductedaseriesofexperimentsthatarenowtaughttolegionsofundergradseachyear.Tobegineachexperiment,thesubjectenteredtheroomwithagroupofstrangers.Unbeknownsttothem,theotherparticipantswereactorsplantedbytheresearcherandinstructedtodeliverscriptedanswerstocertainquestions.

Thegroupwouldbeshownonecardwithalineonitandthenasecondcardwithaseriesoflines.Eachpersonwasaskedtoselectthelineonthesecondcardthatwassimilarinlengthtothelineonthefirstcard.Itwasaverysimpletask.Hereisanexampleoftwocardsusedintheexperiment:

CONFORMINGTOSOCIALNORMS

FIGURE10:ThisisarepresentationoftwocardsusedbySolomonAschinhisfamoussocialconformityexperiments.Thelengthofthelineonthefirstcard(left)isobviouslythesameaslineC,butwhenagroupofactorsclaimeditwasadifferentlengththeresearchsubjectswouldoftenchangetheirmindsandgowiththecrowdratherthanbelievetheirowneyes.

Theexperimentalwaysbeganthesame.First,therewouldbesomeeasytrialswhereeveryoneagreedonthecorrectline.Afterafewrounds,theparticipantswereshownatestthatwasjustasobviousasthepreviousones,excepttheactorsintheroomwouldselectanintentionallyincorrectanswer.Forexample,theywouldrespond“A”tothecomparisonshowninFigure10.Everyonewouldagreethatthelineswerethesameeventhoughtheywereclearlydifferent.

Thesubject,whowasunawareoftheruse,wouldimmediatelybecomebewildered.Theireyeswouldopenwide.Theywouldlaughnervouslytothemselves.Theywoulddouble-checkthereactionsofotherparticipants.Theiragitationwouldgrowasonepersonafteranotherdeliveredthesameincorrectresponse.Soon,thesubjectbegantodoubttheirowneyes.Eventually,theydeliveredtheanswertheyknewintheirhearttobeincorrect.

Aschranthisexperimentmanytimesandinmanydifferentways.Whathediscoveredwasthatasthenumberofactorsincreased,sodidtheconformityofthesubject.Ifitwasjustthesubjectandoneactor,thentherewasnoeffectontheperson’schoice.Theyjustassumedtheywereintheroomwithadummy.Whentwoactorswereintheroomwiththesubject,therewasstilllittleimpact.Butasthenumberofpeopleincreasedtothreeactorsandfourandallthewaytoeight,thesubjectbecamemorelikelytosecond-guessthemselves.Bytheendoftheexperiment,nearly75percentofthesubjectshadagreedwiththegroupanswereventhoughitwasobviouslyincorrect.

Wheneverweareunsurehowtoact,welooktothegrouptoguideourbehavior.Weareconstantlyscanningourenvironmentandwondering,“Whatiseveryoneelsedoing?”WecheckreviewsonAmazonorYelporTripAdvisorbecausewewanttoimitatethe“best”buying,eating,andtravelhabits.It’susuallyasmartstrategy.Thereisevidenceinnumbers.

Buttherecanbeadownside.

Thenormalbehaviorofthetribeoftenoverpowersthedesiredbehavioroftheindividual.Forexample,onestudyfoundthatwhenachimpanzeelearnsaneffectivewaytocracknutsopenasamemberofonegroupandthenswitchestoanewgroupthatusesalesseffectivestrategy,itwillavoidusingthesuperiornutcrackingmethodjusttoblendinwiththerestofthechimps.

Humansaresimilar.Thereistremendousinternalpressuretocomplywiththenormsofthegroup.Therewardofbeingacceptedisoftengreaterthantherewardofwinninganargument,lookingsmart,orfindingtruth.Mostdays,we’dratherbewrongwiththecrowdthanberightbyourselves.

Thehumanmindknowshowtogetalongwithothers.Itwantstogetalongwithothers.Thisisournaturalmode.Youcanoverrideit—youcanchoosetoignorethegrouportostopcaringwhatotherpeoplethink—butittakeswork.Runningagainstthegrainofyourculturerequiresextraeffort.

Whenchangingyourhabitsmeanschallengingthetribe,changeisunattractive.Whenchangingyourhabitsmeansfittinginwiththetribe,changeisveryattractive.

3.ImitatingthePowerful

Humanseverywherepursuepower,prestige,andstatus.Wewantpinsandmedallionsonourjackets.WewantPresidentorPartnerinourtitles.Wewanttobeacknowledged,recognized,andpraised.Thistendencycanseemvain,butoverall,it’sasmartmove.Historically,apersonwithgreaterpowerandstatushasaccesstomoreresources,worrieslessaboutsurvival,andprovestobeamoreattractivemate.

Wearedrawntobehaviorsthatearnusrespect,approval,admiration,andstatus.Wewanttobetheoneinthegymwhocandomuscle-upsorthemusicianwhocanplaythehardestchordprogressionsortheparentwiththemostaccomplishedchildrenbecausethesethingsseparateusfromthecrowd.Oncewefitin,westartlookingforwaystostandout.

Thisisonereasonwecaresomuchaboutthehabitsofhighlyeffectivepeople.Wetrytocopythebehaviorofsuccessfulpeoplebecausewedesiresuccessourselves.Manyofourdailyhabitsareimitationsofpeopleweadmire.Youreplicatethemarketingstrategiesofthemostsuccessfulfirmsinyourindustry.Youmakearecipefromyourfavoritebaker.Youborrowthestorytellingstrategiesofyourfavoritewriter.Youmimicthecommunicationstyleofyourboss.Weimitatepeopleweenvy.

High-statuspeopleenjoytheapproval,respect,andpraiseofothers.Andthatmeansifabehaviorcangetusapproval,respect,andpraise,wefinditattractive.

Wearealsomotivatedtoavoidbehaviorsthatwouldlowerourstatus.Wetrimourhedgesandmowourlawnbecausewedon’twanttobethesloboftheneighborhood.Whenourmothercomestovisit,wecleanupthehousebecausewedon’twanttobejudged.Wearecontinuallywondering“Whatwillothersthinkofme?”andalteringourbehaviorbasedontheanswer.

ThePolgarsisters—thechessprodigiesmentionedatthebeginningofthischapter—areevidenceofthepowerfulandlastingimpactsocialinfluencescanhaveonourbehavior.Thesisterspracticedchessformanyhourseachdayandcontinuedthisremarkableeffortfordecades.Butthesehabitsandbehaviorsmaintainedtheirattractiveness,inpart,becausetheywerevaluedbytheirculture.Fromthepraiseoftheir

parentstotheachievementofdifferentstatusmarkerslikebecomingagrandmaster,theyhadmanyreasonstocontinuetheireffort.

ChapterSummaryThecultureweliveindetermineswhichbehaviorsareattractivetous.

Wetendtoadopthabitsthatarepraisedandapprovedofbyourculturebecausewehaveastrongdesiretofitinandbelongtothetribe.

Wetendtoimitatethehabitsofthreesocialgroups:theclose(familyandfriends),themany(thetribe),andthepowerful(thosewithstatusandprestige).

Oneofthemosteffectivethingsyoucandotobuildbetterhabitsistojoinaculturewhere(1)yourdesiredbehavioristhenormalbehaviorand(2)youalreadyhavesomethingincommonwiththegroup.

Thenormalbehaviorofthetribeoftenoverpowersthedesiredbehavioroftheindividual.Mostdays,we’dratherbewrongwiththecrowdthanberightbyourselves.

Ifabehaviorcangetusapproval,respect,andpraise,wefinditattractive.

HowtoFindandFixtheCausesofYourBadHabits

NLATE2012,IwassittinginanoldapartmentjustafewblocksfromIstanbul’smostfamousstreet,IstiklalCaddesi.Iwasinthemiddleof

afour-daytriptoTurkeyandmyguide,Mike,wasrelaxinginaworn-outarmchairafewfeetaway.

Mikewasn’treallyaguide.HewasjustaguyfromMainewhohadbeenlivinginTurkeyforfiveyears,butheofferedtoshowmearoundwhileIwasvisitingthecountryandItookhimuponit.Onthisparticularnight,IhadbeeninvitedtodinnerwithhimandahandfulofhisTurkishfriends.

Thereweresevenofus,andIwastheonlyonewhohadn’t,atsomepoint,smokedatleastonepackofcigarettesperday.IaskedoneoftheTurkshowhegotstarted.“Friends,”hesaid.“Italwaysstartswithyourfriends.Onefriendsmokes,thenyoutryit.”

Whatwastrulyfascinatingwasthathalfofthepeopleintheroomhadmanagedtoquitsmoking.Mikehadbeensmoke-freeforafewyearsatthatpoint,andhesworeupanddownthathebrokethehabitbecauseofabookcalledAllenCarr’sEasyWaytoStopSmoking.

“Itfreesyoufromthementalburdenofsmoking,”hesaid.“Ittellsyou:‘Stoplyingtoyourself.Youknowyoudon’tactuallywanttosmoke.Youknowyoudon’treallyenjoythis.’Ithelpsyoufeellikeyou’renotthevictimanymore.Youstarttorealizethatyoudon’tneedtosmoke.”

Ihadnevertriedacigarette,butItookalookatthebookafterwardoutofcuriosity.Theauthoremploysaninterestingstrategytohelp

smokerseliminatetheircravings.Hesystematicallyreframeseachcueassociatedwithsmokingandgivesitanewmeaning.

Hesaysthingslike:

Youthinkyouarequittingsomething,butyou’renotquittinganythingbecausecigarettesdonothingforyou.

Youthinksmokingissomethingyouneedtodotobesocial,butit’snot.Youcanbesocialwithoutsmokingatall.

Youthinksmokingisaboutrelievingstress,butit’snot.Smokingdoesnotrelieveyournerves,itdestroysthem.

Overandover,herepeatsthesephrasesandotherslikethem.“Getitclearlyintoyourmind,”hesays.“Youarelosingnothingandyouaremakingmarvelouspositivegainsnotonlyinhealth,energyandmoneybutalsoinconfidence,self-respect,freedomand,mostimportantofall,inthelengthandqualityofyourfuturelife.”

Bythetimeyougettotheendofthebook,smokingseemslikethemostridiculousthingintheworldtodo.Andifyounolongerexpectsmokingtobringyouanybenefits,youhavenoreasontosmoke.Itisaninversionofthe2ndLawofBehaviorChange:makeitunattractive.

Now,Iknowthisideamightsoundoverlysimplistic.Justchangeyourmindandyoucanquitsmoking.Butstickwithmeforaminute.

WHERECRAVINGSCOMEFROM

Everybehaviorhasasurfacelevelcravingandadeeper,underlyingmotive.Ioftenhaveacravingthatgoessomethinglikethis:“Iwanttoeattacos.”IfyouweretoaskmewhyIwanttoeattacos,Iwouldn’tsay,“BecauseIneedfoodtosurvive.”Butthetruthis,somewheredeepdown,IammotivatedtoeattacosbecauseIhavetoeattosurvive.Theunderlyingmotiveistoobtainfoodandwaterevenifmyspecificcravingisforataco.

Someofourunderlyingmotivesinclude:*

Conserveenergy

Obtainfoodandwater

Findloveandreproduce

Connectandbondwithothers

Winsocialacceptanceandapproval

Reduceuncertainty

Achievestatusandprestige

Acravingisjustaspecificmanifestationofadeeperunderlyingmotive.YourbraindidnotevolvewithadesiretosmokecigarettesortocheckInstagramortoplayvideogames.Atadeeplevel,yousimplywanttoreduceuncertaintyandrelieveanxiety,towinsocialacceptanceandapproval,ortoachievestatus.

Lookatnearlyanyproductthatishabit-formingandyou’llseethatitdoesnotcreateanewmotivation,butratherlatchesontotheunderlyingmotivesofhumannature.

Findloveandreproduce=usingTinder

Connectandbondwithothers=browsingFacebook

Winsocialacceptanceandapproval=postingonInstagram

Reduceuncertainty=searchingonGoogle

Achievestatusandprestige=playingvideogames

Yourhabitsaremodern-daysolutionstoancientdesires.Newversionsofoldvices.Theunderlyingmotivesbehindhumanbehaviorremainthesame.Thespecifichabitsweperformdifferbasedontheperiodofhistory.

Here’sthepowerfulpart:therearemanydifferentwaystoaddressthesameunderlyingmotive.Onepersonmightlearntoreducestressbysmokingacigarette.Anotherpersonlearnstoeasetheiranxietybygoingforarun.Yourcurrenthabitsarenotnecessarilythebestwaytosolvetheproblemsyouface;theyarejustthemethodsyoulearnedtouse.Onceyouassociateasolutionwiththeproblemyouneedtosolve,youkeepcomingbacktoit.

Habitsareallaboutassociations.Theseassociationsdeterminewhetherwepredictahabittobeworthrepeatingornot.Aswecoveredinourdiscussionofthe1stLaw,yourbrainiscontinuallyabsorbing

informationandnoticingcuesintheenvironment.Everytimeyouperceiveacue,yourbrainrunsasimulationandmakesapredictionaboutwhattodointhenextmoment.

Cue:Younoticethatthestoveishot.

Prediction:IfItouchitI’llgetburned,soIshouldavoidtouchingit.

Cue:Youseethatthetrafficlightturnedgreen.

Prediction:IfIsteponthegas,I’llmakeitsafelythroughtheintersectionandgetclosertomydestination,soIshouldsteponthegas.

Youseeacue,categorizeitbasedonpastexperience,anddeterminetheappropriateresponse.

Thisallhappensinaninstant,butitplaysacrucialroleinyourhabitsbecauseeveryactionisprecededbyaprediction.Lifefeelsreactive,butitisactuallypredictive.Alldaylong,youaremakingyourbestguessofhowtoactgivenwhatyou’vejustseenandwhathasworkedforyouinthepast.Youareendlesslypredictingwhatwillhappeninthenextmoment.

Ourbehaviorisheavilydependentonthesepredictions.Putanotherway,ourbehaviorisheavilydependentonhowweinterprettheeventsthathappentous,notnecessarilytheobjectiverealityoftheeventsthemselves.Twopeoplecanlookatthesamecigarette,andonefeelstheurgetosmokewhiletheotherisrepulsedbythesmell.Thesamecuecansparkagoodhabitorabadhabitdependingonyourprediction.Thecauseofyourhabitsisactuallythepredictionthatprecedesthem.

Thesepredictionsleadtofeelings,whichishowwetypicallydescribeacraving—afeeling,adesire,anurge.Feelingsandemotionstransformthecuesweperceiveandthepredictionswemakeintoasignalthatwecanapply.Theyhelpexplainwhatwearecurrentlysensing.Forinstance,whetherornotyourealizeit,youarenoticinghowwarmorcoldyoufeelrightnow.Ifthetemperaturedropsbyonedegree,youprobablywon’tdoanything.Ifthetemperaturedropstendegrees,however,you’llfeelcoldandputonanotherlayerofclothing.Feelingcoldwasthesignalthatpromptedyoutoact.Youhavebeensensingthecuestheentiretime,butitisonlywhenyoupredictthatyouwouldbebetteroffinadifferentstatethatyoutakeaction.

Acravingisthesensethatsomethingismissing.Itisthedesiretochangeyourinternalstate.Whenthetemperaturefalls,thereisagapbetweenwhatyourbodyiscurrentlysensingandwhatitwantstobesensing.Thisgapbetweenyourcurrentstateandyourdesiredstateprovidesareasontoact.

Desireisthedifferencebetweenwhereyouarenowandwhereyouwanttobeinthefuture.Eventhetiniestactionistingedwiththemotivationtofeeldifferentlythanyoudointhemoment.Whenyoubinge-eatorlightuporbrowsesocialmedia,whatyoureallywantisnotapotatochiporacigaretteorabunchoflikes.Whatyoureallywantistofeeldifferent.

Ourfeelingsandemotionstelluswhethertoholdsteadyinourcurrentstateortomakeachange.Theyhelpusdecidethebestcourseofaction.Neurologistshavediscoveredthatwhenemotionsandfeelingsareimpaired,weactuallylosetheabilitytomakedecisions.Wehavenosignalofwhattopursueandwhattoavoid.AstheneuroscientistAntonioDamasioexplains,“Itisemotionthatallowsyoutomarkthingsasgood,bad,orindifferent.”

Tosummarize,thespecificcravingsyoufeelandhabitsyouperformarereallyanattempttoaddressyourfundamentalunderlyingmotives.Wheneverahabitsuccessfullyaddressesamotive,youdevelopacravingtodoitagain.Intime,youlearntopredictthatcheckingsocialmediawillhelpyoufeellovedorthatwatchingYouTubewillallowyoutoforgetyourfears.Habitsareattractivewhenweassociatethemwithpositivefeelings,andwecanusethisinsighttoouradvantageratherthantoourdetriment.

HOWTOREPROGRAMYOURBRAINTOENJOYHARDHABITS

Youcanmakehardhabitsmoreattractiveifyoucanlearntoassociatethemwithapositiveexperience.Sometimes,allyouneedisaslightmind-setshift.Forinstance,weoftentalkabouteverythingwehavetodoinagivenday.Youhavetowakeupearlyforwork.Youhavetomakeanothersalescallforyourbusiness.Youhavetocookdinnerforyourfamily.

Now,imaginechangingjustoneword:Youdon’t“have”to.You“get”to.

Yougettowakeupearlyforwork.Yougettomakeanothersalescallforyourbusiness.Yougettocookdinnerforyourfamily.Bysimplychangingoneword,youshiftthewayyouvieweachevent.Youtransitionfromseeingthesebehaviorsasburdensandturnthemintoopportunities.

Thekeypointisthatbothversionsofrealityaretrue.Youhavetodothosethings,andyoualsogettodothem.Wecanfindevidenceforwhatevermind-setwechoose.

Ionceheardastoryaboutamanwhousesawheelchair.Whenaskedifitwasdifficultbeingconfined,heresponded,“I’mnotconfinedtomywheelchair—Iamliberatedbyit.Ifitwasn’tformywheelchair,Iwouldbebed-boundandneverabletoleavemyhouse.”Thisshiftinperspectivecompletelytransformedhowhelivedeachday.

Reframingyourhabitstohighlighttheirbenefitsratherthantheirdrawbacksisafastandlightweightwaytoreprogramyourmindandmakeahabitseemmoreattractive.

Exercise.Manypeopleassociateexercisewithbeingachallengingtaskthatdrainsenergyandwearsyoudown.Youcanjustaseasilyviewitasawaytodevelopskillsandbuildyouup.Insteadoftellingyourself“Ineedtogoruninthemorning,”say“It’stimetobuildenduranceandgetfast.”

Finance.Savingmoneyisoftenassociatedwithsacrifice.However,youcanassociateitwithfreedomratherthanlimitationifyourealizeonesimpletruth:livingbelowyourcurrentmeansincreasesyourfuturemeans.Themoneyyousavethismonthincreasesyourpurchasingpowernextmonth.

Meditation.Anyonewhohastriedmeditationformorethanthreesecondsknowshowfrustratingitcanbewhenthenextdistractioninevitablypopsintoyourmind.Youcantransformfrustrationintodelightwhenyourealizethateachinterruptiongivesyouachancetopracticereturningtoyourbreath.Distractionisagoodthingbecauseyouneeddistractionstopracticemeditation.

Pregamejitters.Manypeoplefeelanxiousbeforedeliveringabigpresentationorcompetinginanimportantevent.Theyexperiencequickerbreathing,afasterheartrate,heightenedarousal.Ifweinterpretthesefeelingsnegatively,thenwefeelthreatenedandtenseup.Ifweinterpretthesefeelingspositively,thenwecanrespondwith

fluidityandgrace.Youcanreframe“Iamnervous”to“IamexcitedandI’mgettinganadrenalinerushtohelpmeconcentrate.”

Theselittlemind-setshiftsaren’tmagic,buttheycanhelpchangethefeelingsyouassociatewithaparticularhabitorsituation.

Ifyouwanttotakeitastepfurther,youcancreateamotivationritual.Yousimplypracticeassociatingyourhabitswithsomethingyouenjoy,thenyoucanusethatcuewheneveryouneedabitofmotivation.Forinstance,ifyoualwaysplaythesamesongbeforehavingsex,thenyou’llbegintolinkthemusicwiththeact.Wheneveryouwanttogetinthemood,justpressplay.

EdLatimore,aboxerandwriterfromPittsburgh,benefitedfromasimilarstrategywithoutknowingit.“Oddrealization,”hewrote.“Myfocusandconcentrationgoesupjustbyputtingmyheadphones[on]whilewriting.Idon’tevenhavetoplayanymusic.”Withoutrealizingit,hewasconditioninghimself.Inthebeginning,heputhisheadphoneson,playedsomemusicheenjoyed,anddidfocusedwork.Afterdoingitfive,ten,twentytimes,puttinghisheadphonesonbecameacuethatheautomaticallyassociatedwithincreasedfocus.Thecravingfollowednaturally.

Athletesusesimilarstrategiestogetthemselvesinthemind-settoperform.Duringmybaseballcareer,Idevelopedaspecificritualofstretchingandthrowingbeforeeachgame.Thewholesequencetookabouttenminutes,andIdiditthesamewayeverysingletime.Whileitphysicallywarmedmeuptoplay,moreimportantly,itputmeintherightmentalstate.Ibegantoassociatemypregameritualwithfeelingcompetitiveandfocused.EvenifIwasn’tmotivatedbeforehand,bythetimeIwasdonewithmyritual,Iwasin“gamemode.”

Youcanadaptthisstrategyfornearlyanypurpose.Sayyouwanttofeelhappieringeneral.Findsomethingthatmakesyoutrulyhappy—likepettingyourdogortakingabubblebath—andthencreateashortroutinethatyouperformeverytimebeforeyoudothethingyoulove.Maybeyoutakethreedeepbreathsandsmile.

Threedeepbreaths.Smile.Petthedog.Repeat.

Eventually,you’llbegintoassociatethisbreathe-and-smileroutinewithbeinginagoodmood.Itbecomesacuethatmeansfeelinghappy.Onceestablished,youcanbreakitoutanytimeyouneedtochangeyouremotionalstate.Stressedatwork?Takethreedeepbreathsand

smile.Sadaboutlife?Threedeepbreathsandsmile.Onceahabithasbeenbuilt,thecuecanpromptacraving,evenifithaslittletodowiththeoriginalsituation.

Thekeytofindingandfixingthecausesofyourbadhabitsistoreframetheassociationsyouhaveaboutthem.It’snoteasy,butifyoucanreprogramyourpredictions,youcantransformahardhabitintoanattractiveone.

ChapterSummaryTheinversionofthe2ndLawofBehaviorChangeismakeitunattractive.

Everybehaviorhasasurfacelevelcravingandadeeperunderlyingmotive.

Yourhabitsaremodern-daysolutionstoancientdesires.

Thecauseofyourhabitsisactuallythepredictionthatprecedesthem.Thepredictionleadstoafeeling.

Highlightthebenefitsofavoidingabadhabittomakeitseemunattractive.

Habitsareattractivewhenweassociatethemwithpositivefeelingsandunattractivewhenweassociatethemwithnegativefeelings.Createamotivationritualbydoingsomethingyouenjoyimmediatelybeforeadifficulthabit.

The1stLaw:MakeItObvious1.1:FillouttheHabitsScorecard.Writedownyourcurrenthabitstobecomeawareofthem.1.2:Useimplementationintentions:“Iwill[BEHAVIOR]at[TIME]in[LOCATION].”1.3:Usehabitstacking:“After[CURRENTHABIT],Iwill[NEWHABIT].”1.4:Designyourenvironment.Makethecuesofgoodhabitsobviousandvisible.

The2ndLaw:MakeItAttractive2.1:Usetemptationbundling.Pairanactionyouwanttodowithanactionyouneedtodo.2.2:Joinaculturewhereyourdesiredbehavioristhenormalbehavior.2.3:Createamotivationritual.Dosomethingyouenjoyimmediatelybeforeadifficulthabit.

The3rdLaw:MakeItEasyThe4thLaw:MakeItSatisfying

HOWTOBREAKABADHABIT

Inversionofthe2ndLaw:MakeItUnattractive2.4:Reframeyourmind-set.Highlightthebenefitsofavoidingyourbadhabits.

Inversionofthe3rdLaw:MakeItDifficultInversionofthe4thLaw:MakeItUnsatisfying

THE3RDLAW

MakeItEasy

WalkSlowly,butNeverBackward

NTHEFIRSTdayofclass,JerryUelsmann,aprofessorattheUniversityofFlorida,dividedhisfilmphotographystudentsinto

twogroups.

Everyoneontheleftsideoftheclassroom,heexplained,wouldbeinthe“quantity”group.Theywouldbegradedsolelyontheamountofworktheyproduced.Onthefinaldayofclass,hewouldtallythenumberofphotossubmittedbyeachstudent.OnehundredphotoswouldrateanA,ninetyphotosaB,eightyphotosaC,andsoon.

Meanwhile,everyoneontherightsideoftheroomwouldbeinthe“quality”group.Theywouldbegradedonlyontheexcellenceoftheirwork.Theywouldonlyneedtoproduceonephotoduringthesemester,buttogetanA,ithadtobeanearlyperfectimage.

Attheendoftheterm,hewassurprisedtofindthatallthebestphotoswereproducedbythequantitygroup.Duringthesemester,thesestudentswerebusytakingphotos,experimentingwithcompositionandlighting,testingoutvariousmethodsinthedarkroom,andlearningfromtheirmistakes.Intheprocessofcreatinghundredsofphotos,theyhonedtheirskills.Meanwhile,thequalitygroupsataroundspeculatingaboutperfection.Intheend,theyhadlittletoshowfortheireffortsotherthanunverifiedtheoriesandonemediocrephoto.*

Itiseasytogetboggeddowntryingtofindtheoptimalplanforchange:thefastestwaytoloseweight,thebestprogramtobuildmuscle,theperfectideaforasidehustle.Wearesofocusedonfiguringoutthebestapproachthatwenevergetaroundtotakingaction.AsVoltaireoncewrote,“Thebestistheenemyofthegood.”

Irefertothisasthedifferencebetweenbeinginmotionandtakingaction.Thetwoideassoundsimilar,butthey’renotthesame.Whenyou’reinmotion,you’replanningandstrategizingandlearning.Thoseareallgoodthings,buttheydon’tproducearesult.

Action,ontheotherhand,isthetypeofbehaviorthatwilldeliveranoutcome.IfIoutlinetwentyideasforarticlesIwanttowrite,that’smotion.IfIactuallysitdownandwriteanarticle,that’saction.IfIsearchforabetterdietplanandreadafewbooksonthetopic,that’smotion.IfIactuallyeatahealthymeal,that’saction.

Sometimesmotionisuseful,butitwillneverproduceanoutcomebyitself.Itdoesn’tmatterhowmanytimesyougotalktothepersonaltrainer,thatmotionwillnevergetyouinshape.Onlytheactionofworkingoutwillgettheresultyou’relookingtoachieve.

Ifmotiondoesn’tleadtoresults,whydowedoit?Sometimeswedoitbecauseweactuallyneedtoplanorlearnmore.Butmoreoftenthannot,wedoitbecausemotionallowsustofeellikewe’remakingprogresswithoutrunningtheriskoffailure.Mostofusareexpertsatavoidingcriticism.Itdoesn’tfeelgoodtofailortobejudgedpublicly,sowetendtoavoidsituationswherethatmighthappen.Andthat’sthebiggestreasonwhyyouslipintomotionratherthantakingaction:youwanttodelayfailure.

It’seasytobeinmotionandconvinceyourselfthatyou’restillmakingprogress.Youthink,“I’vegotconversationsgoingwithfourpotentialclientsrightnow.Thisisgood.We’removingintherightdirection.”Or,“IbrainstormedsomeideasforthatbookIwanttowrite.Thisiscomingtogether.”

Motionmakesyoufeellikeyou’regettingthingsdone.Butreally,you’rejustpreparingtogetsomethingdone.Whenpreparationbecomesaformofprocrastination,youneedtochangesomething.Youdon’twanttomerelybeplanning.Youwanttobepracticing.

Ifyouwanttomasterahabit,thekeyistostartwithrepetition,notperfection.Youdon’tneedtomapouteveryfeatureofanewhabit.Youjustneedtopracticeit.Thisisthefirsttakeawayofthe3rdLaw:youjustneedtogetyourrepsin.

HOWLONGDOESITACTUALLYTAKETOFORMANEWHABIT?

Habitformationistheprocessbywhichabehaviorbecomesprogressivelymoreautomaticthroughrepetition.Themoreyourepeatanactivity,themorethestructureofyourbrainchangestobecomeefficientatthatactivity.Neuroscientistscallthislong-termpotentiation,whichreferstothestrengtheningofconnectionsbetweenneuronsinthebrainbasedonrecentpatternsofactivity.Witheachrepetition,cell-to-cellsignalingimprovesandtheneuralconnectionstighten.FirstdescribedbyneuropsychologistDonaldHebbin1949,thisphenomenoniscommonlyknownasHebb’sLaw:“Neuronsthatfiretogetherwiretogether.”

Repeatingahabitleadstoclearphysicalchangesinthebrain.Inmusicians,thecerebellum—criticalforphysicalmovementslikepluckingaguitarstringorpullingaviolinbow—islargerthanitisinnonmusicians.Mathematicians,meanwhile,haveincreasedgraymatterintheinferiorparietallobule,whichplaysakeyroleincomputationandcalculation.Itssizeisdirectlycorrelatedwiththeamountoftimespentinthefield;theolderandmoreexperiencedthemathematician,thegreatertheincreaseingraymatter.

WhenscientistsanalyzedthebrainsoftaxidriversinLondon,theyfoundthatthehippocampus—aregionofthebraininvolvedinspatialmemory—wassignificantlylargerintheirsubjectsthaninnon–taxidrivers.Evenmorefascinating,thehippocampusdecreasedinsizewhenadriverretired.Likethemusclesofthebodyrespondingtoregularweighttraining,particularregionsofthebrainadaptastheyareusedandatrophyastheyareabandoned.

Ofcourse,theimportanceofrepetitioninestablishinghabitswasrecognizedlongbeforeneuroscientistsbeganpokingaround.In1860,theEnglishphilosopherGeorgeH.Lewesnoted,“Inlearningtospeakanewlanguage,toplayonamusicalinstrument,ortoperformunaccustomedmovements,greatdifficultyisfelt,becausethechannelsthroughwhicheachsensationhastopasshavenotbecomeestablished;butnosoonerhasfrequentrepetitioncutapathway,thanthisdifficultyvanishes;theactionsbecomesoautomaticthattheycanbeperformedwhilethemindisotherwiseengaged.”Bothcommonsenseandscientificevidenceagree:repetitionisaformofchange.

Eachtimeyourepeatanaction,youareactivatingaparticularneuralcircuitassociatedwiththathabit.Thismeansthatsimplyputtinginyourrepsisoneofthemostcriticalstepsyoucantaketo

encodinganewhabit.Itiswhythestudentswhotooktonsofphotosimprovedtheirskillswhilethosewhomerelytheorizedaboutperfectphotosdidnot.Onegroupengagedinactivepractice,theotherinpassivelearning.Oneinaction,theotherinmotion.

Allhabitsfollowasimilartrajectoryfromeffortfulpracticetoautomaticbehavior,aprocessknownasautomaticity.Automaticityistheabilitytoperformabehaviorwithoutthinkingabouteachstep,whichoccurswhenthenonconsciousmindtakesover.

Itlookssomethinglikethis:

THEHABITLINE

FIGURE11:Inthebeginning(pointA),ahabitrequiresagooddealofeffortandconcentrationtoperform.Afterafewrepetitions(pointB),itgetseasier,butstillrequiressomeconsciousattention.Withenoughpractice(pointC),thehabitbecomesmoreautomaticthanconscious.Beyondthisthreshold—thehabitline—thebehaviorcanbedonemoreorlesswithoutthinking.Anewhabithasbeenformed.

Onthefollowingpage,you’llseewhatitlookslikewhenresearcherstrackthelevelofautomaticityforanactualhabitlikewalkingfortenminuteseachday.Theshapeofthesecharts,whichscientistscall

learningcurves,revealsanimportanttruthaboutbehaviorchange:habitsformbasedonfrequency,nottime.

WALKING10MINUTESPERDAY

FIGURE12:Thisgraphshowssomeonewhobuiltthehabitofwalkingfortenminutesafterbreakfasteachday.Noticethatastherepetitionsincrease,sodoesautomaticity,untilthebehaviorisaseasyandautomaticasitcanbe.

OneofthemostcommonquestionsIhearis,“Howlongdoesittaketobuildanewhabit?”Butwhatpeoplereallyshouldbeaskingis,“Howmanydoesittaketoformanewhabit?”Thatis,howmanyrepetitionsarerequiredtomakeahabitautomatic?

Thereisnothingmagicalabouttimepassingwithregardtohabitformation.Itdoesn’tmatterifit’sbeentwenty-onedaysorthirtydaysorthreehundreddays.Whatmattersistherateatwhichyouperformthebehavior.Youcoulddosomethingtwiceinthirtydays,ortwohundredtimes.It’sthefrequencythatmakesthedifference.Yourcurrenthabitshavebeeninternalizedoverthecourseofhundreds,ifnotthousands,ofrepetitions.Newhabitsrequirethesameleveloffrequency.YouneedtostringtogetherenoughsuccessfulattemptsuntilthebehaviorisfirmlyembeddedinyourmindandyoucrosstheHabitLine.

Inpractice,itdoesn’treallymatterhowlongittakesforahabittobecomeautomatic.Whatmattersisthatyoutaketheactionsyouneedtotaketomakeprogress.Whetheranactionisfullyautomaticisoflessimportance.

Tobuildahabit,youneedtopracticeit.Andthemosteffectivewaytomakepracticehappenistoadheretothe3rdLawofBehaviorChange:makeiteasy.Thechaptersthatfollowwillshowyouhowtodoexactlythat.

ChapterSummaryThe3rdLawofBehaviorChangeismakeiteasy.

Themosteffectiveformoflearningispractice,notplanning.

Focusontakingaction,notbeinginmotion.

Habitformationistheprocessbywhichabehaviorbecomesprogressivelymoreautomaticthroughrepetition.

Theamountoftimeyouhavebeenperformingahabitisnotasimportantasthenumberoftimesyouhaveperformedit.

TheLawofLeastEffort

NHISAWARD-WINNINGBOOK,Guns,Germs,andSteel,anthropologistandbiologistJaredDiamondpointsoutasimplefact:different

continentshavedifferentshapes.Atfirstglance,thisstatementseemsratherobviousandunimportant,butitturnsouttohaveaprofoundimpactonhumanbehavior.

TheprimaryaxisoftheAmericasrunsfromnorthtosouth.Thatis,thelandmassofNorthandSouthAmericatendstobetallandthinratherthanwideandfat.ThesameisgenerallytrueforAfrica.Meanwhile,thelandmassthatmakesupEurope,Asia,andtheMiddleEastistheopposite.Thismassivestretchoflandtendstobemoreeast-westinshape.AccordingtoDiamond,thisdifferenceinshapeplayedasignificantroleinthespreadofagricultureoverthecenturies.

Whenagriculturebegantospreadaroundtheglobe,farmershadaneasiertimeexpandingalongeast-westroutesthanalongnorth-southones.Thisisbecauselocationsalongthesamelatitudegenerallysharesimilarclimates,amountsofsunlightandrainfall,andchangesinseason.ThesefactorsallowedfarmersinEuropeandAsiatodomesticateafewcropsandgrowthemalongtheentirestretchoflandfromFrancetoChina.

THESHAPEOFHUMANBEHAVIOR

FIGURE13:TheprimaryaxisofEuropeandAsiaiseast-west.TheprimaryaxisoftheAmericasandAfricaisnorth-south.Thisleadstoawiderrangeofclimatesup-and-downtheAmericasthanacrossEuropeandAsia.Asaresult,agriculturespreadnearlytwiceasfastacrossEuropeandAsiathanitdidelsewhere.Thebehavioroffarmers—evenacrosshundredsorthousandsofyears—wasconstrainedbytheamountoffrictionintheenvironment.

Bycomparison,theclimatevariesgreatlywhentravelingfromnorthtosouth.JustimaginehowdifferenttheweatherisinFloridacomparedtoCanada.Youcanbethemosttalentedfarmerintheworld,butitwon’thelpyougrowFloridaorangesintheCanadianwinter.Snowisapoorsubstituteforsoil.Inordertospreadcropsalongnorth-southroutes,farmerswouldneedtofindanddomesticatenewplantswhenevertheclimatechanged.

Asaresult,agriculturespreadtwotothreetimesfasteracrossAsiaandEuropethanitdidupanddowntheAmericas.Overthespanofcenturies,thissmalldifferencehadaverybigimpact.Increasedfoodproductionallowedformorerapidpopulationgrowth.Withmorepeople,thesecultureswereabletobuildstrongerarmiesandwerebetterequippedtodevelopnewtechnologies.Thechangesstartedout

small—acropthatspreadslightlyfarther,apopulationthatgrewslightlyfaster—butcompoundedintosubstantialdifferencesovertime.

Thespreadofagricultureprovidesanexampleofthe3rdLawofBehaviorChangeonaglobalscale.Conventionalwisdomholdsthatmotivationisthekeytohabitchange.Maybeifyoureallywantedit,you’dactuallydoit.Butthetruthis,ourrealmotivationistobelazyandtodowhatisconvenient.Anddespitewhatthelatestproductivitybestsellerwilltellyou,thisisasmartstrategy,notadumbone.

Energyisprecious,andthebrainiswiredtoconserveitwheneverpossible.ItishumannaturetofollowtheLawofLeastEffort,whichstatesthatwhendecidingbetweentwosimilaroptions,peoplewillnaturallygravitatetowardtheoptionthatrequirestheleastamountofwork.*Forexample,expandingyourfarmtotheeastwhereyoucangrowthesamecropsratherthanheadingnorthwheretheclimateisdifferent.Outofallthepossibleactionswecouldtake,theonethatisrealizedistheonethatdeliversthemostvaluefortheleasteffort.Wearemotivatedtodowhatiseasy.

Everyactionrequiresacertainamountofenergy.Themoreenergyrequired,thelesslikelyitistooccur.Ifyourgoalistodoahundredpush-upsperday,that’salotofenergy!Inthebeginning,whenyou’remotivatedandexcited,youcanmusterthestrengthtogetstarted.Butafterafewdays,suchamassiveeffortfeelsexhausting.Meanwhile,stickingtothehabitofdoingonepush-upperdayrequiresalmostnoenergytogetstarted.Andthelessenergyahabitrequires,themorelikelyitistooccur.

Lookatanybehaviorthatfillsupmuchofyourlifeandyou’llseethatitcanbeperformedwithverylowlevelsofmotivation.Habitslikescrollingonourphones,checkingemail,andwatchingtelevisionstealsomuchofourtimebecausetheycanbeperformedalmostwithouteffort.Theyareremarkablyconvenient.

Inasense,everyhabitisjustanobstacletogettingwhatyoureallywant.Dietingisanobstacletogettingfit.Meditationisanobstacletofeelingcalm.Journalingisanobstacletothinkingclearly.Youdon’tactuallywantthehabititself.Whatyoureallywantistheoutcomethehabitdelivers.Thegreatertheobstacle—thatis,themoredifficultthehabit—themorefrictionthereisbetweenyouandyourdesiredendstate.Thisiswhyitiscrucialtomakeyourhabitssoeasythatyou’lldo

themevenwhenyoudon’tfeellikeit.Ifyoucanmakeyourgoodhabitsmoreconvenient,you’llbemorelikelytofollowthroughonthem.

Butwhataboutallthemomentswhenweseemtodotheopposite?Ifwe’reallsolazy,thenhowdoyouexplainpeopleaccomplishinghardthingslikeraisingachildorstartingabusinessorclimbingMountEverest?

Certainly,youarecapableofdoingveryhardthings.Theproblemisthatsomedaysyoufeellikedoingthehardworkandsomedaysyoufeellikegivingin.Onthetoughdays,it’scrucialtohaveasmanythingsworkinginyourfavoraspossiblesothatyoucanovercomethechallengeslifenaturallythrowsyourway.Thelessfrictionyouface,theeasieritisforyourstrongerselftoemerge.Theideabehindmakeiteasyisnottoonlydoeasythings.Theideaistomakeitaseasyaspossibleinthemomenttodothingsthatpayoffinthelongrun.

HOWTOACHIEVEMOREWITHLESSEFFORT

Imagineyouareholdingagardenhosethatisbentinthemiddle.Somewatercanflowthrough,butnotverymuch.Ifyouwanttoincreasetherateatwhichwaterpassesthroughthehose,youhavetwooptions.Thefirstoptionistocrankupthevalveandforcemorewaterout.Thesecondoptionistosimplyremovethebendinthehoseandletwaterflowthroughnaturally.

Tryingtopumpupyourmotivationtostickwithahardhabitisliketryingtoforcewaterthroughabenthose.Youcandoit,butitrequiresalotofeffortandincreasesthetensioninyourlife.Meanwhile,makingyourhabitssimpleandeasyislikeremovingthebendinthehose.Ratherthantryingtoovercomethefrictioninyourlife,youreduceit.

Oneofthemosteffectivewaystoreducethefrictionassociatedwithyourhabitsistopracticeenvironmentdesign.InChapter6,wediscussedenvironmentdesignasamethodformakingcuesmoreobvious,butyoucanalsooptimizeyourenvironmenttomakeactionseasier.Forexample,whendecidingwheretopracticeanewhabit,itisbesttochooseaplacethatisalreadyalongthepathofyourdailyroutine.Habitsareeasiertobuildwhentheyfitintotheflowofyourlife.Youaremorelikelytogotothegymifitisonyourwaytoworkbecausestoppingdoesn’taddmuchfrictiontoyourlifestyle.By

comparison,ifthegymisoffthepathofyournormalcommute—evenbyjustafewblocks—nowyou’regoing“outofyourway”togetthere.

Perhapsevenmoreeffectiveisreducingthefrictionwithinyourhomeoroffice.Toooften,wetrytostarthabitsinhigh-frictionenvironments.Wetrytofollowastrictdietwhileweareouttodinnerwithfriends.Wetrytowriteabookinachaotichousehold.Wetrytoconcentratewhileusingasmartphonefilledwithdistractions.Itdoesn’thavetobethisway.Wecanremovethepointsoffrictionthatholdusback.ThisispreciselywhatelectronicsmanufacturersinJapanbegantodointhe1970s.

InanarticlepublishedintheNewYorkertitled“BetterAlltheTime,”JamesSuroweickiwrites:

“Japanesefirmsemphasizedwhatcametobeknownas‘leanproduction,’relentlesslylookingtoremovewasteofallkindsfromtheproductionprocess,downtoredesigningworkspaces,soworkersdidn’thavetowastetimetwistingandturningtoreachtheirtools.TheresultwasthatJapanesefactoriesweremoreefficientandJapaneseproductsweremorereliablethanAmericanones.In1974,servicecallsforAmerican-madecolortelevisionswerefivetimesascommonasforJapanesetelevisions.By1979,ittookAmericanworkersthreetimesaslongtoassembletheirsets.”

Iliketorefertothisstrategyasadditionbysubtraction.*TheJapanesecompanieslookedforeverypointoffrictioninthemanufacturingprocessandeliminatedit.Astheysubtractedwastedeffort,theyaddedcustomersandrevenue.Similarly,whenweremovethepointsoffrictionthatsapourtimeandenergy,wecanachievemorewithlesseffort.(Thisisonereasontidyingupcanfeelsogood:wearesimultaneouslymovingforwardandlighteningthecognitiveloadourenvironmentplacesonus.)

Ifyoulookatthemosthabit-formingproducts,you’llnoticethatoneofthethingsthesegoodsandservicesdobestisremovelittlebitsoffrictionfromyourlife.Mealdeliveryservicesreducethefrictionofshoppingforgroceries.Datingappsreducethefrictionofmakingsocialintroductions.Ride-sharingservicesreducethefrictionofgettingacrosstown.Textmessagingreducesthefrictionofsendingaletterinthemail.

LikeaJapanesetelevisionmanufacturerredesigningtheirworkspacetoreducewastedmotion,successfulcompaniesdesigntheirproductstoautomate,eliminate,orsimplifyasmanystepsaspossible.Theyreducethenumberoffieldsoneachform.Theyparedownthenumberofclicksrequiredtocreateanaccount.Theydelivertheirproductswitheasy-to-understanddirectionsorasktheircustomerstomakefewerchoices.

Whenthefirstvoice-activatedspeakerswerereleased—productslikeGoogleHome,AmazonEcho,andAppleHomePod—Iaskedafriendwhathelikedabouttheproducthehadpurchased.Hesaiditwasjusteasiertosay“Playsomecountrymusic”thantopullouthisphone,openthemusicapp,andpickaplaylist.Ofcourse,justafewyearsearlier,havingunlimitedaccesstomusicinyourpocketwasaremarkablyfrictionlessbehaviorcomparedtodrivingtothestoreandbuyingaCD.Businessisanever-endingquesttodeliverthesameresultinaneasierfashion.

Similarstrategieshavebeenusedeffectivelybygovernments.WhentheBritishgovernmentwantedtoincreasetaxcollectionrates,theyswitchedfromsendingcitizenstoawebpagewherethetaxformcouldbedownloadedtolinkingdirectlytotheform.Reducingthatonestepintheprocessincreasedtheresponseratefrom19.2percentto23.4percent.ForacountryliketheUnitedKingdom,thosepercentagepointsrepresentmillionsintaxrevenue.

Thecentralideaistocreateanenvironmentwheredoingtherightthingisaseasyaspossible.Muchofthebattleofbuildingbetterhabitscomesdowntofindingwaystoreducethefrictionassociatedwithourgoodhabitsandincreasethefrictionassociatedwithourbadones.

PRIMETHEENVIRONMENTFORFUTUREUSE

OswaldNuckolsisanITdeveloperfromNatchez,Mississippi.Heisalsosomeonewhounderstandsthepowerofpriminghisenvironment.

Nuckolsdialedinhiscleaninghabitsbyfollowingastrategyhereferstoas“resettingtheroom.”Forinstance,whenhefinisheswatchingtelevision,heplacestheremotebackontheTVstand,arrangesthepillowsonthecouch,andfoldstheblanket.Whenheleaveshiscar,hethrowsanytrashaway.Wheneverhetakesashower,hewipesdownthetoiletwhiletheshoweriswarmingup.(Ashenotes,

the“perfecttimetocleanthetoiletisrightbeforeyouwashyourselfintheshoweranyway.”)Thepurposeofresettingeachroomisnotsimplytocleanupafterthelastaction,buttoprepareforthenextaction.

“WhenIwalkintoaroomeverythingisinitsrightplace,”Nuckolswrote.“BecauseIdothiseverydayineveryroom,stuffalwaysstaysingoodshape....PeoplethinkIworkhardbutI’mactuallyreallylazy.I’mjustproactivelylazy.Itgivesyousomuchtimeback.”

Wheneveryouorganizeaspaceforitsintendedpurpose,youareprimingittomakethenextactioneasy.Forinstance,mywifekeepsaboxofgreetingcardsthatarepresortedbyoccasion—birthday,sympathy,wedding,graduation,andmore.Whenevernecessary,shegrabsanappropriatecardandsendsitoff.Sheisincrediblygoodatrememberingtosendcardsbecauseshehasreducedthefrictionofdoingso.Foryears,Iwastheopposite.SomeonewouldhaveababyandIwouldthink,“Ishouldsendacard.”ButthenweekswouldpassandbythetimeIrememberedtopickoneupatthestore,itwastoolate.Thehabitwasn’teasy.

Therearemanywaystoprimeyourenvironmentsoit’sreadyforimmediateuse.Ifyouwanttocookahealthybreakfast,placetheskilletonthestove,setthecookingsprayonthecounter,andlayoutanyplatesandutensilsyou’llneedthenightbefore.Whenyouwakeup,makingbreakfastwillbeeasy.

Wanttodrawmore?Putyourpencils,pens,notebooks,anddrawingtoolsontopofyourdesk,withineasyreach.

Wanttoexercise?Setoutyourworkoutclothes,shoes,gymbag,andwaterbottleaheadoftime.

Wanttoimproveyourdiet?Chopupatonoffruitsandvegetablesonweekendsandpackthemincontainers,soyouhaveeasyaccesstohealthy,ready-to-eatoptionsduringtheweek.

Thesearesimplewaystomakethegoodhabitthepathofleastresistance.

Youcanalsoinvertthisprincipleandprimetheenvironmenttomakebadbehaviorsdifficult.Ifyoufindyourselfwatchingtoomuchtelevision,forexample,thenunplugitaftereachuse.Onlyplugitback

inifyoucansayoutloudthenameoftheshowyouwanttowatch.Thissetupcreatesjustenoughfrictiontopreventmindlessviewing.

Ifthatdoesn’tdoit,youcantakeitastepfurther.Unplugthetelevisionandtakethebatteriesoutoftheremoteaftereachuse,soittakesanextratensecondstoturnitbackon.Andifyou’rereallyhard-core,movethetelevisionoutofthelivingroomandintoaclosetaftereachuse.Youcanbesureyou’llonlytakeitoutwhenyoureallywanttowatchsomething.Thegreaterthefriction,thelesslikelythehabit.

Wheneverpossible,Ileavemyphoneinadifferentroomuntillunch.Whenit’srightnexttome,I’llcheckitallmorningfornoreasonatall.Butwhenitisinanotherroom,Irarelythinkaboutit.AndthefrictionishighenoughthatIwon’tgogetitwithoutareason.Asaresult,IgetthreetofourhourseachmorningwhenIcanworkwithoutinterruption.

Ifstickingyourphoneinanotherroomdoesn’tseemlikeenough,tellafriendorfamilymembertohideitfromyouforafewhours.Askacoworkertokeepitattheirdeskinthemorningandgiveitbacktoyouatlunch.

Itisremarkablehowlittlefrictionisrequiredtopreventunwantedbehavior.WhenIhidebeerinthebackofthefridgewhereIcan’tseeit,Idrinkless.WhenIdeletesocialmediaappsfrommyphone,itcanbeweeksbeforeIdownloadthemagainandlogin.Thesetricksareunlikelytocurbatrueaddiction,butformanyofus,alittlebitoffrictioncanbethedifferencebetweenstickingwithagoodhabitorslidingintoabadone.Imaginethecumulativeimpactofmakingdozensofthesechangesandlivinginanenvironmentdesignedtomakethegoodbehaviorseasierandthebadbehaviorsharder.

Whetherweareapproachingbehaviorchangeasanindividual,aparent,acoach,oraleader,weshouldaskourselvesthesamequestion:“Howcanwedesignaworldwhereit’seasytodowhat’sright?”Redesignyourlifesotheactionsthatmattermostarealsotheactionsthatareeasiesttodo.

ChapterSummaryHumanbehaviorfollowstheLawofLeastEffort.Wewillnaturallygravitatetowardtheoptionthatrequirestheleastamountofwork.

Createanenvironmentwheredoingtherightthingisaseasyaspossible.

Reducethefrictionassociatedwithgoodbehaviors.Whenfrictionislow,habitsareeasy.

Increasethefrictionassociatedwithbadbehaviors.Whenfrictionishigh,habitsaredifficult.

Primeyourenvironmenttomakefutureactionseasier.

HowtoStopProcrastinatingbyUsingtheTwo-MinuteRule

WYLATHARPISwidelyregardedasoneofthegreatestdancersandchoreographersofthemodernera.In1992,shewasawardeda

MacArthurFellowship,oftenreferredtoastheGeniusGrant,andshehasspentthebulkofhercareertouringtheglobetoperformheroriginalworks.Shealsocreditsmuchofhersuccesstosimpledailyhabits.

“Ibegineachdayofmylifewitharitual,”shewrites.“Iwakeupat5:30A.M.,putonmyworkoutclothes,mylegwarmers,mysweatshirt,andmyhat.IwalkoutsidemyManhattanhome,hailataxi,andtellthedrivertotakemetothePumpingIrongymat91stStreetandFirstAvenue,whereIworkoutfortwohours.

“TheritualisnotthestretchingandweighttrainingIputmybodythrougheachmorningatthegym;theritualisthecab.ThemomentItellthedriverwheretogoIhavecompletedtheritual.

“It’sasimpleact,butdoingitthesamewayeachmorninghabitualizesit—makesitrepeatable,easytodo.ItreducesthechancethatIwouldskipitordoitdifferently.Itisonemoreiteminmyarsenalofroutines,andonelessthingtothinkabout.”

Hailingacabeachmorningmaybeatinyaction,butitisasplendidexampleofthe3rdLawofBehaviorChange.

Researchersestimatethat40to50percentofouractionsonanygivendayaredoneoutofhabit.Thisisalreadyasubstantialpercentage,butthetrueinfluenceofyourhabitsisevengreaterthanthesenumberssuggest.Habitsareautomaticchoicesthatinfluencethe

consciousdecisionsthatfollow.Yes,ahabitcanbecompletedinjustafewseconds,butitcanalsoshapetheactionsthatyoutakeforminutesorhoursafterward.

Habitsareliketheentranceramptoahighway.Theyleadyoudownapathand,beforeyouknowit,you’respeedingtowardthenextbehavior.Itseemstobeeasiertocontinuewhatyouarealreadydoingthantostartdoingsomethingdifferent.Yousitthroughabadmoviefortwohours.Youkeepsnackingevenwhenyou’realreadyfull.Youcheckyourphonefor“justasecond”andsoonyouhavespenttwentyminutesstaringatthescreen.Inthisway,thehabitsyoufollowwithoutthinkingoftendeterminethechoicesyoumakewhenyouarethinking.

Eachevening,thereisatinymoment—usuallyaround5:15p.m.—thatshapestherestofmynight.Mywifewalksinthedoorfromworkandeitherwechangeintoourworkoutclothesandheadtothegymorwecrashontothecouch,orderIndianfood,andwatchTheOffice.*SimilartoTwylaTharphailingthecab,theritualischangingintomyworkoutclothes.IfIchangeclothes,Iknowtheworkoutwillhappen.Everythingthatfollows—drivingtothegym,decidingwhichexercisestodo,steppingunderthebar—iseasyonceI’vetakenthefirststep.

Everyday,thereareahandfulofmomentsthatdeliveranoutsizedimpact.Irefertotheselittlechoicesasdecisivemoments.Themomentyoudecidebetweenorderingtakeoutorcookingdinner.Themomentyouchoosebetweendrivingyourcarorridingyourbike.Themomentyoudecidebetweenstartingyourhomeworkorgrabbingthevideogamecontroller.Thesechoicesareaforkintheroad.

DECISIVEMOMENTS

FIGURE14:Thedifferencebetweenagooddayandabaddayisoftenafewproductiveandhealthychoicesmadeatdecisivemoments.Eachoneislikeaforkintheroad,andthesechoicesstackupthroughoutthedayandcanultimatelyleadtoverydifferentoutcomes.

Decisivemomentssettheoptionsavailabletoyourfutureself.Forinstance,walkingintoarestaurantisadecisivemomentbecauseitdetermineswhatyou’llbeeatingforlunch.Technically,youareincontrolofwhatyouorder,butinalargersense,youcanonlyorderanitemifitisonthemenu.Ifyouwalkintoasteakhouse,youcangetasirloinoraribeye,butnotsushi.Youroptionsareconstrainedbywhat’savailable.Theyareshapedbythefirstchoice.

Wearelimitedbywhereourhabitsleadus.Thisiswhymasteringthedecisivemomentsthroughoutyourdayissoimportant.Eachdayismadeupofmanymoments,butitisreallyafewhabitualchoicesthatdeterminethepathyoutake.Theselittlechoicesstackup,eachonesettingthetrajectoryforhowyouspendthenextchunkoftime.

Habitsaretheentrypoint,nottheendpoint.Theyarethecab,notthegym.

THETWO-MINUTERULE

Evenwhenyouknowyoushouldstartsmall,it’seasytostarttoobig.Whenyoudreamaboutmakingachange,excitementinevitablytakesoverandyouenduptryingtodotoomuchtoosoon.ThemosteffectivewayIknowtocounteractthistendencyistousetheTwo-MinuteRule,whichstates,“Whenyoustartanewhabit,itshouldtakelessthantwominutestodo.”

You’llfindthatnearlyanyhabitcanbescaleddownintoatwo-minuteversion:

“Readbeforebedeachnight”becomes“Readonepage.”

“Dothirtyminutesofyoga”becomes“Takeoutmyyogamat.”

“Studyforclass”becomes“Openmynotes.”

“Foldthelaundry”becomes“Foldonepairofsocks.”

“Runthreemiles”becomes“Tiemyrunningshoes.”

Theideaistomakeyourhabitsaseasyaspossibletostart.Anyonecanmeditateforoneminute,readonepage,orputoneitemofclothingaway.And,aswehavejustdiscussed,thisisapowerfulstrategybecauseonceyou’vestarteddoingtherightthing,itismucheasiertocontinuedoingit.Anewhabitshouldnotfeellikeachallenge.Theactionsthatfollowcanbechallenging,butthefirsttwominutesshouldbeeasy.Whatyouwantisa“gatewayhabit”thatnaturallyleadsyoudownamoreproductivepath.

Youcanusuallyfigureoutthegatewayhabitsthatwillleadtoyourdesiredoutcomebymappingoutyourgoalsonascalefrom“veryeasy”to“veryhard.”Forinstance,runningamarathonisveryhard.Runninga5Kishard.Walkingtenthousandstepsismoderatelydifficult.Walkingtenminutesiseasy.Andputtingonyourrunningshoesisveryeasy.Yourgoalmightbetorunamarathon,butyourgatewayhabitistoputonyourrunningshoes.That’showyoufollowtheTwo-MinuteRule.

Veryeasy Easy Moderate Hard Veryhard

Putonyourrunningshoes

Walktenminutes

Walktenthousandsteps Runa5K Runa

marathon

Writeonesentence Writeoneparagraph

Writeonethousandwords

Writeafive-thousand-wordarticle

Writeabook

Openyournotes Studyfortenminutes

Studyforthreehours GetstraightA’s EarnaPhD

Peopleoftenthinkit’sweirdtogethypedaboutreadingonepageormeditatingforoneminuteormakingonesalescall.Butthepointisnottodoonething.Thepointistomasterthehabitofshowingup.Thetruthis,ahabitmustbeestablishedbeforeitcanbeimproved.Ifyoucan’tlearnthebasicskillofshowingup,thenyouhavelittlehopeofmasteringthefinerdetails.Insteadoftryingtoengineeraperfecthabitfromthestart,dotheeasythingonamoreconsistentbasis.Youhavetostandardizebeforeyoucanoptimize.

Asyoumastertheartofshowingup,thefirsttwominutessimplybecomearitualatthebeginningofalargerroutine.Thisisnotmerelyahacktomakehabitseasierbutactuallytheidealwaytomasteradifficultskill.Themoreyouritualizethebeginningofaprocess,themorelikelyitbecomesthatyoucanslipintothestateofdeepfocusthatisrequiredtodogreatthings.Bydoingthesamewarm-upbeforeeveryworkout,youmakeiteasiertogetintoastateofpeakperformance.Byfollowingthesamecreativeritual,youmakeiteasiertogetintothehardworkofcreating.Bydevelopingaconsistentpower-downhabit,youmakeiteasiertogettobedatareasonabletimeeachnight.Youmaynotbeabletoautomatethewholeprocess,butyoucanmakethefirstactionmindless.Makeiteasytostartandtherestwillfollow.

TheTwo-MinuteRulecanseemlikeatricktosomepeople.Youknowthattherealgoalistodomorethanjusttwominutes,soitmayfeellikeyou’retryingtofoolyourself.Nobodyisactuallyaspiringtoreadonepageordoonepush-uporopentheirnotes.Andifyouknowit’samentaltrick,whywouldyoufallforit?

IftheTwo-MinuteRulefeelsforced,trythis:doitfortwominutesandthenstop.Goforarun,butyoumuststopaftertwominutes.Startmeditating,butyoumuststopaftertwominutes.StudyArabic,butyou

muststopaftertwominutes.It’snotastrategyforstarting,it’sthewholething.Yourhabitcanonlylastonehundredandtwentyseconds.

Oneofmyreadersusedthisstrategytoloseoveronehundredpounds.Inthebeginning,hewenttothegymeachday,buthetoldhimselfhewasn’tallowedtostayformorethanfiveminutes.Hewouldgotothegym,exerciseforfiveminutes,andleaveassoonashistimewasup.Afterafewweeks,helookedaroundandthought,“Well,I’malwayscominghereanyway.Imightaswellstartstayingalittlelonger.”Afewyearslater,theweightwasgone.

Journalingprovidesanotherexample.Nearlyeveryonecanbenefitfromgettingtheirthoughtsoutoftheirheadandontopaper,butmostpeoplegiveupafterafewdaysoravoiditentirelybecausejournalingfeelslikeachore.*Thesecretistoalwaysstaybelowthepointwhereitfeelslikework.GregMcKeown,aleadershipconsultantfromtheUnitedKingdom,builtadailyjournalinghabitbyspecificallywritinglessthanhefeltlike.Healwaysstoppedjournalingbeforeitseemedlikeahassle.ErnestHemingwaybelievedinsimilaradviceforanykindofwriting.“Thebestwayistoalwaysstopwhenyouaregoinggood,”hesaid.

Strategieslikethisworkforanotherreason,too:theyreinforcetheidentityyouwanttobuild.Ifyoushowupatthegymfivedaysinarow—evenifit’sjustfortwominutes—youarecastingvotesforyournewidentity.You’renotworriedaboutgettinginshape.You’refocusedonbecomingthetypeofpersonwhodoesn’tmissworkouts.You’retakingthesmallestactionthatconfirmsthetypeofpersonyouwanttobe.

Werarelythinkaboutchangethiswaybecauseeveryoneisconsumedbytheendgoal.Butonepush-upisbetterthannotexercising.Oneminuteofguitarpracticeisbetterthannoneatall.Oneminuteofreadingisbetterthanneverpickingupabook.It’sbettertodolessthanyouhopedthantodonothingatall.

Atsomepoint,onceyou’veestablishedthehabitandyou’reshowingupeachday,youcancombinetheTwo-MinuteRulewithatechniquewecallhabitshapingtoscaleyourhabitbackuptowardyourultimategoal.Startbymasteringthefirsttwominutesofthesmallestversionofthebehavior.Then,advancetoanintermediatestepandrepeattheprocess—focusingonjustthefirsttwominutesandmasteringthatstagebeforemovingontothenextlevel.Eventually,you’llendupwith

thehabityouhadoriginallyhopedtobuildwhilestillkeepingyourfocuswhereitshouldbe:onthefirsttwominutesofthebehavior.

EXAMPLESOFHABITSHAPING

BecominganEarlyRiserPhase1:Behomeby10p.m.everynight.

Phase2:Havealldevices(TV,phone,etc.)turnedoffby10p.m.everynight.Phase3:Beinbedby10p.m.everynight(readingabook,talkingwithyourpartner).

Phase4:Lightsoffby10p.m.everynight.Phase5:Wakeupat6a.m.everyday.

BecomingVeganPhase1:Starteatingvegetablesateachmeal.

Phase2:Stopeatinganimalswithfourlegs(cow,pig,lamb,etc.).Phase3:Stopeatinganimalswithtwolegs(chicken,turkey,etc.).

Phase4:Stopeatinganimalswithnolegs(fish,clams,scallops,etc.).Phase5:Stopeatingallanimalproducts(eggs,milk,cheese).

StartingtoExercisePhase1:Changeintoworkoutclothes.Phase2:Stepoutthedoor(trytakingawalk).

Phase3:Drivetothegym,exerciseforfiveminutes,andleave.Phase4:Exerciseforfifteenminutesatleastonceperweek.

Phase5:Exercisethreetimesperweek.

Nearlyanylargerlifegoalcanbetransformedintoatwo-minutebehavior.Iwanttoliveahealthyandlonglife>Ineedtostayinshape>Ineedtoexercise>Ineedtochangeintomyworkoutclothes.Iwanttohaveahappymarriage>Ineedtobeagoodpartner>Ishoulddosomethingeachdaytomakemypartner’slifeeasier>Ishouldmealplanfornextweek.

Wheneveryouarestrugglingtostickwithahabit,youcanemploytheTwo-MinuteRule.It’sasimplewaytomakeyourhabitseasy.

ChapterSummaryHabitscanbecompletedinafewsecondsbutcontinuetoimpactyourbehaviorforminutesorhoursafterward.

Manyhabitsoccuratdecisivemoments—choicesthatarelikeaforkintheroad—andeithersendyouinthedirectionofa

productivedayoranunproductiveone.

TheTwo-MinuteRulestates,“Whenyoustartanewhabit,itshouldtakelessthantwominutestodo.”

Themoreyouritualizethebeginningofaprocess,themorelikelyitbecomesthatyoucanslipintothestateofdeepfocusthatisrequiredtodogreatthings.

Standardizebeforeyouoptimize.Youcan’timproveahabitthatdoesn’texist.

HowtoMakeGoodHabitsInevitableandBadHabitsImpossible

NTHESUMMEROF1830,VictorHugowasfacinganimpossibledeadline.Twelvemonthsearlier,theFrenchauthorhadpromisedhis

publisheranewbook.Butinsteadofwriting,hespentthatyearpursuingotherprojects,entertainingguests,anddelayinghiswork.Frustrated,Hugo’spublisherrespondedbysettingadeadlinelessthansixmonthsaway.ThebookhadtobefinishedbyFebruary1831.

Hugoconcoctedastrangeplantobeathisprocrastination.Hecollectedallofhisclothesandaskedanassistanttolockthemawayinalargechest.Hewasleftwithnothingtowearexceptalargeshawl.Lackinganysuitableclothingtogooutdoors,heremainedinhisstudyandwrotefuriouslyduringthefallandwinterof1830.TheHunchbackofNotreDamewaspublishedtwoweeksearlyonJanuary14,1831.*

Sometimessuccessislessaboutmakinggoodhabitseasyandmoreaboutmakingbadhabitshard.Thisisaninversionofthe3rdLawofBehaviorChange:makeitdifficult.Ifyoufindyourselfcontinuallystrugglingtofollowthroughonyourplans,thenyoucantakeapagefromVictorHugoandmakeyourbadhabitsmoredifficultbycreatingwhatpsychologistscallacommitmentdevice.

Acommitmentdeviceisachoiceyoumakeinthepresentthatcontrolsyouractionsinthefuture.Itisawaytolockinfuturebehavior,bindyoutogoodhabits,andrestrictyoufrombadones.WhenVictorHugoshuthisclothesawaysohecouldfocusonwriting,hewascreatingacommitmentdevice.*

Therearemanywaystocreateacommitmentdevice.Youcanreduceovereatingbypurchasingfoodinindividualpackagesratherthaninbulksize.Youcanvoluntarilyasktobeaddedtothebannedlistatcasinosandonlinepokersitestopreventfuturegamblingsprees.I’veevenheardofathleteswhohaveto“makeweight”foracompetitionchoosingtoleavetheirwalletsathomeduringtheweekbeforeweigh-insotheywon’tbetemptedtobuyfastfood.

Asanotherexample,myfriendandfellowhabitsexpertNirEyalpurchasedanoutlettimer,whichisanadapterthathepluggedinbetweenhisinternetrouterandthepoweroutlet.At10p.m.eachnight,theoutlettimercutsoffthepowertotherouter.Whentheinternetgoesoff,everyoneknowsitistimetogotobed.

Commitmentdevicesareusefulbecausetheyenableyoutotakeadvantageofgoodintentionsbeforeyoucanfallvictimtotemptation.WheneverI’mlookingtocutcalories,forexample,Iwillaskthewaitertosplitmymealandboxhalfofittogobeforethemealisserved.IfIwaiteduntilthemealcameoutandtoldmyself“I’lljusteathalf,”itwouldneverwork.

Thekeyistochangethetasksuchthatitrequiresmoreworktogetoutofthegoodhabitthantogetstartedonit.Ifyou’refeelingmotivatedtogetinshape,scheduleayogasessionandpayaheadoftime.Ifyou’reexcitedaboutthebusinessyouwanttostart,emailanentrepreneuryourespectandsetupaconsultingcall.Whenthetimecomestoact,theonlywaytobailistocancelthemeeting,whichrequireseffortandmaycostmoney.

Commitmentdevicesincreasetheoddsthatyou’lldotherightthinginthefuturebymakingbadhabitsdifficultinthepresent.However,wecandoevenbetter.Wecanmakegoodhabitsinevitableandbadhabitsimpossible.

HOWTOAUTOMATEAHABITANDNEVERTHINKABOUTITAGAIN

JohnHenryPattersonwasborninDayton,Ohio,in1844.Hespenthischildhooddoingchoresonthefamilyfarmandworkingshiftsathisfather’ssawmill.AfterattendingcollegeatDartmouth,PattersonreturnedtoOhioandopenedasmallsupplystoreforcoalminers.

Itseemedlikeagoodopportunity.Thestorefacedlittlecompetitionandenjoyedasteadystreamofcustomers,butstillstruggledtomakemoney.ThatwaswhenPattersondiscoveredhisemployeeswerestealingfromhim.

Inthemid-1800s,employeetheftwasacommonproblem.Receiptswerekeptinanopendrawerandcouldeasilybealteredordiscarded.Therewerenovideocamerastoreviewbehaviorandnosoftwaretotracktransactions.Unlessyouwerewillingtohoveroveryouremployeeseveryminuteoftheday,ortomanagealltransactionsyourself,itwasdifficulttopreventtheft.

AsPattersonmulledoverhispredicament,hecameacrossanadvertisementforanewinventioncalledRitty’sIncorruptibleCashier.DesignedbyfellowDaytonresidentJamesRitty,itwasthefirstcashregister.Themachineautomaticallylockedthecashandreceiptsinsideaftereachtransaction.Pattersonboughttwoforfiftydollarseach.

Employeetheftathisstorevanishedovernight.Inthenextsixmonths,Patterson’sbusinesswentfromlosingmoneytomaking$5,000inprofit—theequivalentofmorethan$100,000today.

Pattersonwassoimpressedwiththemachinethathechangedbusinesses.HeboughttherightstoRitty’sinventionandopenedtheNationalCashRegisterCompany.Tenyearslater,NationalCashRegisterhadoveronethousandemployeesandwasonitswaytobecomingoneofthemostsuccessfulbusinessesofitstime.

Thebestwaytobreakabadhabitistomakeitimpracticaltodo.Increasethefrictionuntilyoudon’tevenhavetheoptiontoact.Thebrillianceofthecashregisterwasthatitautomatedethicalbehaviorbymakingstealingpracticallyimpossible.Ratherthantryingtochangetheemployees,itmadethepreferredbehaviorautomatic.

Someactions—likeinstallingacashregister—payoffagainandagain.Theseonetimechoicesrequirealittlebitofeffortupfrontbutcreateincreasingvalueovertime.I’mfascinatedbytheideathatasinglechoicecandeliverreturnsagainandagain,andIsurveyedmyreadersontheirfavoriteonetimeactionsthatleadtobetterlong-termhabits.Thetableonthefollowingpagesharessomeofthemostpopularanswers.

I’dwagerthatiftheaveragepersonweretosimplydohalfoftheonetimeactionsonthislist—eveniftheydidn’tgiveanotherthoughtto

theirhabits—mostwouldfindthemselveslivingabetterlifeayearfromnow.Theseonetimeactionsareastraightforwardwaytoemploythe3rdLawofBehaviorChange.Theymakeiteasiertosleepwell,eathealthy,beproductive,savemoney,andgenerallylivebetter.

ONETIMEACTIONSTHATLOCKINGOODHABITS

NutritionBuyawaterfiltertocleanyourdrinkingwater.

Usesmallerplatestoreducecaloricintake.Sleep

Buyagoodmattress.Getblackoutcurtains.

Removeyourtelevisionfromyourbedroom.Productivity

Unsubscribefromemails.Turnoffnotificationsandmutegroupchats.

Setyourphonetosilent.Useemailfilterstoclearupyourinbox.

Deletegamesandsocialmediaappsonyourphone.Happiness

Getadog.Movetoafriendly,socialneighborhood.

GeneralHealthGetvaccinated.

Buygoodshoestoavoidbackpain.Buyasupportivechairorstandingdesk.

FinanceEnrollinanautomaticsavingsplan.

Setupautomaticbillpay.Cutcableservice.

Askserviceproviderstoloweryourbills.

Ofcourse,therearemanywaystoautomategoodhabitsandeliminatebadones.Typically,theyinvolveputtingtechnologytoworkforyou.Technologycantransformactionsthatwereoncehard,annoying,andcomplicatedintobehaviorsthatareeasy,painless,andsimple.Itisthemostreliableandeffectivewaytoguaranteetherightbehavior.

Thisisparticularlyusefulforbehaviorsthathappentooinfrequentlytobecomehabitual.Thingsyouhavetodomonthlyoryearly—likerebalancingyourinvestmentportfolio—areneverrepeatedfrequentlyenoughtobecomeahabit,sotheybenefitinparticularfromtechnology“remembering”todothemforyou.

Otherexamplesinclude:

Medicine:Prescriptionscanbeautomaticallyrefilled.

Personalfinance:Employeescansaveforretirementwithanautomaticwagededuction.

Cooking:Meal-deliveryservicescandoyourgroceryshopping.

Productivity:Socialmediabrowsingcanbecutoffwithawebsiteblocker.

Whenyouautomateasmuchofyourlifeaspossible,youcanspendyoureffortonthetasksmachinescannotdoyet.Eachhabitthatwehandovertotheauthorityoftechnologyfreesuptimeandenergytopourintothenextstageofgrowth.AsmathematicianandphilosopherAlfredNorthWhiteheadwrote,“Civilizationadvancesbyextendingthenumberofoperationswecanperformwithoutthinkingaboutthem.”

Ofcourse,thepoweroftechnologycanworkagainstusaswell.Binge-watchingbecomesahabitbecauseyouhavetoputmoreeffortintostoplookingatthescreenthantocontinuedoingso.Insteadofpressingabuttontoadvancetothenextepisode,NetflixorYouTubewillautoplayitforyou.Allyouhavetodoiskeepyoureyesopen.

Technologycreatesalevelofconveniencethatenablesyoutoactonyoursmallestwhimsanddesires.Atthemeresuggestionofhunger,youcanhavefooddeliveredtoyourdoor.Attheslightesthintofboredom,youcangetlostinthevastexpanseofsocialmedia.Whentheeffortrequiredtoactonyourdesiresbecomeseffectivelyzero,youcanfindyourselfslippingintowhateverimpulsearisesatthemoment.Thedownsideofautomationisthatwecanfindourselvesjumpingfromeasytasktoeasytaskwithoutmakingtimeformoredifficult,butultimatelymorerewarding,work.

Ioftenfindmyselfgravitatingtowardsocialmediaduringanydowntime.IfIfeelboredforjustafractionofasecond,Ireachformyphone.It’seasytowriteofftheseminordistractionsas“justtakinga

break,”butovertimetheycanaccumulateintoaseriousissue.Theconstanttugof“justonemoreminute”canpreventmefromdoinganythingofconsequence.(I’mnottheonlyone.Theaveragepersonspendsovertwohoursperdayonsocialmedia.Whatcouldyoudowithanextrasixhundredhoursperyear?)

DuringtheyearIwaswritingthisbook,Iexperimentedwithanewtimemanagementstrategy.EveryMonday,myassistantwouldresetthepasswordsonallmysocialmediaaccounts,whichloggedmeoutoneachdevice.AllweekIworkedwithoutdistraction.OnFriday,shewouldsendmethenewpasswords.IhadtheentireweekendtoenjoywhatsocialmediahadtoofferuntilMondaymorningwhenshewoulddoitagain.(Ifyoudon’thaveanassistant,teamupwithafriendorfamilymemberandreseteachother’spasswordseachweek.)

OneofthebiggestsurpriseswashowquicklyIadapted.Withinthefirstweekoflockingmyselfoutofsocialmedia,IrealizedthatIdidn’tneedtocheckitnearlyasoftenasIhadbeen,andIcertainlydidn’tneediteachday.Ithadsimplybeensoeasythatithadbecomethedefault.Oncemybadhabitbecameimpossible,IdiscoveredthatIdidactuallyhavethemotivationtoworkonmoremeaningfultasks.AfterIremovedthementalcandyfrommyenvironment,itbecamemucheasiertoeatthehealthystuff.

Whenworkinginyourfavor,automationcanmakeyourgoodhabitsinevitableandyourbadhabitsimpossible.Itistheultimatewaytolockinfuturebehaviorratherthanrelyingonwillpowerinthemoment.Byutilizingcommitmentdevices,strategiconetimedecisions,andtechnology,youcancreateanenvironmentofinevitability—aspacewheregoodhabitsarenotjustanoutcomeyouhopeforbutanoutcomethatisvirtuallyguaranteed.

ChapterSummaryTheinversionofthe3rdLawofBehaviorChangeismakeitdifficult.

Acommitmentdeviceisachoiceyoumakeinthepresentthatlocksinbetterbehaviorinthefuture.

Theultimatewaytolockinfuturebehavioristoautomateyourhabits.

Onetimechoices—likebuyingabettermattressorenrollinginanautomaticsavingsplan—aresingleactionsthatautomateyourfuturehabitsanddeliverincreasingreturnsovertime.

Usingtechnologytoautomateyourhabitsisthemostreliableandeffectivewaytoguaranteetherightbehavior.

2.1:Usetemptationbundling.Pairanactionyouwanttodowithanactionyouneedtodo.2.2:Joinaculturewhereyourdesiredbehavioristhenormalbehavior.2.3:Createamotivationritual.Dosomethingyouenjoyimmediatelybeforeadifficulthabit.

The3rdLaw:MakeItEasy3.1:Reducefriction.Decreasethenumberofstepsbetweenyouandyourgoodhabits.3.2:Primetheenvironment.Prepareyourenvironmenttomakefutureactionseasier.3.3:Masterthedecisivemoment.Optimizethesmallchoicesthatdeliveroutsizedimpact.3.4:UsetheTwo-MinuteRule.Downscaleyourhabitsuntiltheycanbedoneintwominutes

orless.

3.5:Automateyourhabits.Investintechnologyandonetimepurchasesthatlockinfuturebehavior.

The4thLaw:MakeItSatisfying

HOWTOBREAKABADHABIT

Inversionofthe3rdLaw:MakeItDifficult3.6:Increasefriction.Increasethenumberofstepsbetweenyouandyourbadhabits.3.7:Useacommitmentdevice.Restrictyourfuturechoicestotheonesthatbenefityou.

Inversionofthe4thLaw:MakeItUnsatisfying

THE4THLAW

MakeItSatisfying

TheCardinalRuleofBehaviorChange

NTHELATE1990S,apublichealthworkernamedStephenLubylefthishometownofOmaha,Nebraska,andboughtaone-wayticketto

Karachi,Pakistan.

Karachiwasoneofthemostpopulouscitiesintheworld.By1998,overninemillionpeoplecalledithome.ItwastheeconomiccenterofPakistanandatransportationhub,withsomeofthemostactiveairportsandseaportsintheregion.Inthecommercialpartsoftown,youcouldfindallofthestandardurbanamenitiesandbustlingdowntownstreets.ButKarachiwasalsooneoftheleastlivablecitiesintheworld.

Over60percentofKarachi’sresidentslivedinsquattersettlementsandslums.Thesedenselypackedneighborhoodswerefilledwithmakeshifthousescobbledtogetherfromoldboards,cinderblocks,andotherdiscardedmaterials.Therewasnowasteremovalsystem,noelectricitygrid,nocleanwatersupply.Whendry,thestreetswereacombinationofdustandtrash.Whenwet,theybecameamuddypitofsewage.Mosquitocoloniesthrivedinpoolsofstagnantwater,andchildrenplayedamongthegarbage.

Theunsanitaryconditionsleadtowidespreadillnessanddisease.Contaminatedwatersourcescausedepidemicsofdiarrhea,vomiting,andabdominalpain.Nearlyonethirdofthechildrenlivingthereweremalnourished.Withsomanypeoplecrammedintosuchasmallspace,virusesandbacterialinfectionsspreadrapidly.ItwasthispublichealthcrisisthathadbroughtStephenLubytoPakistan.

Lubyandhisteamrealizedthatinanenvironmentwithpoorsanitation,thesimplehabitofwashingyourhandscouldmakeareal

differenceinthehealthoftheresidents.Buttheysoondiscoveredthatmanypeoplewerealreadyawarethathandwashingwasimportant.

Andyet,despitethisknowledge,manyresidentswerewashingtheirhandsinahaphazardfashion.Somepeoplewouldjustruntheirhandsunderthewaterquickly.Otherswouldonlywashonehand.Manywouldsimplyforgettowashtheirhandsbeforepreparingfood.Everyonesaidhandwashingwasimportant,butfewpeoplemadeahabitoutofit.Theproblemwasn’tknowledge.Theproblemwasconsistency.

ThatwaswhenLubyandhisteampartneredwithProcter&GambletosupplytheneighborhoodwithSafeguardsoap.Comparedtoyourstandardbarofsoap,usingSafeguardwasamoreenjoyableexperience.

“InPakistan,Safeguardwasapremiumsoap,”Lubytoldme.“Thestudyparticipantscommonlymentionedhowmuchtheylikedit.”Thesoapfoamedeasily,andpeoplewereabletolathertheirhandswithsuds.Itsmelledgreat.Instantly,handwashingbecameslightlymorepleasurable.

“Iseethegoalofhandwashingpromotionnotasbehaviorchangebutashabitadoption,”Lubysaid.“Itisaloteasierforpeopletoadoptaproductthatprovidesastrongpositivesensorysignal,forexampletheminttasteoftoothpaste,thanitistoadoptahabitthatdoesnotprovidepleasurablesensoryfeedback,likeflossingone’steeth.ThemarketingteamatProcter&Gambletalkedabouttryingtocreateapositivehandwashingexperience.”

Withinmonths,theresearcherssawarapidshiftinthehealthofchildrenintheneighborhood.Therateofdiarrheafellby52percent;pneumoniaby48percent;andimpetigo,abacterialskininfection,by35percent.

Thelong-termeffectswereevenbetter.“WewentbacktosomeofthehouseholdsinKarachisixyearsafter,”Lubytoldme.“Over95percentofhouseholdswhohadbeengiventhesoapforfreeandencouragedtowashtheirhandshadahandwashingstationwithsoapandwateravailablewhenourstudyteamvisited....Wehadnotgivenanysoaptotheinterventiongroupforoverfiveyears,butduringthetrialtheyhadbecomesohabituatedtowashtheirhands,thattheyhad

maintainedthepractice.”ItwasapowerfulexampleofthefourthandfinalLawofBehaviorChange:makeitsatisfying.

Wearemorelikelytorepeatabehaviorwhentheexperienceissatisfying.Thisisentirelylogical.Feelingsofpleasure—evenminoroneslikewashingyourhandswithsoapthatsmellsniceandlatherswell—aresignalsthattellthebrain:“Thisfeelsgood.Dothisagain,nexttime.”Pleasureteachesyourbrainthatabehaviorisworthrememberingandrepeating.

Takethestoryofchewinggum.Chewinggumhadbeensoldcommerciallythroughoutthe1800s,butitwasn’tuntilWrigleylaunchedin1891thatitbecameaworldwidehabit.Earlyversionsweremadefromrelativelyblandresins—chewy,butnottasty.WrigleyrevolutionizedtheindustrybyaddingflavorslikeSpearmintandJuicyFruit,whichmadetheproductflavorfulandfuntouse.Thentheywentastepfurtherandbeganpushingchewinggumasapathwaytoacleanmouth.Advertisementstoldreadersto“RefreshYourTaste.”

Tastyflavorsandthefeelingofafreshmouthprovidedlittlebitsofimmediatereinforcementandmadetheproductsatisfyingtouse.Consumptionskyrocketed,andWrigleybecamethelargestchewinggumcompanyintheworld.

Toothpastehadasimilartrajectory.Manufacturersenjoyedgreatsuccesswhentheyaddedflavorslikespearmint,peppermint,andcinnamontotheirproducts.Theseflavorsdon’timprovetheeffectivenessoftoothpaste.Theysimplycreatea“cleanmouth”feelandmaketheexperienceofbrushingyourteethmorepleasurable.MywifeactuallystoppedusingSensodynebecauseshedidn’tliketheaftertaste.Sheswitchedtoabrandwithastrongermintflavor,whichprovedtobemoresatisfying.

Conversely,ifanexperienceisnotsatisfying,wehavelittlereasontorepeatit.Inmyresearch,Icameacrossthestoryofawomanwhohadanarcissisticrelativewhodrovehernuts.Inanattempttospendlesstimewiththisegomaniac,sheactedasdullandasboringaspossiblewheneverhewasaround.Withinafewencounters,hestartedavoidingherbecausehefoundhersouninteresting.

StoriesliketheseareevidenceoftheCardinalRuleofBehaviorChange:Whatisrewardedisrepeated.Whatispunishedisavoided.Youlearnwhattodointhefuturebasedonwhatyouwererewarded

fordoing(orpunishedfordoing)inthepast.Positiveemotionscultivatehabits.Negativeemotionsdestroythem.

Thefirstthreelawsofbehaviorchange—makeitobvious,makeitattractive,andmakeiteasy—increasetheoddsthatabehaviorwillbeperformedthistime.Thefourthlawofbehaviorchange—makeitsatisfying—increasestheoddsthatabehaviorwillberepeatednexttime.Itcompletesthehabitloop.

Butthereisatrick.Wearenotlookingforjustanytypeofsatisfaction.Wearelookingforimmediatesatisfaction.

THEMISMATCHBETWEENIMMEDIATEANDDELAYEDREWARDS

Imagineyou’reananimalroamingtheplainsofAfrica—agiraffeoranelephantoralion.Onanygivenday,mostofyourdecisionshaveanimmediateimpact.Youarealwaysthinkingaboutwhattoeatorwheretosleeporhowtoavoidapredator.Youareconstantlyfocusedonthepresentortheverynearfuture.Youliveinwhatscientistscallanimmediate-returnenvironmentbecauseyouractionsinstantlydeliverclearandimmediateoutcomes.

Nowswitchbacktoyourhumanself.Inmodernsociety,manyofthechoicesyoumaketodaywillnotbenefityouimmediately.Ifyoudoagoodjobatwork,you’llgetapaycheckinafewweeks.Ifyouexercisetoday,perhapsyouwon’tbeoverweightnextyear.Ifyousavemoneynow,maybeyou’llhaveenoughforretirementdecadesfromnow.Youliveinwhatscientistscalladelayed-returnenvironmentbecauseyoucanworkforyearsbeforeyouractionsdelivertheintendedpayoff.

Thehumanbraindidnotevolveforlifeinadelayed-returnenvironment.Theearliestremainsofmodernhumans,knownasHomosapienssapiens,areapproximatelytwohundredthousandyearsold.Thesewerethefirsthumanstohaveabrainrelativelysimilartoours.Inparticular,theneocortex—thenewestpartofthebrainandtheregionresponsibleforhigherfunctionslikelanguage—wasroughlythesamesizetwohundredthousandyearsagoastoday.YouarewalkingaroundwiththesamehardwareasyourPaleolithicancestors.

Itisonlyrecently—duringthelastfivehundredyearsorso—thatsocietyhasshiftedtoapredominantlydelayed-returnenvironment.*

Comparedtotheageofthebrain,modernsocietyisbrand-new.Inthelastonehundredyears,wehaveseentheriseofthecar,theairplane,thetelevision,thepersonalcomputer,theinternet,thesmartphone,andBeyoncé.Theworldhaschangedmuchinrecentyears,buthumannaturehaschangedlittle.

SimilartootheranimalsontheAfricansavannah,ourancestorsspenttheirdaysrespondingtogravethreats,securingthenextmeal,andtakingshelterfromastorm.Itmadesensetoplaceahighvalueoninstantgratification.Thedistantfuturewaslessofaconcern.Andafterthousandsofgenerationsinanimmediate-returnenvironment,ourbrainsevolvedtopreferquickpayoffstolong-termones.

Behavioraleconomistsrefertothistendencyastimeinconsistency.Thatis,thewayyourbrainevaluatesrewardsisinconsistentacrosstime.*Youvaluethepresentmorethanthefuture.Usually,thistendencyservesuswell.Arewardthatiscertainrightnowistypicallyworthmorethanonethatismerelypossibleinthefuture.Butoccasionally,ourbiastowardinstantgratificationcausesproblems.

Whywouldsomeonesmokeiftheyknowitincreasestheriskoflungcancer?Whywouldsomeoneovereatwhentheyknowitincreasestheirriskofobesity?Whywouldsomeonehaveunsafesexiftheyknowitcanresultinsexuallytransmitteddisease?Onceyouunderstandhowthebrainprioritizesrewards,theanswersbecomeclear:theconsequencesofbadhabitsaredelayedwhiletherewardsareimmediate.Smokingmightkillyouintenyears,butitreducesstressandeasesyournicotinecravingsnow.Overeatingisharmfulinthelongrunbutappetizinginthemoment.Sex—safeornot—providespleasurerightaway.Diseaseandinfectionwon’tshowupfordaysorweeks,evenyears.

Everyhabitproducesmultipleoutcomesacrosstime.Unfortunately,theseoutcomesareoftenmisaligned.Withourbadhabits,theimmediateoutcomeusuallyfeelsgood,buttheultimateoutcomefeelsbad.Withgoodhabits,itisthereverse:theimmediateoutcomeisunenjoyable,buttheultimateoutcomefeelsgood.TheFrencheconomistFrédéricBastiatexplainedtheproblemclearlywhenhewrote,“Italmostalwayshappensthatwhentheimmediateconsequenceisfavorable,thelaterconsequencesaredisastrous,andviceversa....Often,thesweeterthefirstfruitofahabit,themorebitterareitslaterfruits.”

Putanotherway,thecostsofyourgoodhabitsareinthepresent.Thecostsofyourbadhabitsareinthefuture.

Thebrain’stendencytoprioritizethepresentmomentmeansyoucan’trelyongoodintentions.Whenyoumakeaplan—toloseweight,writeabook,orlearnalanguage—youareactuallymakingplansforyourfutureself.Andwhenyouenvisionwhatyouwantyourlifetobelike,itiseasytoseethevalueintakingactionswithlong-termbenefits.Weallwantbetterlivesforourfutureselves.However,whenthemomentofdecisionarrives,instantgratificationusuallywins.YouarenolongermakingachoiceforFutureYou,whodreamsofbeingfitterorwealthierorhappier.YouarechoosingforPresentYou,whowantstobefull,pampered,andentertained.Asageneralrule,themoreimmediatepleasureyougetfromanaction,themorestronglyyoushouldquestionwhetheritalignswithyourlong-termgoals.*

Withafullerunderstandingofwhatcausesourbraintorepeatsomebehaviorsandavoidothers,let’supdatetheCardinalRuleofBehaviorChange:Whatisimmediatelyrewardedisrepeated.Whatisimmediatelypunishedisavoided.

Ourpreferenceforinstantgratificationrevealsanimportanttruthaboutsuccess:becauseofhowwearewired,mostpeoplewillspendalldaychasingquickhitsofsatisfaction.Theroadlesstraveledistheroadofdelayedgratification.Ifyou’rewillingtowaitfortherewards,you’llfacelesscompetitionandoftengetabiggerpayoff.Asthesayinggoes,thelastmileisalwaystheleastcrowded.

Thisispreciselywhatresearchhasshown.PeoplewhoarebetteratdelayinggratificationhavehigherSATscores,lowerlevelsofsubstanceabuse,lowerlikelihoodofobesity,betterresponsestostress,andsuperiorsocialskills.We’veallseenthisplayoutinourownlives.Ifyoudelaywatchingtelevisionandgetyourhomeworkdone,you’llgenerallylearnmoreandgetbettergrades.Ifyoudon’tbuydessertsandchipsatthestore,you’llofteneathealthierfoodwhenyougethome.Atsomepoint,successinnearlyeveryfieldrequiresyoutoignoreanimmediaterewardinfavorofadelayedreward.

Here’stheproblem:mostpeopleknowthatdelayinggratificationisthewiseapproach.Theywantthebenefitsofgoodhabits:tobehealthy,productive,atpeace.Buttheseoutcomesareseldomtop-of-mindatthedecisivemoment.Thankfully,it’spossibletotrainyourselftodelaygratification—butyouneedtoworkwiththegrainofhuman

nature,notagainstit.Thebestwaytodothisistoaddalittlebitofimmediatepleasuretothehabitsthatpayoffinthelong-runandalittlebitofimmediatepaintoonesthatdon’t.

HOWTOTURNINSTANTGRATIFICATIONTOYOURADVANTAGE

Thevitalthingingettingahabittostickistofeelsuccessful—evenifit’sinasmallway.Thefeelingofsuccessisasignalthatyourhabitpaidoffandthattheworkwasworththeeffort.

Inaperfectworld,therewardforagoodhabitisthehabititself.Intherealworld,goodhabitstendtofeelworthwhileonlyaftertheyhaveprovidedyouwithsomething.Earlyon,it’sallsacrifice.You’vegonetothegymafewtimes,butyou’renotstrongerorfitterorfaster—atleast,notinanynoticeablesense.It’sonlymonthslater,onceyoushedafewpoundsoryourarmsgainsomedefinition,thatitbecomeseasiertoexerciseforitsownsake.Inthebeginning,youneedareasontostayontrack.Thisiswhyimmediaterewardsareessential.Theykeepyouexcitedwhilethedelayedrewardsaccumulateinthebackground.

Whatwe’rereallytalkingabouthere—whenwe’rediscussingimmediaterewards—istheendingofabehavior.Theendingofanyexperienceisvitalbecausewetendtorememberitmorethanotherphases.Youwanttheendingofyourhabittobesatisfying.Thebestapproachistousereinforcement,whichreferstotheprocessofusinganimmediaterewardtoincreasetherateofabehavior.Habitstacking,whichwecoveredinChapter5,tiesyourhabittoanimmediatecue,whichmakesitobviouswhentostart.Reinforcementtiesyourhabittoanimmediatereward,whichmakesitsatisfyingwhenyoufinish.

Immediatereinforcementcanbeespeciallyhelpfulwhendealingwithhabitsofavoidance,whicharebehaviorsyouwanttostopdoing.Itcanbechallengingtostickwithhabitslike“nofrivolouspurchases”or“noalcoholthismonth”becausenothinghappenswhenyouskiphappyhourdrinksordon’tbuythatpairofshoes.Itcanbehardtofeelsatisfiedwhenthereisnoactioninthefirstplace.Allyou’redoingisresistingtemptation,andthereisn’tmuchsatisfyingaboutthat.

Onesolutionistoturnthesituationonitshead.Youwanttomakeavoidancevisible.Openasavingsaccountandlabelitforsomethingyouwant—maybe“LeatherJacket.”Wheneveryoupassonapurchase,putthesameamountofmoneyintheaccount.Skipyourmorning

latte?Transfer$5.PassonanothermonthofNetflix?Move$10over.It’slikecreatingaloyaltyprogramforyourself.Theimmediaterewardofseeingyourselfsavemoneytowardtheleatherjacketfeelsalotbetterthanbeingdeprived.Youaremakingitsatisfyingtodonothing.

Oneofmyreadersandhiswifeusedasimilarsetup.Theywantedtostopeatingoutsomuchandstartcookingtogethermore.Theylabeledtheirsavingsaccount“TriptoEurope.”Whenevertheyskippedgoingouttoeat,theytransferred$50intotheaccount.Attheendoftheyear,theyputthemoneytowardthevacation.

Itisworthnotingthatitisimportanttoselectshort-termrewardsthatreinforceyouridentityratherthanonesthatconflictwithit.Buyinganewjacketisfineifyou’retryingtoloseweightorreadmorebooks,butitdoesn’tworkifyou’retryingtobudgetandsavemoney.Instead,takingabubblebathorgoingonaleisurelywalkaregoodexamplesofrewardingyourselfwithfreetime,whichalignswithyourultimategoalofmorefreedomandfinancialindependence.Similarly,ifyourrewardforexercisingiseatingabowloficecream,thenyou’recastingvotesforconflictingidentities,anditendsupbeingawash.Instead,maybeyourrewardisamassage,whichisbothaluxuryandavotetowardtakingcareofyourbody.Nowtheshort-termrewardisalignedwithyourlong-termvisionofbeingahealthyperson.

Eventually,asintrinsicrewardslikeabettermood,moreenergy,andreducedstresskickin,you’llbecomelessconcernedwithchasingthesecondaryreward.Theidentityitselfbecomesthereinforcer.Youdoitbecauseit’swhoyouareanditfeelsgoodtobeyou.Themoreahabitbecomespartofyourlife,thelessyouneedoutsideencouragementtofollowthrough.Incentivescanstartahabit.Identitysustainsahabit.

Thatsaid,ittakestimefortheevidencetoaccumulateandanewidentitytoemerge.Immediatereinforcementhelpsmaintainmotivationintheshorttermwhileyou’rewaitingforthelong-termrewardstoarrive.

Insummary,ahabitneedstobeenjoyableforittolast.Simplebitsofreinforcement—likesoapthatsmellsgreatortoothpastethathasarefreshingmintflavororseeing$50hityoursavingsaccount—canoffertheimmediatepleasureyouneedtoenjoyahabit.Andchangeiseasywhenitisenjoyable.

ChapterSummaryThe4thLawofBehaviorChangeismakeitsatisfying.

Wearemorelikelytorepeatabehaviorwhentheexperienceissatisfying.

Thehumanbrainevolvedtoprioritizeimmediaterewardsoverdelayedrewards.

TheCardinalRuleofBehaviorChange:Whatisimmediatelyrewardedisrepeated.Whatisimmediatelypunishedisavoided.

Togetahabittostickyouneedtofeelimmediatelysuccessful—evenifit’sinasmallway.

Thefirstthreelawsofbehaviorchange—makeitobvious,makeitattractive,andmakeiteasy—increasetheoddsthatabehaviorwillbeperformedthistime.Thefourthlawofbehaviorchange—makeitsatisfying—increasestheoddsthatabehaviorwillberepeatednexttime.

HowtoStickwithGoodHabitsEveryDay

N1993,abankinAbbotsford,Canada,hiredatwenty-three-year-oldstockbrokernamedTrentDyrsmid.Abbotsfordwasarelativelysmall

suburb,tuckedawayintheshadowofnearbyVancouver,wheremostofthebigbusinessdealswerebeingmade.Giventhelocation,andthefactthatDyrsmidwasarookie,nobodyexpectedtoomuchofhim.Buthemadebriskprogressthankstoasimpledailyhabit.

Dyrsmidbeganeachmorningwithtwojarsonhisdesk.Onewasfilledwith120paperclips.Theotherwasempty.Assoonashesettledineachday,hewouldmakeasalescall.Immediatelyafter,hewouldmoveonepaperclipfromthefulljartotheemptyjarandtheprocesswouldbeginagain.“EverymorningIwouldstartwith120paperclipsinonejarandIwouldkeepdialingthephoneuntilIhadmovedthemalltothesecondjar,”hetoldme.

Withineighteenmonths,Dyrsmidwasbringingin$5milliontothefirm.Byagetwenty-four,hewasmaking$75,000peryear—theequivalentof$125,000today.Notlongafter,helandedasix-figurejobwithanothercompany.

IliketorefertothistechniqueasthePaperClipStrategyand,overtheyears,I’veheardfromreaderswhohaveemployeditinavarietyofways.Onewomanshiftedahairpinfromonecontainertoanotherwhenevershewroteapageofherbook.Anothermanmovedamarblefromonebintothenextaftereachsetofpush-ups.

Makingprogressissatisfying,andvisualmeasures—likemovingpaperclipsorhairpinsormarbles—provideclearevidenceofyourprogress.Asaresult,theyreinforceyourbehaviorandaddalittlebitofimmediatesatisfactiontoanyactivity.Visualmeasurementcomesin

manyforms:foodjournals,workoutlogs,loyaltypunchcards,theprogressbaronasoftwaredownload,eventhepagenumbersinabook.Butperhapsthebestwaytomeasureyourprogressiswithahabittracker.

HOWTOKEEPYOURHABITSONTRACK

Ahabittrackerisasimplewaytomeasurewhetheryoudidahabit.Themostbasicformatistogetacalendarandcrossoffeachdayyoustickwithyourroutine.Forexample,ifyoumeditateonMonday,Wednesday,andFriday,eachofthosedatesgetsanX.Astimerollsby,thecalendarbecomesarecordofyourhabitstreak.

Countlesspeoplehavetrackedtheirhabits,butperhapsthemostfamouswasBenjaminFranklin.Beginningatagetwenty,Franklincarriedasmallbookleteverywherehewentandusedittotrackthirteenpersonalvirtues.Thislistincludedgoalslike“Losenotime.Bealwaysemployedinsomethinguseful”and“Avoidtriflingconversation.”Attheendofeachday,Franklinwouldopenhisbookletandrecordhisprogress.

JerrySeinfeldreportedlyusesahabittrackertostickwithhisstreakofwritingjokes.InthedocumentaryComedian,heexplainsthathisgoalissimplyto“neverbreakthechain”ofwritingjokeseveryday.Inotherwords,heisnotfocusedonhowgoodorbadaparticularjokeisorhowinspiredhefeels.Heissimplyfocusedonshowingupandaddingtohisstreak.

“Don’tbreakthechain”isapowerfulmantra.Don’tbreakthechainofsalescallsandyou’llbuildasuccessfulbookofbusiness.Don’tbreakthechainofworkoutsandyou’llgetfitfasterthanyou’dexpect.Don’tbreakthechainofcreatingeverydayandyouwillendupwithanimpressiveportfolio.HabittrackingispowerfulbecauseitleveragesmultipleLawsofBehaviorChange.Itsimultaneouslymakesabehaviorobvious,attractive,andsatisfying.

Let’sbreakdowneachone.

Benefit#1:Habittrackingisobvious.

Recordingyourlastactioncreatesatriggerthatcaninitiateyournextone.HabittrackingnaturallybuildsaseriesofvisualcueslikethestreakofX’sonyourcalendarorthelistofmealsinyourfoodlog.Whenyoulookatthecalendarandseeyourstreak,you’llberemindedtoactagain.Researchhasshownthatpeoplewhotracktheirprogressongoalslikelosingweight,quittingsmoking,andloweringbloodpressureareallmorelikelytoimprovethanthosewhodon’t.Onestudyofmorethansixteenhundredpeoplefoundthatthosewhokeptadailyfoodloglosttwiceasmuchweightasthosewhodidnot.Themereactoftrackingabehaviorcansparktheurgetochangeit.

Habittrackingalsokeepsyouhonest.Mostofushaveadistortedviewofourownbehavior.Wethinkweactbetterthanwedo.Measurementoffersonewaytoovercomeourblindnesstoourownbehaviorandnoticewhat’sreallygoingoneachday.Oneglanceatthepaperclipsinthecontainerandyouimmediatelyknowhowmuchworkyouhave(orhaven’t)beenputtingin.Whentheevidenceisrightinfrontofyou,you’relesslikelytolietoyourself.

Benefit#2:Habittrackingisattractive.

Themosteffectiveformofmotivationisprogress.Whenwegetasignalthatwearemovingforward,webecomemoremotivatedtocontinuedownthatpath.Inthisway,habittrackingcanhaveanaddictiveeffectonmotivation.Eachsmallwinfeedsyourdesire.

Thiscanbeparticularlypowerfulonabadday.Whenyou’refeelingdown,it’seasytoforgetaboutalltheprogressyouhavealreadymade.Habittrackingprovidesvisualproofofyourhardwork—asubtlereminderofhowfaryou’vecome.Plus,theemptysquareyouseeeachmorningcanmotivateyoutogetstartedbecauseyoudon’twanttoloseyourprogressbybreakingthestreak.

Benefit#3:Habittrackingissatisfying.

Thisisthemostcrucialbenefitofall.Trackingcanbecomeitsownformofreward.Itissatisfyingtocrossanitemoffyourto-dolist,tocompleteanentryinyourworkoutlog,ortomarkanXonthecalendar.Itfeelsgoodtowatchyourresultsgrow—thesizeofyour

investmentportfolio,thelengthofyourbookmanuscript—andifitfeelsgood,thenyou’remorelikelytoendure.

Habittrackingalsohelpskeepyoureyeontheball:you’refocusedontheprocessratherthantheresult.You’renotfixatedongettingsix-packabs,you’rejusttryingtokeepthestreakaliveandbecomethetypeofpersonwhodoesn’tmissworkouts.

Insummary,habittracking(1)createsavisualcuethatcanremindyoutoact,(2)isinherentlymotivatingbecauseyouseetheprogressyouaremakinganddon’twanttoloseit,and(3)feelssatisfyingwheneveryourecordanothersuccessfulinstanceofyourhabit.Furthermore,habittrackingprovidesvisualproofthatyouarecastingvotesforthetypeofpersonyouwishtobecome,whichisadelightfulformofimmediateandintrinsicgratification.*

Youmaybewondering,ifhabittrackingissouseful,whyhaveIwaitedsolongtotalkaboutit?

Despiteallthebenefits,I’veleftthisdiscussionuntilnowforasimplereason:manypeopleresisttheideaoftrackingandmeasuring.Itcanfeellikeaburdenbecauseitforcesyouintotwohabits:thehabityou’retryingtobuildandthehabitoftrackingit.Countingcaloriessoundslikeahasslewhenyou’realreadystrugglingtofollowadiet.Writingdowneverysalescallseemstediouswhenyou’vegotworktodo.Itfeelseasiertosay,“I’lljusteatless.”Or,“I’lltryharder.”Or,“I’llremembertodoit.”Peopleinevitablytellmethingslike,“Ihaveadecisionjournal,butIwishIuseditmore.”Or,“Irecordedmyworkoutsforaweek,butthenquit.”I’vebeentheremyself.Ioncemadeafoodlogtotrackmycalories.Imanagedtodoitforonemealandthengaveup.

Trackingisn’tforeveryone,andthereisnoneedtomeasureyourentirelife.Butnearlyanyonecanbenefitfromitinsomeform—evenifit’sonlytemporary.

Whatcanwedotomaketrackingeasier?

First,wheneverpossible,measurementshouldbeautomated.You’llprobablybesurprisedbyhowmuchyou’realreadytrackingwithoutknowingit.Yourcreditcardstatementtrackshowoftenyougoouttoeat.YourFitbitregistershowmanystepsyoutakeandhowlongyousleep.Yourcalendarrecordshowmanynewplacesyoutraveltoeachyear.Onceyouknowwheretogetthedata,addanotetoyourcalendar

toreviewiteachweekoreachmonth,whichismorepracticalthantrackingiteveryday.

Second,manualtrackingshouldbelimitedtoyourmostimportanthabits.Itisbettertoconsistentlytrackonehabitthantosporadicallytrackten.

Finally,recordeachmeasurementimmediatelyafterthehabitoccurs.Thecompletionofthebehavioristhecuetowriteitdown.Thisapproachallowsyoutocombinethehabit-stackingmethodmentionedinChapter5withhabittracking.

Thehabitstacking+habittrackingformulais:

After[CURRENTHABIT],Iwill[TRACKMYHABIT].

AfterIhangupthephonefromasalescall,Iwillmoveonepaperclipover.

AfterIfinisheachsetatthegym,Iwillrecorditinmyworkoutjournal.

AfterIputmyplateinthedishwasher,IwillwritedownwhatIate.

Thesetacticscanmaketrackingyourhabitseasier.Evenifyouaren’tthetypeofpersonwhoenjoysrecordingyourbehavior,Ithinkyou’llfindafewweeksofmeasurementstobeinsightful.It’salwaysinterestingtoseehowyou’veactuallybeenspendingyourtime.

Thatsaid,everyhabitstreakendsatsomepoint.And,moreimportantthananysinglemeasurement,ishavingagoodplanforwhenyourhabitsslideofftrack.

HOWTORECOVERQUICKLYWHENYOURHABITSBREAKDOWN

Nomatterhowconsistentyouarewithyourhabits,itisinevitablethatlifewillinterruptyouatsomepoint.Perfectionisnotpossible.Beforelong,anemergencywillpopup—yougetsickoryouhavetotravelforworkoryourfamilyneedsalittlemoreofyourtime.

Wheneverthishappenstome,Itrytoremindmyselfofasimplerule:nevermisstwice.

IfImissoneday,Itrytogetbackintoitasquicklyaspossible.Missingoneworkouthappens,butI’mnotgoingtomisstwoinarow.MaybeI’lleatanentirepizza,butI’llfollowitupwithahealthymeal.Ican’tbeperfect,butIcanavoidasecondlapse.Assoonasonestreakends,Igetstartedonthenextone.

Thefirstmistakeisnevertheonethatruinsyou.Itisthespiralofrepeatedmistakesthatfollows.Missingonceisanaccident.Missingtwiceisthestartofanewhabit.

Thisisadistinguishingfeaturebetweenwinnersandlosers.Anyonecanhaveabadperformance,abadworkout,orabaddayatwork.Butwhensuccessfulpeoplefail,theyreboundquickly.Thebreakingofahabitdoesn’tmatterifthereclaimingofitisfast.

IthinkthisprincipleissoimportantthatI’llsticktoitevenifIcan’tdoahabitaswellorascompletelyasIwouldlike.Toooften,wefallintoanall-or-nothingcyclewithourhabits.Theproblemisnotslippingup;theproblemisthinkingthatifyoucan’tdosomethingperfectly,thenyoushouldn’tdoitatall.

Youdon’trealizehowvaluableitistojustshowuponyourbad(orbusy)days.Lostdayshurtyoumorethansuccessfuldayshelpyou.Ifyoustartwith$100,thena50percentgainwilltakeyouto$150.Butyouonlyneeda33percentlosstotakeyoubackto$100.Inotherwords,avoidinga33percentlossisjustasvaluableasachievinga50percentgain.AsCharlieMungersays,“Thefirstruleofcompounding:Neverinterruptitunnecessarily.”

Thisiswhythe“bad”workoutsareoftenthemostimportantones.Sluggishdaysandbadworkoutsmaintainthecompoundgainsyouaccruedfrompreviousgooddays.Simplydoingsomething—tensquats,fivesprints,apush-up,anythingreally—ishuge.Don’tputupazero.Don’tletlosseseatintoyourcompounding.

Furthermore,it’snotalwaysaboutwhathappensduringtheworkout.It’saboutbeingthetypeofpersonwhodoesn’tmissworkouts.It’seasytotrainwhenyoufeelgood,butit’scrucialtoshowupwhenyoudon’tfeellikeit—evenifyoudolessthanyouhope.Goingtothegymforfiveminutesmaynotimproveyourperformance,butitreaffirmsyouridentity.

Theall-or-nothingcycleofbehaviorchangeisjustonepitfallthatcanderailyourhabits.Anotherpotentialdanger—especiallyifyouare

usingahabittracker—ismeasuringthewrongthing.

KNOWINGWHEN(ANDWHENNOT)TOTRACKAHABIT

Sayyou’rerunningarestaurantandyouwanttoknowifyourchefisdoingagoodjob.Onewaytomeasuresuccessistotrackhowmanycustomerspayforamealeachday.Ifmorecustomerscomein,thefoodmustbegood.Iffewercustomerscomein,somethingmustbewrong.

However,thisonemeasurement—dailyrevenue—onlygivesalimitedpictureofwhat’sreallygoingon.Justbecausesomeonepaysforamealdoesn’tmeantheyenjoythemeal.Evendissatisfiedcustomersareunlikelytodineanddash.Infact,ifyou’reonlymeasuringrevenue,thefoodmightbegettingworsebutyou’remakingupforitwithmarketingordiscountsorsomeothermethod.Instead,itmaybemoreeffectivetotrackhowmanycustomersfinishtheirmealorperhapsthepercentageofcustomerswholeaveageneroustip.

Thedarksideoftrackingaparticularbehavioristhatwebecomedrivenbythenumberratherthanthepurposebehindit.Ifyoursuccessismeasuredbyquarterlyearnings,youwilloptimizesales,revenue,andaccountingforquarterlyearnings.Ifyoursuccessismeasuredbyalowernumberonthescale,youwilloptimizeforalowernumberonthescale,evenifthatmeansembracingcrashdiets,juicecleanses,andfat-losspills.Thehumanmindwantsto“win”whatevergameisbeingplayed.

Thispitfallisevidentinmanyareasoflife.Wefocusonworkinglonghoursinsteadofgettingmeaningfulworkdone.Wecaremoreaboutgettingtenthousandstepsthanwedoaboutbeinghealthy.Weteachforstandardizedtestsinsteadofemphasizinglearning,curiosity,andcriticalthinking.Inshort,weoptimizeforwhatwemeasure.Whenwechoosethewrongmeasurement,wegetthewrongbehavior.

ThisissometimesreferredtoasGoodhart’sLaw.NamedaftertheeconomistCharlesGoodhart,theprinciplestates,“Whenameasurebecomesatarget,itceasestobeagoodmeasure.”Measurementisonlyusefulwhenitguidesyouandaddscontexttoalargerpicture,notwhenitconsumesyou.Eachnumberissimplyonepieceoffeedbackintheoverallsystem.

Inourdata-drivenworld,wetendtoovervaluenumbersandundervalueanythingephemeral,soft,anddifficulttoquantify.Wemistakenlythinkthefactorswecanmeasurearetheonlyfactorsthatexist.Butjustbecauseyoucanmeasuresomethingdoesn’tmeanit’sthemostimportantthing.Andjustbecauseyoucan’tmeasuresomethingdoesn’tmeanit’snotimportantatall.

Allofthistosay,it’scrucialtokeephabittrackinginitsproperplace.Itcanfeelsatisfyingtorecordahabitandtrackyourprogress,butthemeasurementisnottheonlythingthatmatters.Furthermore,therearemanywaystomeasureprogress,andsometimesithelpstoshiftyourfocustosomethingentirelydifferent.

Thisiswhynonscalevictoriescanbeeffectiveforweightloss.Thenumberonthescalemaybestubborn,soifyoufocussolelyonthatnumber,yourmotivationwillsag.Butyoumaynoticethatyourskinlooksbetteroryouwakeupearlieroryoursexdrivegotaboost.Allofthesearevalidwaystotrackyourimprovement.Ifyou’renotfeelingmotivatedbythenumberonthescale,perhapsit’stimetofocusonadifferentmeasurement—onethatgivesyoumoresignalsofprogress.

Nomatterhowyoumeasureyourimprovement,habittrackingoffersasimplewaytomakeyourhabitsmoresatisfying.Eachmeasurementprovidesalittlebitofevidencethatyou’removingintherightdirectionandabriefmomentofimmediatepleasureforajobwelldone.

ChapterSummaryOneofthemostsatisfyingfeelingsisthefeelingofmakingprogress.

Ahabittrackerisasimplewaytomeasurewhetheryoudidahabit—likemarkinganXonacalendar.

Habittrackersandothervisualformsofmeasurementcanmakeyourhabitssatisfyingbyprovidingclearevidenceofyourprogress.

Don’tbreakthechain.Trytokeepyourhabitstreakalive.

Nevermisstwice.Ifyoumissoneday,trytogetbackontrackasquicklyaspossible.

Justbecauseyoucanmeasuresomethingdoesn’tmeanit’sthemostimportantthing.

HowanAccountabilityPartnerCanChangeEverything

FTERSERVINGASapilotinWorldWarII,RogerFisherattendedHarvardLawSchoolandspentthirty-fouryearsspecializingin

negotiationandconflictmanagement.HefoundedtheHarvardNegotiationProjectandworkedwithnumerouscountriesandworldleadersonpeaceresolutions,hostagecrises,anddiplomaticcompromises.Butitwasinthe1970sand1980s,asthethreatofnuclearwarescalated,thatFisherdevelopedperhapshismostinterestingidea.

Atthetime,Fisherwasfocusedondesigningstrategiesthatcouldpreventnuclearwar,andhehadnoticedatroublingfact.Anysittingpresidentwouldhaveaccesstolaunchcodesthatcouldkillmillionsofpeoplebutwouldneveractuallyseeanyonediebecausehewouldalwaysbethousandsofmilesaway.

“Mysuggestionwasquitesimple,”hewrotein1981.“Putthat[nuclear]codenumberinalittlecapsule,andthenimplantthatcapsulerightnexttotheheartofavolunteer.Thevolunteerwouldcarrywithhimabig,heavybutcherknifeasheaccompaniedthePresident.IfeverthePresidentwantedtofirenuclearweapons,theonlywayhecoulddosowouldbeforhimfirst,withhisownhands,tokillonehumanbeing.ThePresidentsays,‘George,I’msorrybuttensofmillionsmustdie.’Hehastolookatsomeoneandrealizewhatdeathis—whataninnocentdeathis.BloodontheWhiteHousecarpet.It’srealitybroughthome.

“WhenIsuggestedthistofriendsinthePentagontheysaid,‘MyGod,that’sterrible.HavingtokillsomeonewoulddistortthePresident’sjudgment.Hemightneverpushthebutton.’”

Throughoutourdiscussionofthe4thLawofBehaviorChangewehavecoveredtheimportanceofmakinggoodhabitsimmediatelysatisfying.Fisher’sproposalisaninversionofthe4thLaw:Makeitimmediatelyunsatisfying.

Justaswearemorelikelytorepeatanexperiencewhentheendingissatisfying,wearealsomorelikelytoavoidanexperiencewhentheendingispainful.Painisaneffectiveteacher.Ifafailureispainful,itgetsfixed.Ifafailureisrelativelypainless,itgetsignored.Themoreimmediateandmorecostlyamistakeis,thefasteryouwilllearnfromit.Thethreatofabadreviewforcesaplumbertobegoodathisjob.Thepossibilityofacustomerneverreturningmakesrestaurantscreategoodfood.Thecostofcuttingthewrongbloodvesselmakesasurgeonmasterhumananatomyandcutcarefully.Whentheconsequencesaresevere,peoplelearnquickly.

Themoreimmediatethepain,thelesslikelythebehavior.Ifyouwanttopreventbadhabitsandeliminateunhealthybehaviors,thenaddinganinstantcosttotheactionisagreatwaytoreducetheirodds.

Werepeatbadhabitsbecausetheyserveusinsomeway,andthatmakesthemhardtoabandon.ThebestwayIknowtoovercomethispredicamentistoincreasethespeedofthepunishmentassociatedwiththebehavior.Therecan’tbeagapbetweentheactionandtheconsequences.

Assoonasactionsincuranimmediateconsequence,behaviorbeginstochange.Customerspaytheirbillsontimewhentheyarechargedalatefee.Studentsshowuptoclasswhentheirgradeislinkedtoattendance.We’lljumpthroughalotofhoopstoavoidalittlebitofimmediatepain.

Thereis,ofcourse,alimittothis.Ifyou’regoingtorelyonpunishmenttochangebehavior,thenthestrengthofthepunishmentmustmatchtherelativestrengthofthebehavioritistryingtocorrect.Tobeproductive,thecostofprocrastinationmustbegreaterthanthecostofaction.Tobehealthy,thecostoflazinessmustbegreaterthanthecostofexercise.Gettingfinedforsmokinginarestaurantorfailing

torecycleaddsconsequencetoanaction.Behavioronlyshiftsifthepunishmentispainfulenoughandreliablyenforced.

Ingeneral,themorelocal,tangible,concrete,andimmediatetheconsequence,themorelikelyitistoinfluenceindividualbehavior.Themoreglobal,intangible,vague,anddelayedtheconsequence,thelesslikelyitistoinfluenceindividualbehavior.

Thankfully,thereisastraightforwardwaytoaddanimmediatecosttoanybadhabit:createahabitcontract.

THEHABITCONTRACT

ThefirstseatbeltlawwaspassedinNewYorkonDecember1,1984.Atthetime,just14percentofpeopleintheUnitedStatesregularlyworeaseatbelt—butthatwasallabouttochange.

Withinfiveyears,overhalfofthenationhadseatbeltlaws.Today,wearingaseatbeltisenforceablebylawinforty-nineofthefiftystates.Andit’snotjustthelegislation,thenumberofpeoplewearingseatbeltshaschangeddramaticallyaswell.In2016,over88percentofAmericansbuckledupeachtimetheygotinacar.Injustoverthirtyyears,therewasacompletereversalinthehabitsofmillionsofpeople.

Lawsandregulationsareanexampleofhowgovernmentcanchangeourhabitsbycreatingasocialcontract.Asasociety,wecollectivelyagreetoabidebycertainrulesandthenenforcethemasagroup.Wheneveranewpieceoflegislationimpactsbehavior—seatbeltlaws,banningsmokinginsiderestaurants,mandatoryrecycling—itisanexampleofasocialcontractshapingourhabits.Thegroupagreestoactinacertainway,andifyoudon’tfollowalong,you’llbepunished.

Justasgovernmentsuselawstoholdcitizensaccountable,youcancreateahabitcontracttoholdyourselfaccountable.Ahabitcontractisaverbalorwrittenagreementinwhichyoustateyourcommitmenttoaparticularhabitandthepunishmentthatwilloccurifyoudon’tfollowthrough.Thenyoufindoneortwopeopletoactasyouraccountabilitypartnersandsignoffonthecontractwithyou.

BryanHarris,anentrepreneurfromNashville,Tennessee,wasthefirstpersonIsawputthisstrategyintoaction.Shortlyafterthebirthofhisson,Harrisrealizedhewantedtoshedafewpounds.Hewroteupahabitcontractbetweenhimself,hiswife,andhispersonaltrainer.The

firstversionread,“Bryan’s#1objectiveforQ1of2017istostarteatingcorrectlyagainsohefeelsbetter,looksbetter,andisabletohithislong-termgoalof200poundsat10%bodyfat.”

Belowthatstatement,Harrislaidoutaroadmapforachievinghisidealoutcome:

Phase#1:Getbacktoastrict“slow-carb”dietinQ1.

Phase#2:StartastrictmacronutrienttrackingprograminQ2.

Phase#3:RefineandmaintainthedetailsofhisdietandworkoutprograminQ3.

Finally,hewroteouteachofthedailyhabitsthatwouldgethimtohisgoal.Forexample,“Writedownallfoodthatheconsumeseachdayandweighhimselfeachday.”

Andthenhelistedthepunishmentifhefailed:“IfBryandoesn’tdothesetwoitemsthenthefollowingconsequencewillbeenforced:HewillhavetodressupeachworkdayandeachSundaymorningfortherestofthequarter.Dressupisdefinedasnotwearingjeans,t-shirts,hoodies,orshorts.HewillalsogiveJoey(histrainer)$200touseasheseesfitifhemissesonedayofloggingfood.”

Atthebottomofthepage,Harris,hiswife,andhistrainerallsignedthecontract.

Myinitialreactionwasthatacontractlikethisseemedoverlyformalandunnecessary,especiallythesignatures.ButHarrisconvincedmethatsigningthecontractwasanindicationofseriousness.“AnytimeIskipthispart,”hesaid,“Istartslackingalmostimmediately.”

Threemonthslater,afterhittinghistargetsforQ1,Harrisupgradedhisgoals.Theconsequencesescalated,too.Ifhemissedhiscarbohydrateandproteintargets,hehadtopayhistrainer$100.Andifhefailedtoweighhimself,hehadtogivehiswife$500touseasshesawfit.Perhapsmostpainfully,ifheforgottorunsprints,hehadtodressupforworkeverydayandwearanAlabamahattherestofthequarter—thebitterrivalofhisbelovedAuburnteam.

Thestrategyworked.Withhiswifeandtraineractingasaccountabilitypartnersandwiththehabitcontractclarifyingexactly

whattodoeachday,Harrislosttheweight.*

Tomakebadhabitsunsatisfying,yourbestoptionistomakethempainfulinthemoment.Creatingahabitcontractisastraightforwardwaytodoexactlythat.

Evenifyoudon’twanttocreateafull-blownhabitcontract,simplyhavinganaccountabilitypartnerisuseful.ThecomedianMargaretChowritesajokeorsongeveryday.Shedoesthe“songaday”challengewithafriend,whichhelpsthembothstayaccountable.Knowingthatsomeoneiswatchingcanbeapowerfulmotivator.Youarelesslikelytoprocrastinateorgiveupbecausethereisanimmediatecost.Ifyoudon’tfollowthrough,perhapsthey’llseeyouasuntrustworthyorlazy.Suddenly,youarenotonlyfailingtoupholdyourpromisestoyourself,butalsofailingtoupholdyourpromisestoothers.

Youcanevenautomatethisprocess.ThomasFrank,anentrepreneurinBoulder,Colorado,wakesupat5:55eachmorning.Andifhedoesn’t,hehasatweetautomaticallyscheduledthatsays,“It’s6:10andI’mnotupbecauseI’mlazy!Replytothisfor$5viaPayPal(limit5),assumingmyalarmdidn’tmalfunction.”

Wearealwaystryingtopresentourbestselvestotheworld.Wecombourhairandbrushourteethanddressourselvescarefullybecauseweknowthesehabitsarelikelytogetapositivereaction.Wewanttogetgoodgradesandgraduatefromtopschoolstoimpresspotentialemployersandmatesandourfriendsandfamily.Wecareabouttheopinionsofthosearoundusbecauseithelpsifotherslikeus.Thisispreciselywhygettinganaccountabilitypartnerorsigningahabitcontractcanworksowell.

ChapterSummaryTheinversionofthe4thLawofBehaviorChangeismakeitunsatisfying.

Wearelesslikelytorepeatabadhabitifitispainfulorunsatisfying.

Anaccountabilitypartnercancreateanimmediatecosttoinaction.Wecaredeeplyaboutwhatothersthinkofus,andwedonotwantotherstohavealesseropinionofus.

Ahabitcontractcanbeusedtoaddasocialcosttoanybehavior.Itmakesthecostsofviolatingyourpromisespublicandpainful.

Knowingthatsomeoneelseiswatchingyoucanbeapowerfulmotivator.

2.1:Usetemptationbundling.Pairanactionyouwanttodowithanactionyouneedtodo.2.2:Joinaculturewhereyourdesiredbehavioristhenormalbehavior.2.3:Createamotivationritual.Dosomethingyouenjoyimmediatelybeforeadifficulthabit.

The3rdLaw:MakeItEasy3.1:Reducefriction.Decreasethenumberofstepsbetweenyouandyourgoodhabits.3.2:Primetheenvironment.Prepareyourenvironmenttomakefutureactionseasier.3.3:Masterthedecisivemoment.Optimizethesmallchoicesthatdeliveroutsizedimpact.3.4:UsetheTwo-MinuteRule.Downscaleyourhabitsuntiltheycanbedoneintwominutes

orless.

3.5:Automateyourhabits.Investintechnologyandonetimepurchasesthatlockinfuturebehavior.

The4thLaw:MakeItSatisfying4.1:Usereinforcement.Giveyourselfanimmediaterewardwhenyoucompleteyourhabit.4.2:Make“doingnothing”enjoyable.Whenavoidingabadhabit,designawaytoseethe

benefits.

4.3:Useahabittracker.Keeptrackofyourhabitstreakand“don’tbreakthechain.”4.4:Nevermisstwice.Whenyouforgettodoahabit,makesureyougetbackontrack

immediately.

HOWTOBREAKABADHABIT

Inversionofthe3rdLaw:MakeItDifficult3.6:Increasefriction.Increasethenumberofstepsbetweenyouandyourbadhabits.3.7:Useacommitmentdevice.Restrictyourfuturechoicestotheonesthatbenefityou.

Inversionofthe4thLaw:MakeItUnsatisfying4.5:Getanaccountabilitypartner.Asksomeonetowatchyourbehavior.

4.6:Createahabitcontract.Makethecostsofyourbadhabitspublicandpainful.

ADVANCEDTACTICS

HowtoGofromBeingMerelyGoodtoBeingTrulyGreat

TheTruthAboutTalent(WhenGenesMatterandWhenTheyDon’t)

ANYPEOPLEAREfamiliarwithMichaelPhelps,whoiswidelyconsideredtobeoneofthegreatestathletesinhistory.Phelpshas

wonmoreOlympicmedalsnotonlythananyswimmerbutalsomorethananyOlympianinanysport.

FewerpeopleknowthenameHichamElGuerrouj,buthewasafantasticathleteinhisownright.ElGuerroujisaMoroccanrunnerwhoholdstwoOlympicgoldmedalsandisoneofthegreatestmiddle-distancerunnersofalltime.Formanyyears,heheldtheworldrecordinthemile,1,500-meter,and2,000-meterraces.AttheOlympicGamesinAthens,Greece,in2004,hewongoldinthe1,500-meterand5,000-meterraces.

Thesetwoathletesarewildlydifferentinmanyways.(Forstarters,onecompetedonlandandtheotherinwater.)Butmostnotably,theydiffersignificantlyinheight.ElGuerroujisfivefeet,nineinchestall.Phelpsissixfeet,fourinchestall.Despitethisseven-inchdifferenceinheight,thetwomenareidenticalinonerespect:MichaelPhelpsandHichamElGuerroujwearthesamelengthinseamontheirpants.

Howisthispossible?Phelpshasrelativelyshortlegsforhisheightandaverylongtorso,theperfectbuildforswimming.ElGuerroujhasincrediblylonglegsandashortupperbody,anidealframefordistancerunning.

Now,imagineiftheseworld-classathletesweretoswitchsports.Givenhisremarkableathleticism,couldMichaelPhelpsbecomeanOlympic-caliberdistancerunnerwithenoughtraining?It’sunlikely.At

peakfitness,Phelpsweighed194pounds,whichis40percentheavierthanElGuerrouj,whocompetedatanultralight138pounds.Tallerrunnersareheavierrunners,andeveryextrapoundisacursewhenitcomestodistancerunning.Againstelitecompetition,Phelpswouldbedoomedfromthestart.

Similarly,ElGuerroujmightbeoneofthebestrunnersinhistory,butit’sdoubtfulhewouldeverqualifyfortheOlympicsasaswimmer.Since1976,theaverageheightofOlympicgoldmedalistsinthemen’s1,500-meterrunisfivefeet,teninches.Incomparison,theaverageheightofOlympicgoldmedalistsinthemen’s100-meterfreestyleswimissixfeet,fourinches.Swimmerstendtobetallandhavelongbacksandarms,whichareidealforpullingthroughthewater.ElGuerroujwouldbeataseveredisadvantagebeforeheevertouchedthepool.

Thesecrettomaximizingyouroddsofsuccessistochoosetherightfieldofcompetition.Thisisjustastruewithhabitchangeasitiswithsportsandbusiness.Habitsareeasiertoperform,andmoresatisfyingtostickwith,whentheyalignwithyournaturalinclinationsandabilities.LikeMichaelPhelpsinthepoolorHichamElGuerroujonthetrack,youwanttoplayagamewheretheoddsareinyourfavor.

Embracingthisstrategyrequirestheacceptanceofthesimpletruththatpeoplearebornwithdifferentabilities.Somepeopledon’tliketodiscussthisfact.Onthesurface,yourgenesseemtobefixed,andit’snofuntotalkaboutthingsyoucannotcontrol.Plus,phraseslikebiologicaldeterminismmakesitsoundlikecertainindividualsaredestinedforsuccessandothersdoomedtofailure.Butthisisashortsightedviewoftheinfluenceofgenesonbehavior.

Thestrengthofgeneticsisalsotheirweakness.Genescannotbeeasilychanged,whichmeanstheyprovideapowerfuladvantageinfavorablecircumstancesandaseriousdisadvantageinunfavorablecircumstances.Ifyouwanttodunkabasketball,beingsevenfeettallisveryuseful.Ifyouwanttoperformagymnasticsroutine,beingsevenfeettallisagreathindrance.Ourenvironmentdeterminesthesuitabilityofourgenesandtheutilityofournaturaltalents.Whenourenvironmentchanges,sodothequalitiesthatdeterminesuccess.

Thisistruenotjustforphysicalcharacteristicsbutformentalonesaswell.I’msmartifyouaskmeabouthabitsandhumanbehavior;not

somuchwhenitcomestoknitting,rocketpropulsion,orguitarchords.Competenceishighlydependentoncontext.

Thepeopleatthetopofanycompetitivefieldarenotonlywelltrained,theyarealsowellsuitedtothetask.Andthisiswhy,ifyouwanttobetrulygreat,selectingtherightplacetofocusiscrucial.

Inshort:genesdonotdetermineyourdestiny.Theydetermineyourareasofopportunity.AsphysicianGaborMatenotes,“Genescanpredispose,buttheydon’tpredetermine.”Theareaswhereyouaregeneticallypredisposedtosuccessaretheareaswherehabitsaremorelikelytobesatisfying.Thekeyistodirectyourefforttowardareasthatbothexciteyouandmatchyournaturalskills,toalignyourambitionwithyourability.

Theobviousquestionis,“HowdoIfigureoutwheretheoddsareinmyfavor?HowdoIidentifytheopportunitiesandhabitsthatarerightforme?”Thefirstplacewewilllookforananswerisbyunderstandingyourpersonality.

HOWYOURPERSONALITYINFLUENCESYOURHABITS

Yourgenesareoperatingbeneaththesurfaceofeveryhabit.Indeed,beneaththesurfaceofeverybehavior.Geneshavebeenshowntoinfluenceeverythingfromthenumberofhoursyouspendwatchingtelevisiontoyourlikelihoodtomarryordivorcetoyourtendencytogetaddictedtodrugs,alcohol,ornicotine.There’sastronggeneticcomponenttohowobedientorrebelliousyouarewhenfacingauthority,howvulnerableorresistantyouaretostressfulevents,howproactiveorreactiveyoutendtobe,andevenhowcaptivatedorboredyoufeelduringsensoryexperienceslikeattendingaconcert.AsRobertPlomin,abehavioralgeneticistatKing’sCollegeinLondon,toldme,“Itisnowatthepointwherewehavestoppedtestingtoseeiftraitshaveageneticcomponentbecauseweliterallycan’tfindasingleonethatisn’tinfluencedbyourgenes.”

Bundledtogether,youruniqueclusterofgenetictraitspredisposeyoutoaparticularpersonality.Yourpersonalityisthesetofcharacteristicsthatisconsistentfromsituationtosituation.Themostprovenscientificanalysisofpersonalitytraitsisknownasthe“BigFive,”whichbreaksthemdownintofivespectrumsofbehavior.

1. Opennesstoexperience:fromcuriousandinventiveononeendtocautiousandconsistentontheother.

2. Conscientiousness:organizedandefficienttoeasygoingandspontaneous.

3. Extroversion:outgoingandenergetictosolitaryandreserved(youlikelyknowthemasextrovertsvs.introverts).

4. Agreeableness:friendlyandcompassionatetochallenginganddetached.

5. Neuroticism:anxiousandsensitivetoconfident,calm,andstable.

Allfivecharacteristicshavebiologicalunderpinnings.Extroversion,forinstance,canbetrackedfrombirth.Ifscientistsplayaloudnoiseinthenursingward,somebabiesturntowarditwhileothersturnaway.Whentheresearcherstrackedthesechildrenthroughlife,theyfoundthatthebabieswhoturnedtowardthenoiseweremorelikelytogrowuptobeextroverts.Thosewhoturnedawayweremorelikelytobecomeintroverts.

Peoplewhoarehighinagreeablenessarekind,considerate,andwarm.Theyalsotendtohavehighernaturaloxytocinlevels,ahormonethatplaysanimportantroleinsocialbonding,increasesfeelingsoftrust,andcanactasanaturalantidepressant.Youcaneasilyimaginehowsomeonewithmoreoxytocinmightbeinclinedtobuildhabitslikewritingthank-younotesororganizingsocialevents.

Asathirdexample,considerneuroticism,whichisapersonalitytraitallpeoplepossesstovariousdegrees.Peoplewhoarehighinneuroticismtendtobeanxiousandworrymorethanothers.Thistraithasbeenlinkedtohypersensitivityoftheamygdala,theportionofthebrainresponsiblefornoticingthreats.Inotherwords,peoplewhoaremoresensitivetonegativecuesintheirenvironmentaremorelikelytoscorehighinneuroticism.

Ourhabitsarenotsolelydeterminedbyourpersonalities,butthereisnodoubtthatourgenesnudgeusinacertaindirection.Ourdeeplyrootedpreferencesmakecertainbehaviorseasierforsomepeoplethanforothers.Youdon’thavetoapologizeforthesedifferencesorfeelguiltyaboutthem,butyoudohavetoworkwiththem.Apersonwhoscoresloweronconscientiousness,forexample,willbelesslikelytobe

orderlybynatureandmayneedtorelymoreheavilyonenvironmentdesigntostickwithgoodhabits.(Asareminderforthelessconscientiousreadersamongus,environmentdesignisastrategywediscussedinChapters6and12.)

Thetakeawayisthatyoushouldbuildhabitsthatworkforyourpersonality.*Peoplecangetrippedworkingoutlikeabodybuilder,butifyoupreferrockclimbingorcyclingorrowing,thenshapeyourexercisehabitaroundyourinterests.Ifyourfriendfollowsalow-carbdietbutyoufindthatlow-fatworksforyou,thenmorepowertoyou.Ifyouwanttoreadmore,don’tbeembarrassedifyouprefersteamyromancenovelsovernonfiction.Readwhateverfascinatesyou.*Youdon’thavetobuildthehabitseveryonetellsyoutobuild.Choosethehabitthatbestsuitsyou,nottheonethatismostpopular.

Thereisaversionofeveryhabitthatcanbringyoujoyandsatisfaction.Findit.Habitsneedtobeenjoyableiftheyaregoingtostick.Thisisthecoreideabehindthe4thLaw.

Tailoringyourhabitstoyourpersonalityisagoodstart,butthisisnottheendofthestory.Let’sturnourattentiontofindinganddesigningsituationswhereyou’reatanaturaladvantage.

HOWTOFINDAGAMEWHERETHEODDSAREINYOURFAVOR

Learningtoplayagamewheretheoddsareinyourfavoriscriticalformaintainingmotivationandfeelingsuccessful.Intheory,youcanenjoyalmostanything.Inpractice,youaremorelikelytoenjoythethingsthatcomeeasilytoyou.Peoplewhoaretalentedinaparticularareatendtobemorecompetentatthattaskandarethenpraisedfordoingagoodjob.Theystayenergizedbecausetheyaremakingprogresswhereothershavefailed,andbecausetheygetrewardedwithbetterpayandbiggeropportunities,whichnotonlymakesthemhappierbutalsopropelsthemtoproduceevenhigher-qualitywork.It’savirtuouscycle.

Picktherighthabitandprogressiseasy.Pickthewronghabitandlifeisastruggle.

Howdoyoupicktherighthabit?Thefirststepissomethingwecoveredinthe3rdLaw:makeiteasy.Inmanycases,whenpeoplepickthewronghabit,itsimplymeanstheypickedahabitthatwastoo

difficult.Whenahabitiseasy,youaremorelikelytobesuccessful.Whenyouaresuccessful,youaremorelikelytofeelsatisfied.However,thereisanotherleveltoconsider.Inthelong-run,ifyoucontinuetoadvanceandimprove,anyareacanbecomechallenging.Atsomepoint,youneedtomakesureyou’replayingtherightgameforyourskillset.Howdoyoufigurethatout?

Themostcommonapproachistrialanderror.Ofcourse,there’saproblemwiththisstrategy:lifeisshort.Youdon’thavetimetotryeverycareer,dateeveryeligiblebachelor,orplayeverymusicalinstrument.Thankfully,thereisaneffectivewaytomanagethisconundrum,anditisknownastheexplore/exploittrade-off.

Inthebeginningofanewactivity,thereshouldbeaperiodofexploration.Inrelationships,it’scalleddating.Incollege,it’scalledtheliberalarts.Inbusiness,it’scalledsplittesting.Thegoalistotryoutmanypossibilities,researchabroadrangeofideas,andcastawidenet.

Afterthisinitialperiodofexploration,shiftyourfocustothebestsolutionyou’vefound—butkeepexperimentingoccasionally.Theproperbalancedependsonwhetheryou’rewinningorlosing.Ifyouarecurrentlywinning,youexploit,exploit,exploit.Ifyouarecurrentlylosing,youcontinuetoexplore,explore,explore.

Inthelong-runitisprobablymosteffectivetoworkonthestrategythatseemstodeliverthebestresultsabout80to90percentofthetimeandkeepexploringwiththeremaining10to20percent.Googlefamouslyasksemployeestospend80percentoftheworkweekontheirofficialjoband20percentonprojectsoftheirchoice,whichhasledtothecreationofblockbusterproductslikeAdWordsandGmail.

Theoptimalapproachalsodependsonhowmuchtimeyouhave.Ifyouhavealotoftime—likesomeoneatthebeginningoftheircareer—itmakesmoresensetoexplorebecauseonceyoufindtherightthing,youstillhaveagoodamountoftimetoexploitit.Ifyou’repressedfortime—say,asyoucomeuponthedeadlineforaproject—youshouldimplementthebestsolutionyou’vefoundsofarandgetsomeresults.

Asyouexploredifferentoptions,thereareaseriesofquestionsyoucanaskyourselftocontinuallynarrowinonthehabitsandareasthatwillbemostsatisfyingtoyou:

Whatfeelslikefuntome,butworktoothers?Themarkofwhetheryouaremadeforataskisnotwhetheryouloveitbut

whetheryoucanhandlethepainofthetaskeasierthanmostpeople.Whenareyouenjoyingyourselfwhileotherpeoplearecomplaining?Theworkthathurtsyoulessthanithurtsothersistheworkyouweremadetodo.

Whatmakesmelosetrackoftime?Flowisthementalstateyouenterwhenyouaresofocusedonthetaskathandthattherestoftheworldfadesaway.Thisblendofhappinessandpeakperformanceiswhatathletesandperformersexperiencewhentheyare“inthezone.”Itisnearlyimpossibletoexperienceaflowstateandnotfindthetasksatisfyingatleasttosomedegree.

WheredoIgetgreaterreturnsthantheaverageperson?Wearecontinuallycomparingourselvestothosearoundus,andabehaviorismorelikelytobesatisfyingwhenthecomparisonisinourfavor.WhenIstartedwritingatjamesclear.com,myemaillistgrewveryquickly.Iwasn’tquitesurewhatIwasdoingwell,butIknewthatresultsseemedtobecomingfasterformethanforsomeofmycolleagues,whichmotivatedmetokeepwriting.

Whatcomesnaturallytome?Forjustamoment,ignorewhatyouhavebeentaught.Ignorewhatsocietyhastoldyou.Ignorewhatothersexpectofyou.Lookinsideyourselfandask,“Whatfeelsnaturaltome?WhenhaveIfeltalive?WhenhaveIfeltliketherealme?”Nointernaljudgmentsorpeople-pleasing.Nosecond-guessingorself-criticism.Justfeelingsofengagementandenjoyment.Wheneveryoufeelauthenticandgenuine,youareheadedintherightdirection.

Tobehonest,someofthisprocessisjustluck.MichaelPhelpsandHichamElGuerroujwereluckytobebornwithararesetofabilitiesthatarehighlyvaluedbysocietyandtobeplacedintheidealenvironmentforthoseabilities.Weallhavelimitedtimeonthisplanet,andthetrulygreatamongusaretheoneswhonotonlyworkhardbutalsohavethegoodfortunetobeexposedtoopportunitiesthatfavorus.

Butwhatifyoudon’twanttoleaveituptoluck?

Ifyoucan’tfindagamewheretheoddsarestackedinyourfavor,createone.ScottAdams,thecartoonistbehindDilbert,says,“Everyonehasatleastafewareasinwhichtheycouldbeinthetop25%withsomeeffort.Inmycase,Icandrawbetterthanmostpeople,butI’mhardlyanartist.AndI’mnotanyfunnierthantheaverage

standupcomedianwhonevermakesitbig,butI’mfunnierthanmostpeople.Themagicisthatfewpeoplecandrawwellandwritejokes.It’sthecombinationofthetwothatmakeswhatIdosorare.Andwhenyouaddinmybusinessbackground,suddenlyIhadatopicthatfewcartoonistscouldhopetounderstandwithoutlivingit.”

Whenyoucan’twinbybeingbetter,youcanwinbybeingdifferent.Bycombiningyourskills,youreducethelevelofcompetition,whichmakesiteasiertostandout.Youcanshortcuttheneedforageneticadvantage(orforyearsofpractice)byrewritingtherules.Agoodplayerworkshardtowinthegameeveryoneelseisplaying.Agreatplayercreatesanewgamethatfavorstheirstrengthsandavoidstheirweaknesses.

Incollege,Idesignedmyownmajor,biomechanics,whichwasacombinationofphysics,chemistry,biology,andanatomy.Iwasn’tsmartenoughtostandoutamongthetopphysicsorbiologymajors,soIcreatedmyowngame.Andbecauseitsuitedme—IwasonlytakingthecoursesIwasinterestedin—studyingfeltlikelessofachore.Itwasalsoeasiertoavoidthetrapofcomparingmyselftoeveryoneelse.Afterall,nobodyelsewastakingthesamecombinationofclasses,sowhocouldsayiftheywerebetterorworse?

Specializationisapowerfulwaytoovercomethe“accident”ofbadgenetics.Themoreyoumasteraspecificskill,theharderitbecomesforotherstocompetewithyou.Manybodybuildersarestrongerthantheaveragearmwrestler,butevenamassivebodybuildermayloseatarmwrestlingbecausethearmwrestlingchamphasveryspecificstrength.Evenifyou’renotthemostnaturallygifted,youcanoftenwinbybeingthebestinaverynarrowcategory.

Boilingwaterwillsoftenapotatobuthardenanegg.Youcan’tcontrolwhetheryou’reapotatooranegg,butyoucandecidetoplayagamewhereit’sbettertobehardorsoft.Ifyoucanfindamorefavorableenvironment,youcantransformthesituationfromonewheretheoddsareagainstyoutoonewheretheyareinyourfavor.

HOWTOGETTHEMOSTOUTOFYOURGENES

Ourgenesdonoteliminatetheneedforhardwork.Theyclarifyit.Theytelluswhattoworkhardon.Oncewerealizeourstrengths,weknowwheretospendourtimeandenergy.Weknowwhichtypesof

opportunitiestolookforandwhichtypesofchallengestoavoid.Thebetterweunderstandournature,thebetterourstrategycanbe.

Biologicaldifferencesmatter.Evenso,it’smoreproductivetofocusonwhetheryouarefulfillingyourownpotentialthancomparingyourselftosomeoneelse.Thefactthatyouhaveanaturallimittoanyspecificabilityhasnothingtodowithwhetheryouarereachingtheceilingofyourcapabilities.Peoplegetsocaughtupinthefactthattheyhavelimitsthattheyrarelyexerttheeffortrequiredtogetclosetothem.

Furthermore,genescan’tmakeyousuccessfulifyou’renotdoingthework.Yes,it’spossiblethattherippedtraineratthegymhasbettergenes,butifyouhaven’tputinthesamereps,it’simpossibletosayifyouhavebeendealtabetterorworsegenetichand.Untilyouworkashardasthoseyouadmire,don’texplainawaytheirsuccessasluck.

Insummary,oneofthebestwaystoensureyourhabitsremainsatisfyingoverthelong-runistopickbehaviorsthatalignwithyourpersonalityandskills.Workhardonthethingsthatcomeeasy.

ChapterSummaryThesecrettomaximizingyouroddsofsuccessistochoosetherightfieldofcompetition.

Picktherighthabitandprogressiseasy.Pickthewronghabitandlifeisastruggle.

Genescannotbeeasilychanged,whichmeanstheyprovideapowerfuladvantageinfavorablecircumstancesandaseriousdisadvantageinunfavorablecircumstances.

Habitsareeasierwhentheyalignwithyournaturalabilities.Choosethehabitsthatbestsuityou.

Playagamethatfavorsyourstrengths.Ifyoucan’tfindagamethatfavorsyou,createone.

Genesdonoteliminatetheneedforhardwork.Theyclarifyit.Theytelluswhattoworkhardon.

TheGoldilocksRule:HowtoStayMotivatedinLifeandWork

N1955,DisneylandhadjustopenedinAnaheim,California,whenaten-year-oldboywalkedinandaskedforajob.Laborlawswere

loosebackthenandtheboymanagedtolandapositionsellingguidebooksfor$0.50apiece.

Withinayear,hehadtransitionedtoDisney’smagicshop,wherehelearnedtricksfromtheolderemployees.Heexperimentedwithjokesandtriedoutsimpleroutinesonvisitors.Soonhediscoveredthatwhathelovedwasnotperformingmagicbutperformingingeneral.Hesethissightsonbecomingacomedian.

Beginninginhisteenageyears,hestartedperforminginlittleclubsaroundLosAngeles.Thecrowdsweresmallandhisactwasshort.Hewasrarelyonstageformorethanfiveminutes.Mostofthepeopleinthecrowdweretoobusydrinkingortalkingwithfriendstopayattention.Onenight,heliterallydeliveredhisstand-uproutinetoanemptyclub.

Itwasn’tglamorouswork,buttherewasnodoubthewasgettingbetter.Hisfirstroutineswouldonlylastoneortwominutes.Byhighschool,hismaterialhadexpandedtoincludeafive-minuteactand,afewyearslater,aten-minuteshow.Atnineteen,hewasperformingweeklyfortwentyminutesatatime.Hehadtoreadthreepoemsduringtheshowjusttomaketheroutinelongenough,buthisskillscontinuedtoprogress.

Hespentanotherdecadeexperimenting,adjusting,andpracticing.Hetookajobasatelevisionwriterand,gradually,hewasabletoland

hisownappearancesontalkshows.Bythemid-1970s,hehadworkedhiswayintobeingaregularguestonTheTonightShowandSaturdayNightLive.

Finally,afternearlyfifteenyearsofwork,theyoungmanrosetofame.Hetouredsixtycitiesinsixty-threedays.Thenseventy-twocitiesineightydays.Theneighty-fivecitiesinninetydays.Hehad18,695peopleattendoneshowinOhio.Another45,000ticketsweresoldforhisthree-dayshowinNewYork.Hecatapultedtothetopofhisgenreandbecameoneofthemostsuccessfulcomediansofhistime.

HisnameisSteveMartin.

Martin’sstoryoffersafascinatingperspectiveonwhatittakestostickwithhabitsforthelongrun.Comedyisnotforthetimid.Itishardtoimagineasituationthatwouldstrikefearintotheheartsofmorepeoplethanperformingaloneonstageandfailingtogetasinglelaugh.AndyetSteveMartinfacedthisfeareveryweekforeighteenyears.Inhiswords,“10yearsspentlearning,4yearsspentrefining,and4yearsasawildsuccess.”

Whyisitthatsomepeople,likeMartin,stickwiththeirhabits—whetherpracticingjokesordrawingcartoonsorplayingguitar—whilemostofusstruggletostaymotivated?Howdowedesignhabitsthatpullusinratherthanonesthatfadeaway?Scientistshavebeenstudyingthisquestionformanyyears.Whilethereisstillmuchtolearn,oneofthemostconsistentfindingsisthatthewaytomaintainmotivationandachievepeaklevelsofdesireistoworkontasksof“justmanageabledifficulty.”

Thehumanbrainlovesachallenge,butonlyifitiswithinanoptimalzoneofdifficulty.Ifyoulovetennisandtrytoplayaseriousmatchagainstafour-year-old,youwillquicklybecomebored.It’stooeasy.You’llwineverypoint.Incontrast,ifyouplayaprofessionaltennisplayerlikeRogerFedererorSerenaWilliams,youwillquicklylosemotivationbecausethematchistoodifficult.

Nowconsiderplayingtennisagainstsomeonewhoisyourequal.Asthegameprogresses,youwinafewpointsandyouloseafew.Youhaveagoodchanceofwinning,butonlyifyoureallytry.Yourfocusnarrows,distractionsfadeaway,andyoufindyourselffullyinvestedinthetaskathand.ThisisachallengeofjustmanageabledifficultyanditisaprimeexampleoftheGoldilocksRule.

TheGoldilocksRulestatesthathumansexperiencepeakmotivationwhenworkingontasksthatarerightontheedgeoftheircurrentabilities.Nottoohard.Nottooeasy.Justright.

THEGOLDILOCKSRULE

FIGURE15:Maximummotivationoccurswhenfacingachallengeofjustmanageabledifficulty.InpsychologyresearchthisisknownastheYerkes–Dodsonlaw,whichdescribestheoptimallevelofarousalasthemidpointbetweenboredomandanxiety.

Martin’scomedycareerisanexcellentexampleoftheGoldilocksRuleinpractice.Eachyear,heexpandedhiscomedyroutine—butonlybyaminuteortwo.Hewasalwaysaddingnewmaterial,buthealsokeptafewjokesthatwereguaranteedtogetlaughs.Therewerejustenoughvictoriestokeephimmotivatedandjustenoughmistakestokeephimworkinghard.

Whenyou’restartinganewhabit,it’simportanttokeepthebehavioraseasyaspossiblesoyoucanstickwithitevenwhenconditionsaren’tperfect.Thisisanideawecoveredindetailwhilediscussingthe3rdLawofBehaviorChange.

Onceahabithasbeenestablished,however,it’simportanttocontinuetoadvanceinsmallways.Theselittleimprovementsandnewchallengeskeepyouengaged.AndifyouhittheGoldilocksZonejustright,youcanachieveaflowstate.*

Aflowstateistheexperienceofbeing“inthezone”andfullyimmersedinanactivity.Scientistshavetriedtoquantifythisfeeling.Theyfoundthattoachieveastateofflow,ataskmustberoughly4percentbeyondyourcurrentability.Inreallifeit’stypicallynotfeasibletoquantifythedifficultyofanactioninthisway,butthecoreideaoftheGoldilocksRuleremains:workingonchallengesofjustmanageabledifficulty—somethingontheperimeterofyourability—seemscrucialformaintainingmotivation.

Improvementrequiresadelicatebalance.Youneedtoregularlysearchforchallengesthatpushyoutoyouredgewhilecontinuingtomakeenoughprogresstostaymotivated.Behaviorsneedtoremainnovelinorderforthemtostayattractiveandsatisfying.Withoutvariety,wegetbored.Andboredomisperhapsthegreatestvillainonthequestforself-improvement.

HOWTOSTAYFOCUSEDWHENYOUGETBOREDWORKINGONYOURGOALS

Aftermybaseballcareerended,Iwaslookingforanewsport.Ijoinedaweightliftingteamandonedayanelitecoachvisitedourgym.Hehadworkedwiththousandsofathletesduringhislongcareer,includingafewOlympians.Iintroducedmyselfandwebegantalkingabouttheprocessofimprovement.

“What’sthedifferencebetweenthebestathletesandeveryoneelse?”Iasked.“Whatdothereallysuccessfulpeopledothatmostdon’t?”

Hementionedthefactorsyoumightexpect:genetics,luck,talent.ButthenhesaidsomethingIwasn’texpecting:“Atsomepointitcomesdowntowhocanhandletheboredomoftrainingeveryday,doingthesameliftsoverandoverandover.”

Hisanswersurprisedmebecauseit’sadifferentwayofthinkingaboutworkethic.Peopletalkaboutgetting“ampedup”toworkontheirgoals.Whetherit’sbusinessorsportsorart,youhearpeoplesaythingslike,“Itallcomesdowntopassion.”Or,“Youhavetoreallywant

it.”Asaresult,manyofusgetdepressedwhenwelosefocusormotivationbecausewethinkthatsuccessfulpeoplehavesomebottomlessreserveofpassion.Butthiscoachwassayingthatreallysuccessfulpeoplefeelthesamelackofmotivationaseveryoneelse.Thedifferenceisthattheystillfindawaytoshowupdespitethefeelingsofboredom.

Masteryrequirespractice.Butthemoreyoupracticesomething,themoreboringandroutineitbecomes.Oncethebeginnergainshavebeenmadeandwelearnwhattoexpect,ourintereststartstofade.Sometimesithappensevenfasterthanthat.Allyouhavetodoishitthegymafewdaysinaroworpublishacoupleofblogpostsontimeandlettingonedayslipdoesn’tfeellikemuch.Thingsaregoingwell.It’seasytorationalizetakingadayoffbecauseyou’reinagoodplace.

Thegreatestthreattosuccessisnotfailurebutboredom.Wegetboredwithhabitsbecausetheystopdelightingus.Theoutcomebecomesexpected.Andasourhabitsbecomeordinary,westartderailingourprogresstoseeknovelty.Perhapsthisiswhywegetcaughtupinanever-endingcycle,jumpingfromoneworkouttothenext,onediettothenext,onebusinessideatothenext.Assoonasweexperiencetheslightestdipinmotivation,webeginseekinganewstrategy—eveniftheoldonewasstillworking.AsMachiavellinoted,“Mendesirenoveltytosuchanextentthatthosewhoaredoingwellwishforachangeasmuchasthosewhoaredoingbadly.”

Perhapsthisiswhymanyofthemosthabit-formingproductsarethosethatprovidecontinuousformsofnovelty.Videogamesprovidevisualnovelty.Pornprovidessexualnovelty.Junkfoodsprovideculinarynovelty.Eachoftheseexperiencesoffercontinualelementsofsurprise.

Inpsychology,thisisknownasavariablereward.*Slotmachinesarethemostcommonreal-worldexample.Agamblerhitsthejackpoteverynowandthenbutnotatanypredictableinterval.Thepaceofrewardsvaries.Thisvarianceleadstothegreatestspikeofdopamine,enhancesmemoryrecall,andaccelerateshabitformation.

Variablerewardswon’tcreateacraving—thatis,youcan’ttakearewardpeopleareuninterestedin,giveittothematavariableinterval,andhopeitwillchangetheirmind—buttheyareapowerfulwaytoamplifythecravingswealreadyexperiencebecausetheyreduceboredom.

Thesweetspotofdesireoccursata50/50splitbetweensuccessandfailure.Halfofthetimeyougetwhatyouwant.Halfofthetimeyoudon’t.Youneedjustenough“winning”toexperiencesatisfactionandjustenough“wanting”toexperiencedesire.ThisisoneofthebenefitsoffollowingtheGoldilocksRule.Ifyou’realreadyinterestedinahabit,workingonchallengesofjustmanageabledifficultyisagoodwaytokeepthingsinteresting.

Ofcourse,notallhabitshaveavariablerewardcomponent,andyouwouldn’twantthemto.IfGoogleonlydeliveredausefulsearchresultsomeofthetime,Iwouldswitchtoacompetitorprettyquickly.IfUberonlypickeduphalfofmytrips,IdoubtI’dbeusingthatservicemuchlonger.AndifIflossedmyteetheachnightandonlysometimesendedupwithacleanmouth,IthinkI’dskipit.

Variablerewardsornot,nohabitwillstayinterestingforever.Atsomepoint,everyonefacesthesamechallengeonthejourneyofself-improvement:youhavetofallinlovewithboredom.

Weallhavegoalsthatwewouldliketoachieveanddreamsthatwewouldliketofulfill,butitdoesn’tmatterwhatyouaretryingtobecomebetterat,ifyouonlydotheworkwhenit’sconvenientorexciting,thenyou’llneverbeconsistentenoughtoachieveremarkableresults.

Icanguaranteethatifyoumanagetostartahabitandkeepstickingtoit,therewillbedayswhenyoufeellikequitting.Whenyoustartabusiness,therewillbedayswhenyoudon’tfeellikeshowingup.Whenyou’reatthegym,therewillbesetsthatyoudon’tfeellikefinishing.Whenit’stimetowrite,therewillbedaysthatyoudon’tfeelliketyping.Butsteppingupwhenit’sannoyingorpainfulordrainingtodoso,that’swhatmakesthedifferencebetweenaprofessionalandanamateur.

Professionalssticktotheschedule;amateursletlifegetintheway.Professionalsknowwhatisimportanttothemandworktowarditwithpurpose;amateursgetpulledoffcoursebytheurgenciesoflife.

DavidCain,anauthorandmeditationteacher,encourageshisstudentstoavoidbeing“fair-weathermeditators.”Similarly,youdon’twanttobeafair-weatherathleteorafair-weatherwriterorafair-weatheranything.Whenahabitistrulyimportanttoyou,youhavetobewillingtosticktoitinanymood.Professionalstakeactioneven

whenthemoodisn’tright.Theymightnotenjoyit,buttheyfindawaytoputtherepsin.

TherehavebeenalotofsetsthatIhaven’tfeltlikefinishing,butI’veneverregretteddoingtheworkout.TherehavebeenalotofarticlesIhaven’tfeltlikewriting,butI’veneverregrettedpublishingonschedule.TherehavebeenalotofdaysI’vefeltlikerelaxing,butI’veneverregrettedshowingupandworkingonsomethingthatwasimportanttome.

Theonlywaytobecomeexcellentistobeendlesslyfascinatedbydoingthesamethingoverandover.Youhavetofallinlovewithboredom.

ChapterSummaryTheGoldilocksRulestatesthathumansexperiencepeakmotivationwhenworkingontasksthatarerightontheedgeoftheircurrentabilities.

Thegreatestthreattosuccessisnotfailurebutboredom.

Ashabitsbecomeroutine,theybecomelessinterestingandlesssatisfying.Wegetbored.

Anyonecanworkhardwhentheyfeelmotivated.It’stheabilitytokeepgoingwhenworkisn’texcitingthatmakesthedifference.

Professionalssticktotheschedule;amateursletlifegetintheway.

TheDownsideofCreatingGoodHabits

ABITSCREATETHEFOUNDATIONFORMASTERY.Inchess,itisonlyafterthebasicmovementsofthepieceshavebecomeautomaticthata

playercanfocusonthenextlevelofthegame.Eachchunkofinformationthatismemorizedopensupthementalspaceformoreeffortfulthinking.Thisistrueforanyendeavor.Whenyouknowthesimplemovementssowellthatyoucanperformthemwithoutthinking,youarefreetopayattentiontomoreadvanceddetails.Inthisway,habitsarethebackboneofanypursuitofexcellence.

However,thebenefitsofhabitscomeatacost.Atfirst,eachrepetitiondevelopsfluency,speed,andskill.Butthen,asahabitbecomesautomatic,youbecomelesssensitivetofeedback.Youfallintomindlessrepetition.Itbecomeseasiertoletmistakesslide.Whenyoucandoit“goodenough”onautopilot,youstopthinkingabouthowtodoitbetter.

Theupsideofhabitsisthatwecandothingswithoutthinking.Thedownsideofhabitsisthatyougetusedtodoingthingsacertainwayandstoppayingattentiontolittleerrors.Youassumeyou’regettingbetterbecauseyou’regainingexperience.Inreality,youaremerelyreinforcingyourcurrenthabits—notimprovingthem.Infact,someresearchhasshownthatonceaskillhasbeenmasteredthereisusuallyaslightdeclineinperformanceovertime.

Usually,thisminordipinperformanceisnocauseforworry.Youdon’tneedasystemtocontinuouslyimprovehowwellyoubrushyourteethortieyourshoesormakeyourmorningcupoftea.Withhabitslikethese,goodenoughisusuallygoodenough.Thelessenergyyou

spendontrivialchoices,themoreyoucanspenditonwhatreallymatters.

However,whenyouwanttomaximizeyourpotentialandachieveelitelevelsofperformance,youneedamorenuancedapproach.Youcan’trepeatthesamethingsblindlyandexpecttobecomeexceptional.Habitsarenecessary,butnotsufficientformastery.Whatyouneedisacombinationofautomatichabitsanddeliberatepractice.

Habits+DeliberatePractice=Mastery

Tobecomegreat,certainskillsdoneedtobecomeautomatic.Basketballplayersneedtobeabletodribblewithoutthinkingbeforetheycanmoveontomasteringlayupswiththeirnondominanthand.Surgeonsneedtorepeatthefirstincisionsomanytimesthattheycoulddoitwiththeireyesclosed,sothattheycanfocusonthehundredsofvariablesthatariseduringsurgery.Butafteronehabithasbeenmastered,youhavetoreturntotheeffortfulpartoftheworkandbeginbuildingthenexthabit.

Masteryistheprocessofnarrowingyourfocustoatinyelementofsuccess,repeatingituntilyouhaveinternalizedtheskill,andthenusingthisnewhabitasthefoundationtoadvancetothenextfrontierofyourdevelopment.Oldtasksbecomeeasierthesecondtimearound,butitdoesn’tgeteasieroverallbecausenowyou’repouringyourenergyintothenextchallenge.Eachhabitunlocksthenextlevelofperformance.It’sanendlesscycle.

MASTERINGONEHABIT

MASTERINGAFIELD

FIGURE16:Theprocessofmasteryrequiresthatyouprogressivelylayerimprovementsontopofoneanother,eachhabitbuildinguponthelastuntilanewlevelofperformancehasbeenreachedandahigherrangeofskillshasbeeninternalized.

Althoughhabitsarepowerful,whatyouneedisawaytoremainconsciousofyourperformanceovertime,soyoucancontinuetorefineandimprove.Itispreciselyatthemomentwhenyoubegintofeellikeyouhavemasteredaskill—rightwhenthingsarestartingtofeel

automaticandyouarebecomingcomfortable—thatyoumustavoidslippingintothetrapofcomplacency.

Thesolution?Establishasystemforreflectionandreview.

HOWTOREVIEWYOURHABITSANDMAKEADJUSTMENTS

In1986,theLosAngelesLakershadoneofthemosttalentedbasketballteamseverassembled,buttheyarerarelyrememberedthatway.Theteamstartedthe1985–1986NBAseasonwithanastounding29–5record.“Thepunditsweresayingthatwemightbethebestteaminthehistoryofbasketball,”headcoachPatRileysaidaftertheseason.Surprisingly,theLakersstumbledinthe1986playoffsandsufferedaseason-endingdefeatintheWesternConferenceFinals.The“bestteaminthehistoryofbasketball”didn’tevenplayfortheNBAchampionship.

Afterthatblow,Rileywastiredofhearingabouthowmuchtalenthisplayershadandabouthowmuchpromisehisteamheld.Hedidn’twanttoseeflashesofbrilliancefollowedbyagradualfadeinperformance.HewantedtheLakerstoplayuptotheirpotential,nightafternight.Inthesummerof1986,hecreatedaplantodoexactlythat,asystemthathecalledtheCareerBestEffortprogramorCBE.

“WhenplayersfirstjointheLakers,”Rileyexplained,“wetracktheirbasketballstatisticsallthewaybacktohighschool.IcallthisTakingTheirNumber.Welookforanaccurategaugeofwhataplayercando,thenbuildhimintoourplanfortheteam,basedonthenotionthathewillmaintainandthenimproveuponhisaverages.”

Afterdeterminingaplayer’sbaselinelevelofperformance,Rileyaddedakeystep.Heaskedeachplayerto“improvetheiroutputbyatleast1percentoverthecourseoftheseason.Iftheysucceeded,itwouldbeaCBE,orCareerBestEffort.”SimilartotheBritishCyclingteamthatwediscussedinChapter1,theLakerssoughtpeakperformancebygettingslightlybettereachday.

RileywascarefultopointoutthatCBEwasnotmerelyaboutpointsorstatisticsbutaboutgivingyour“besteffortspirituallyandmentallyandphysically.”Playersgotcreditfor“allowinganopponenttorunintoyouwhenyouknowthatafoulwillbecalledagainsthim,divingforlooseballs,goingafterreboundswhetheryouarelikelytogetthem

ornot,helpingateammatewhentheplayerhe’sguardinghassurgedpasthim,andother‘unsunghero’deeds.”

Asanexample,let’ssaythatMagicJohnson—theLakersstarplayeratthetime—had11points,8rebounds,12assists,2steals,and5turnoversinagame.Magicalsogotcreditforan“unsunghero”deedbydivingafteralooseball(+1).Finally,heplayedatotalof33minutesinthisimaginarygame.

Thepositivenumbers(11+8+12+2+1)addupto34.Then,wesubtractthe5turnovers(34–5)toget29.Finally,wedivide29by33minutesplayed.

29/33=0.879

Magic’sCBEnumberherewouldbe879.Thisnumberwascalculatedforallofaplayer’sgames,anditwastheaverageCBEthataplayerwasaskedtoimproveby1percentovertheseason.Rileycomparedeachplayer’scurrentCBEtonotonlytheirpastperformancesbutalsothoseofotherplayersintheleague.AsRileyputit,“Werankteammembersalongsideleagueopponentswhoplaythesamepositionandhavesimilarroledefinitions.”

SportswriterJackieMacMullannoted,“Rileytrumpetedthetopperformersintheleagueinboldletteringontheblackboardeachweekandmeasuredthemagainstthecorrespondingplayersonhisownroster.Solid,reliableplayersgenerallyratedascoreinthe600s,whileeliteplayersscoredatleast800.MagicJohnson,whosubmitted138triple-doublesinhiscareer,oftenscoredover1,000.”

TheLakersalsoemphasizedyear-over-yearprogressbymakinghistoricalcomparisonsofCBEdata.Rileysaid,“WestackedthemonthofNovember1986,nexttoNovember1985,andshowedtheplayerswhethertheyweredoingbetterorworsethanatthesamepointlastseason.ThenweshowedthemhowtheirperformancefiguresforDecember1986,stackedupagainstNovember’s.”

TheLakersrolledoutCBEinOctober1986.Eightmonthslater,theywereNBAchampions.Thefollowingyear,PatRileyledhisteamtoanothertitleastheLakersbecamethefirstteamintwentyyearstowinback-to-backNBAchampionships.Afterward,hesaid,“Sustaininganeffortisthemostimportantthingforanyenterprise.Thewaytobesuccessfulistolearnhowtodothingsright,thendothemthesamewayeverytime.”

TheCBEprogramisaprimeexampleofthepowerofreflectionandreview.TheLakerswerealreadytalented.CBEhelpedthemgetthemostoutofwhattheyhad,andmadesuretheirhabitsimprovedratherthandeclined.

Reflectionandreviewenablesthelong-termimprovementofallhabitsbecauseitmakesyouawareofyourmistakesandhelpsyouconsiderpossiblepathsforimprovement.Withoutreflection,wecanmakeexcuses,createrationalizations,andlietoourselves.Wehavenoprocessfordeterminingwhetherweareperformingbetterorworsecomparedtoyesterday.

Topperformersinallfieldsengageinvarioustypesofreflectionandreview,andtheprocessdoesn’thavetobecomplex.KenyanrunnerEliudKipchogeisoneofthegreatestmarathonersofalltimeandanOlympicgoldmedalist.Hestilltakesnotesaftereverypracticeinwhichhereviewshistrainingforthedayandsearchesforareasthatcanbeimproved.Similarly,goldmedalswimmerKatieLedeckyrecordsherwellnessonascaleof1to10andincludesnotesonhernutritionandhowwellsheslept.Shealsorecordsthetimespostedbyotherswimmers.Attheendofeachweek,hercoachgoesoverhernotesandaddshisthoughts.

It’snotjustathletes,either.WhencomedianChrisRockispreparingfreshmaterial,hewillfirstappearatsmallnightclubsdozensoftimesandtesthundredsofjokes.Hebringsanotepadonstageandrecordswhichbitsgooverwellandwhereheneedstomakeadjustments.Thefewkillerlinesthatsurvivewillformthebackboneofhisnewshow.

Iknowofexecutivesandinvestorswhokeepa“decisionjournal”inwhichtheyrecordthemajordecisionstheymakeeachweek,whytheymadethem,andwhattheyexpecttheoutcometobe.Theyreviewtheirchoicesattheendofeachmonthoryeartoseewheretheywerecorrectandwheretheywentwrong.*

Improvementisnotjustaboutlearninghabits,it’salsoaboutfine-tuningthem.Reflectionandreviewensuresthatyouspendyourtimeontherightthingsandmakecoursecorrectionswhenevernecessary—likePatRileyadjustingtheeffortofhisplayersonanightlybasis.Youdon’twanttokeeppracticingahabitifitbecomesineffective.

Personally,Iemploytwoprimarymodesofreflectionandreview.EachDecember,IperformanAnnualReview,inwhichIreflectonthe

previousyear.ItallymyhabitsfortheyearbycountinguphowmanyarticlesIpublished,howmanyworkoutsIputin,howmanynewplacesIvisited,andmore.*Then,Ireflectonmyprogress(orlackthereof)byansweringthreequestions:

1. Whatwentwellthisyear?

2. Whatdidn’tgosowellthisyear?

3. WhatdidIlearn?

Sixmonthslater,whensummerrollsaround,IconductanIntegrityReport.Likeeveryone,Imakealotofmistakes.MyIntegrityReporthelpsmerealizewhereIwentwrongandmotivatesmetogetbackoncourse.IuseitasatimetorevisitmycorevaluesandconsiderwhetherIhavebeenlivinginaccordancewiththem.ThisiswhenIreflectonmyidentityandhowIcanworktowardbeingthetypeofpersonIwishtobecome.*

MyyearlyIntegrityReportanswersthreequestions:

1. Whatarethecorevaluesthatdrivemylifeandwork?

2. HowamIlivingandworkingwithintegrityrightnow?

3. HowcanIsetahigherstandardinthefuture?

Thesetworeportsdon’ttakeverylong—justafewhoursperyear—buttheyarecrucialperiodsofrefinement.TheypreventthegradualslidethathappenswhenIdon’tpaycloseattention.TheyprovideanannualremindertorevisitmydesiredidentityandconsiderhowmyhabitsarehelpingmebecomethetypeofpersonIwishtobe.TheyindicatewhenIshouldupgrademyhabitsandtakeonnewchallengesandwhenIshoulddialmyeffortsbackandfocusonthefundamentals.

Reflectioncanalsobringasenseofperspective.Dailyhabitsarepowerfulbecauseofhowtheycompound,butworryingtoomuchabouteverydailychoiceislikelookingatyourselfinthemirrorfromaninchaway.Youcanseeeveryimperfectionandlosesightofthebiggerpicture.Thereistoomuchfeedback.Conversely,neverreviewingyourhabitsislikeneverlookinginthemirror.Youaren’tawareofeasilyfixableflaws—aspotonyourshirt,abitoffoodinyourteeth.Thereis

toolittlefeedback.Periodicreflectionandreviewislikeviewingyourselfinthemirrorfromaconversationaldistance.Youcanseetheimportantchangesyoushouldmakewithoutlosingsightofthebiggerpicture.Youwanttoviewtheentiremountainrange,notobsessovereachpeakandvalley.

Finally,reflectionandreviewoffersanidealtimetorevisitoneofthemostimportantaspectsofbehaviorchange:identity.

HOWTOBREAKTHEBELIEFSTHATHOLDYOUBACK

Inthebeginning,repeatingahabitisessentialtobuildupevidenceofyourdesiredidentity.Asyoulatchontothatnewidentity,however,thosesamebeliefscanholdyoubackfromthenextlevelofgrowth.Whenworkingagainstyou,youridentitycreatesakindof“pride”thatencouragesyoutodenyyourweakspotsandpreventsyoufromtrulygrowing.Thisisoneofthegreatestdownsidesofbuildinghabits.

Themoresacredanideaistous—thatis,themoredeeplyitistiedtoouridentity—themorestronglywewilldefenditagainstcriticism.Youseethisineveryindustry.Theschoolteacherwhoignoresinnovativeteachingmethodsandstickswithhertried-and-truelessonplans.Theveteranmanagerwhoiscommittedtodoingthings“hisway.”Thesurgeonwhodismissestheideasofheryoungercolleagues.Thebandwhoproducesamind-blowingfirstalbumandthengetsstuckinarut.Thetighterweclingtoanidentity,theharderitbecomestogrowbeyondit.

Onesolutionistoavoidmakinganysingleaspectofyouridentityanoverwhelmingportionofwhoyouare.InthewordsofinvestorPaulGraham,“keepyouridentitysmall.”Themoreyouletasinglebeliefdefineyou,thelesscapableyouareofadaptingwhenlifechallengesyou.Ifyoutieeverythingupinbeingthepointguardorthepartneratthefirmorwhateverelse,thenthelossofthatfacetofyourlifewillwreckyou.Ifyou’reaveganandthendevelopahealthconditionthatforcesyoutochangeyourdiet,you’llhaveanidentitycrisisonyourhands.Whenyouclingtootightlytooneidentity,youbecomebrittle.Losethatonethingandyouloseyourself.

Formostofmyyounglife,beinganathletewasamajorpartofmyidentity.Aftermybaseballcareerended,Istruggledtofindmyself.

Whenyouspendyourwholelifedefiningyourselfinonewayandthatdisappears,whoareyounow?

Militaryveteransandformerentrepreneursreportsimilarfeelings.Ifyouridentityiswrappedupinabelieflike“I’magreatsoldier,”whathappenswhenyourperiodofserviceends?Formanybusinessowners,theiridentityissomethingalongthelinesof“I’mtheCEO”or“I’mthefounder.”Ifyouhavespenteverywakingmomentworkingonyourbusiness,howwillyoufeelafteryousellthecompany?

Thekeytomitigatingtheselossesofidentityistoredefineyourselfsuchthatyougettokeepimportantaspectsofyouridentityevenifyourparticularrolechanges.

“I’manathlete”becomes“I’mthetypeofpersonwhoismentallytoughandlovesaphysicalchallenge.”

“I’magreatsoldier”transformsinto“I’mthetypeofpersonwhoisdisciplined,reliable,andgreatonateam.”

“I’mtheCEO”translatesto“I’mthetypeofpersonwhobuildsandcreatesthings.”

Whenchoseneffectively,anidentitycanbeflexibleratherthanbrittle.Likewaterflowingaroundanobstacle,youridentityworkswiththechangingcircumstancesratherthanagainstthem.

ThefollowingquotefromtheTaoTeChingencapsulatestheideasperfectly:

Menarebornsoftandsupple;

dead,theyarestiffandhard.

Plantsareborntenderandpliant;

dead,theyarebrittleanddry.

Thuswhoeverisstiffandinflexible

isadiscipleofdeath.

Whoeverissoftandyielding

isadiscipleoflife.

Thehardandstiffwillbebroken.

Thesoftandsupplewillprevail.

—LAOTZU

Habitsdelivernumerousbenefits,butthedownsideisthattheycanlockusintoourpreviouspatternsofthinkingandacting—evenwhentheworldisshiftingaroundus.Everythingisimpermanent.Lifeisconstantlychanging,soyouneedtoperiodicallycheckintoseeifyouroldhabitsandbeliefsarestillservingyou.

Alackofself-awarenessispoison.Reflectionandreviewistheantidote.

ChapterSummaryTheupsideofhabitsisthatwecandothingswithoutthinking.Thedownsideisthatwestoppayingattentiontolittleerrors.

Habits+DeliberatePractice=Mastery

Reflectionandreviewisaprocessthatallowsyoutoremainconsciousofyourperformanceovertime.

Thetighterweclingtoanidentity,theharderitbecomestogrowbeyondit.

Conclusion

TheSecrettoResultsThatLast

HEREISANancientGreekparableknownastheSoritesParadox,*whichtalksabouttheeffectonesmallactioncanhavewhen

repeatedenoughtimes.Oneformulationoftheparadoxgoesasfollows:Canonecoinmakeapersonrich?Ifyougiveapersonapileoftencoins,youwouldn’tclaimthatheorsheisrich.Butwhatifyouaddanother?Andanother?Andanother?Atsomepoint,youwillhavetoadmitthatnoonecanberichunlessonecoincanmakehimorherso.

Wecansaythesameaboutatomichabits.Canonetinychangetransformyourlife?It’sunlikelyyouwouldsayso.Butwhatifyoumadeanother?Andanother?Andanother?Atsomepoint,youwillhavetoadmitthatyourlifewastransformedbyonesmallchange.

Theholygrailofhabitchangeisnotasingle1percentimprovement,butathousandofthem.It’sabunchofatomichabitsstackingup,eachoneafundamentalunitoftheoverallsystem.

Inthebeginning,smallimprovementscanoftenseemmeaninglessbecausetheygetwashedawaybytheweightofthesystem.Justasonecoinwon’tmakeyourich,onepositivechangelikemeditatingforoneminuteorreadingonepageeachdayisunlikelytodeliveranoticeabledifference.

Gradually,though,asyoucontinuetolayersmallchangesontopofoneanother,thescalesoflifestarttomove.Eachimprovementislikeaddingagrainofsandtothepositivesideofthescale,slowlytiltingthingsinyourfavor.Eventually,ifyoustickwithit,youhitatippingpoint.Suddenly,itfeelseasiertostickwithgoodhabits.Theweightofthesystemisworkingforyouratherthanagainstyou.

Overthecourseofthisbook,we’velookedatdozensofstoriesabouttopperformers.We’veheardaboutOlympicgoldmedalists,award-winningartists,businessleaders,lifesavingphysicians,andstarcomedianswhohaveallusedthescienceofsmallhabitstomastertheir

craftandvaulttothetopoftheirfield.Eachofthepeople,teams,andcompanieswehavecoveredhasfaceddifferentcircumstances,butultimatelyprogressedinthesameway:throughacommitmenttotiny,sustainable,unrelentingimprovements.

Successisnotagoaltoreachorafinishlinetocross.Itisasystemtoimprove,anendlessprocesstorefine.InChapter1,Isaid,“Ifyou’rehavingtroublechangingyourhabits,theproblemisn’tyou.Theproblemisyoursystem.Badhabitsrepeatthemselvesagainandagainnotbecauseyoudon’twanttochange,butbecauseyouhavethewrongsystemforchange.”

Asthisbookdrawstoaclose,Ihopetheoppositeistrue.WiththeFourLawsofBehaviorChange,youhaveasetoftoolsandstrategiesthatyoucanusetobuildbettersystemsandshapebetterhabits.Sometimesahabitwillbehardtorememberandyou’llneedtomakeitobvious.Othertimesyouwon’tfeellikestartingandyou’llneedtomakeitattractive.Inmanycases,youmayfindthatahabitwillbetoodifficultandyou’llneedtomakeiteasy.Andsometimes,youwon’tfeellikestickingwithitandyou’llneedtomakeitsatisfying.

Behaviorsareeffortlesshere. Behaviorsaredifficulthere.

Obvious Invisible

Attractive Unattractive

Easy Hard

Satisfying Unsatisfying

Youwanttopushyourgoodhabitstowardtheleftsideofthespectrumbymakingthemobvious,attractive,easy,andsatisfying.Meanwhile,youwanttoclusteryourbadhabitstowardtherightsidebymakingtheminvisible,unattractive,hard,andunsatisfying.

Thisisacontinuousprocess.Thereisnofinishline.Thereisnopermanentsolution.Wheneveryou’relookingtoimprove,youcanrotatethroughtheFourLawsofBehaviorChangeuntilyoufindthenextbottleneck.Makeitobvious.Makeitattractive.Makeiteasy.Makeitsatisfying.Roundandround.Alwayslookingforthenextwaytoget1percentbetter.

Thesecrettogettingresultsthatlastistoneverstopmakingimprovements.It’sremarkablewhatyoucanbuildifyoujustdon’t

stop.It’sremarkablethebusinessyoucanbuildifyoudon’tstopworking.It’sremarkablethebodyyoucanbuildifyoudon’tstoptraining.It’sremarkabletheknowledgeyoucanbuildifyoudon’tstoplearning.It’sremarkablethefortuneyoucanbuildifyoudon’tstopsaving.It’sremarkablethefriendshipsyoucanbuildifyoudon’tstopcaring.Smallhabitsdon’taddup.Theycompound.

That’sthepowerofatomichabits.Tinychanges.Remarkableresults.

Appendix

TWhatShouldYouReadNext?

HANKYOUSOmuchfortakingthetimetoreadthisbook.Ithasbeenapleasuresharingmyworkwithyou.Ifyouarelookingfor

somethingtoreadnext,allowmetoofferasuggestion.

IfyouenjoyedAtomicHabits,thenyoumaylikemyotherwritingaswell.Mylatestarticlesaresentoutinmyfreeweeklynewsletter.Subscribersarealsothefirsttohearaboutmynewestbooksandprojects.Finally,inadditiontomyownwork,eachyearIsendoutareadinglistofmyfavoritebooksfromotherauthorsonawiderangeofsubjects.

Youcansignupat:

jamesclear.com/newsletter

ILittleLessonsfromtheFourLaws

NTHISBOOK,Ihaveintroducedafour-stepmodelforhumanbehavior:cue,craving,response,reward.Thisframeworknotonlyteachesus

howtocreatenewhabitsbutalsorevealssomeinterestinginsightsabouthumanbehavior.

Problemphase1.Cue2.Craving

Solutionphase3.Response4.Reward

Inthissection,Ihavecompiledsomelessons(andafewbitsofcommonsense)thatareconfirmedbythemodel.Thepurposeoftheseexamplesistoclarifyjusthowusefulandwide-rangingthisframeworkiswhendescribinghumanbehavior.Onceyouunderstandthemodel,you’llseeexamplesofiteverywhere.

Awarenesscomesbeforedesire.Acravingiscreatedwhenyouassignmeaningtoacue.Yourbrainconstructsanemotionorfeelingtodescribeyourcurrentsituation,andthatmeansacravingcanonlyoccurafteryouhavenoticedanopportunity.

Happinessissimplytheabsenceofdesire.Whenyouobserveacue,butdonotdesiretochangeyourstate,youarecontentwiththecurrentsituation.Happinessisnotabouttheachievementofpleasure(whichisjoyorsatisfaction),butaboutthelackofdesire.Itarriveswhenyouhavenourgetofeeldifferently.Happinessisthestateyouenterwhenyounolongerwanttochangeyourstate.

However,happinessisfleetingbecauseanewdesirealwayscomesalong.AsCaedBudrissays,“Happinessisthespacebetweenone

desirebeingfulfilledandanewdesireforming.”Likewise,sufferingisthespacebetweencravingachangeinstateandgettingit.

Itistheideaofpleasurethatwechase.Weseektheimageofpleasurethatwegenerateinourminds.Atthetimeofaction,wedonotknowwhatitwillbeliketoattainthatimage(orevenifitwillsatisfyus).Thefeelingofsatisfactiononlycomesafterward.ThisiswhattheAustrianneurologistVictorFranklmeantwhenhesaidthathappinesscannotbepursued,itmustensue.Desireispursued.Pleasureensuesfromaction.

Peaceoccurswhenyoudon’tturnyourobservationsintoproblems.Thefirststepinanybehaviorisobservation.Younoticeacue,abitofinformation,anevent.Ifyoudonotdesiretoactonwhatyouobserve,thenyouareatpeace.

Cravingisaboutwantingtofixeverything.Observationwithoutcravingistherealizationthatyoudonotneedtofixanything.Yourdesiresarenotrunningrampant.Youdonotcraveachangeinstate.Yourminddoesnotgenerateaproblemforyoutosolve.You’resimplyobservingandexisting.

Withabigenoughwhyyoucanovercomeanyhow.FriedrichNietzsche,theGermanphilosopherandpoet,famouslywrote,“Hewhohasawhytoliveforcanbearalmostanyhow.”Thisphraseharborsanimportanttruthabouthumanbehavior.Ifyourmotivationanddesirearegreatenough(thatis,whyareyouareacting),you’lltakeactionevenwhenitisquitedifficult.Greatcravingcanpowergreataction—evenwhenfrictionishigh.

Beingcuriousisbetterthanbeingsmart.Beingmotivatedandcuriouscountsformorethanbeingsmartbecauseitleadstoaction.Beingsmartwillneverdeliverresultsonitsownbecauseitdoesn’tgetyoutoact.Itisdesire,notintelligence,thatpromptsbehavior.AsNavalRavikantsays,“Thetricktodoinganythingisfirstcultivatingadesireforit.”

Emotionsdrivebehavior.Everydecisionisanemotionaldecisionatsomelevel.Whateveryourlogicalreasonsarefortakingaction,youonlyfeelcompelledtoactonthembecauseofemotion.Infact,peoplewithdamagetoemotionalcentersofthebraincanlistmanyreasonsfortakingactionbutstillwillnotactbecausetheydonot

haveemotionstodrivethem.Thisiswhycravingcomesbeforeresponse.Thefeelingcomesfirst,andthenthebehavior.

Wecanonlyberationalandlogicalafterwehavebeenemotional.Theprimarymodeofthebrainistofeel;thesecondarymodeistothink.Ourfirstresponse—thefast,nonconsciousportionofthebrain—isoptimizedforfeelingandanticipating.Oursecondresponse—theslow,consciousportionofthebrain—isthepartthatdoesthe“thinking.”

PsychologistsrefertothisasSystem1(feelingsandrapidjudgments)versusSystem2(rationalanalysis).Thefeelingcomesfirst(System1);therationalityonlyinterveneslater(System2).Thisworksgreatwhenthetwoarealigned,butitresultsinillogicalandemotionalthinkingwhentheyarenot.

Yourresponsetendstofollowyouremotions.Ourthoughtsandactionsarerootedinwhatwefindattractive,notnecessarilyinwhatislogical.Twopeoplecannoticethesamesetoffactsandrespondverydifferentlybecausetheyrunthosefactsthroughtheiruniqueemotionalfilter.Thisisonereasonwhyappealingtoemotionistypicallymorepowerfulthanappealingtoreason.Ifatopicmakessomeonefeelemotional,theywillrarelybeinterestedinthedata.Thisiswhyemotionscanbesuchathreattowisedecisionmaking.

Putanotherway:mostpeoplebelievethatthereasonableresponseistheonethatbenefitsthem:theonethatsatisfiestheirdesires.Toapproachasituationfromamoreneutralemotionalpositionallowsyoutobaseyourresponseonthedataratherthantheemotion.

Sufferingdrivesprogress.Thesourceofallsufferingisthedesireforachangeinstate.Thisisalsothesourceofallprogress.Thedesiretochangeyourstateiswhatpowersyoutotakeaction.Itiswantingmorethatpusheshumanitytoseekimprovements,developnewtechnologies,andreachforahigherlevel.Withcraving,wearedissatisfiedbutdriven.Withoutcraving,wearesatisfiedbutlackambition.

Youractionsrevealhowbadlyyouwantsomething.Ifyoukeepsayingsomethingisaprioritybutyouneveractonit,thenyoudon’treallywantit.It’stimetohaveanhonestconversationwithyourself.Youractionsrevealyourtruemotivations.

Rewardisontheothersideofsacrifice.Response(sacrificeofenergy)alwaysprecedesreward(thecollectionofresources).The“runner’shigh”onlycomesafterthehardrun.Therewardonlycomesaftertheenergyisspent.

Self-controlisdifficultbecauseitisnotsatisfying.Arewardisanoutcomethatsatisfiesyourcraving.Thismakesself-controlineffectivebecauseinhibitingourdesiresdoesnotusuallyresolvethem.Resistingtemptationdoesnotsatisfyyourcraving;itjustignoresit.Itcreatesspaceforthecravingtopass.Self-controlrequiresyoutoreleaseadesireratherthansatisfyit.

Ourexpectationsdetermineoursatisfaction.Thegapbetweenourcravingsandourrewardsdetermineshowsatisfiedwefeelaftertakingaction.Ifthemismatchbetweenexpectationsandoutcomesispositive(surpriseanddelight),thenwearemorelikelytorepeatabehaviorinthefuture.Ifthemismatchisnegative(disappointmentandfrustration),thenwearelesslikelytodoso.

Forexample,ifyouexpecttoget$10andget$100,youfeelgreat.Ifyouexpecttoget$100andget$10,youfeeldisappointed.Yourexpectationchangesyoursatisfaction.Anaverageexperienceprecededbyhighexpectationsisadisappointment.Anaverageexperienceprecededbylowexpectationsisadelight.Whenlikingandwantingareapproximatelythesame,youfeelsatisfied.

Satisfaction=Liking–Wanting

ThisisthewisdombehindSeneca’sfamousquote,“Beingpoorisnothavingtoolittle,itiswantingmore.”Ifyourwantsoutpaceyourlikes,you’llalwaysbeunsatisfied.You’reperpetuallyputtingmoreweightontheproblemthanthesolution.

Happinessisrelative.WhenIfirstbegansharingmywritingpubliclyittookmethreemonthstogetonethousandsubscribers.WhenIhitthatmilestone,Itoldmyparentsandmygirlfriend.Wecelebrated.Ifeltexcitedandmotivated.Afewyearslater,Irealizedthatonethousandpeopleweresigningupeachday.AndyetIdidn’teventhinktotellanyone.Itfeltnormal.Iwasgettingresultsninetytimesfasterthanbeforebutexperiencinglittlepleasureoverit.Itwasn’tuntilafewdayslaterthatIrealizedhowabsurditwasthatIwasn’tcelebratingsomethingthatwouldhaveseemedlikeapipedreamjustafewyearsbefore.

Thepainoffailurecorrelatestotheheightofexpectation.Whendesireishigh,ithurtstonotliketheoutcome.Failingtoattainsomethingyouwanthurtsmorethanfailingtoattainsomethingyoudidn’tthinkmuchaboutinthefirstplace.Thisiswhypeoplesay,“Idon’twanttogetmyhopesup.”

Feelingscomebothbeforeandafterthebehavior.Beforeacting,thereisafeelingthatmotivatesyoutoact—thecraving.Afteracting,thereisafeelingthatteachesyoutorepeattheactioninthefuture—thereward.

Cue>Craving(Feeling)>Response>Reward(Feeling)

Howwefeelinfluenceshowweact,andhowweactinfluenceshowwefeel.

Desireinitiates.Pleasuresustains.Wantingandlikingarethetwodriversofbehavior.Ifit’snotdesirable,youhavenoreasontodoit.Desireandcravingarewhatinitiateabehavior.Butifit’snotenjoyable,youhavenoreasontorepeatit.Pleasureandsatisfactionarewhatsustainabehavior.Feelingmotivatedgetsyoutoact.Feelingsuccessfulgetsyoutorepeat.

Hopedeclineswithexperienceandisreplacedbyacceptance.Thefirsttimeanopportunityarises,thereishopeofwhatcouldbe.Yourexpectation(cravings)isbasedsolelyonpromise.Thesecondtimearound,yourexpectationisgroundedinreality.Youbegintounderstandhowtheprocessworksandyourhopeisgraduallytradedforamoreaccuratepredictionandacceptanceofthelikelyoutcome.

Thisisonereasonwhywecontinuallygraspforthelatestget-rich-quickorweight-lossscheme.Newplansofferhopebecausewedon’thaveanyexperiencestogroundourexpectations.Newstrategiesseemmoreappealingthanoldonesbecausetheycanhaveunboundedhope.AsAristotlenoted,“Youthiseasilydeceivedbecauseitisquicktohope.”Perhapsthiscanberevisedto“Youthiseasilydeceivedbecauseitonlyhopes.”Thereisnoexperiencetoroottheexpectationin.Inthebeginning,hopeisallyouhave.

OHowtoApplyTheseIdeastoBusiness

VERTHEYEARS,I’vespokenatFortune500companiesandgrowingstart-upsabouthowtoapplythescienceofsmallhabitstorun

moreeffectivebusinessesandbuildbetterproducts.I’vecompiledmanyofthemostpracticalstrategiesintoashortbonuschapter.Ithinkyou’llfindittobeanincrediblyusefuladditiontothemainideasmentionedinAtomicHabits.

Youcandownloadthischapterat:atomichabits.com/business

OHowtoApplyTheseIdeastoParenting

NEOFTHEmostcommonquestionsIhearfromreadersissomethingalongthelinesof,“HowcanIgetmykidstodothis

stuff?”TheideasinAtomicHabitsareintendedtoapplybroadlytoallofhumanbehavior(teenagersarehumans,too),whichmeansyoushouldfindplentyofusefulstrategiesinthemaintext.Thatsaid,parentingdoesfaceitsownsetofchallenges.Asabonuschapter,I’veputtogetherabriefguideonhowtoapplytheseideasspecificallytoparenting.

Youcandownloadthischapterat:atomichabits.com/parenting

IAcknowledgments

HAVERELIEDHEAVILYonothersduringthecreationofthisbook.Beforeanyoneelse,Imustthankmywife,Kristy,whohasbeen

indispensablethroughoutthisprocess.Shehasplayedeveryroleapersoncanplayinthewritingofabook:spouse,friend,fan,critic,editor,researcher,therapist.Itisnoexaggerationtosaythisbookwouldnotbethesamewithouther.Itmightnotexistatall.Likeeverythinginourlife,wedidittogether.

Second,Iamgratefultomyfamily,notonlyfortheirsupportandencouragementonthisbookbutalsoforbelievinginmenomatterwhatprojectIhappentobeworkingon.Ihavebenefitedfrommanyyearsofsupportfrommyparents,grandparents,andsiblings.Inparticular,IwantmymomanddadtoknowthatIlovethem.Itisaspecialfeelingtoknowthatyourparentsareyourgreatestfans.

Third,tomyassistant,LyndseyNuckols.Atthispoint,herjobdefiesdescriptionasshehasbeenaskedtodonearlyeverythingonecouldimagineforasmallbusiness.Thankfully,herskillsandtalentsaremorepowerfulthanmyquestionablemanagementstyle.Somesectionsofthisbookareasmuchhersastheyaremine.Iamdeeplygratefulforherhelp.

Asforthecontentandwritingofthebook,Ihavealonglistofpeopletothank.Tostart,thereareafewpeoplefromwhomIhavelearnedsomuchthatitwouldbeacrimetonotmentionthembyname.LeoBabauta,CharlesDuhigg,NirEyal,andBJFogghaveeachinfluencedmythoughtsonhabitsinmeaningfulways.Theirworkandideascanbefoundsprinkledthroughoutthistext.Ifyouenjoyedthisbook,I’dencourageyoutoreadtheirwritingaswell.

Atvariousstagesofwriting,Ibenefitedfromtheguidanceofmanyfineeditors.ThankstoPeterGuzzardiforwalkingmethroughtheearlystagesofthewritingprocessandforakickinthepantswhenIreallyneededit.IamindebtedtoBlakeAtwoodandRobinDellaboughfortransformingmyuglyandinsanelylongfirstdraftsintoatight,

readablemanuscript.AndIamthankfultoAnneBarngroverforherabilitytoaddalittleclassandpoeticstyletomywriting.

I’dliketothankthemanypeoplewhoreadearlyversionsofthemanuscript,includingBruceAmmons,DarceyAnsell,TimBallard,VishalBhardwaj,CharlotteBlank,JeromeBurt,SimCampbell,AlCarlos,NickyCase,JulieChang,JasonCollins,DebraCroy,RogerDooley,TiagoForte,MattGartland,AndrewGierer,RandyGiffen,JonGiganti,AdamGilbert,StephanGuyenet,JeremyHendon,JaneHorvath,JoakimJansson,JoshKaufman,AnneKavanagh,ChrisKlaus,ZekeLopez,CadyMacon,CydMadsen,KieraMcGrath,AmyMitchell,AnnaMoise,StaceyMorris,Tara-NicholleNelson,TaylorPearson,MaxShank,TreyShelton,JasonShen,JacobZangelidis,andAriZelmanow.Thebookbenefitedgreatlyfromyourfeedback.

TotheteamatAveryandPenguinRandomHousewhomadethisbookareality,thankyou.Ioweadebtofspecialthankstomypublisher,MeganNewman,forherendlesspatienceasIcontinuallypushedbackdeadlines.ShegavemethespaceIneededtocreateabookIwasproudofandchampionedmyideasateverystep.ToNina,forherabilitytotransformmywritingwhilestillretainingmyoriginalmessage.ToLindsay,Farin,Casey,andtherestofthePRHteamforspreadingthemessageofthisbooktomorepeoplethanIcouldeverreachonmyown.ToPeteGarceau,fordesigningabeautifulcoverforthisbook.

Andtomyagent,LisaDiMona,forherguidanceandinsightateverystepofthepublishingprocess.

Tothemanyfriendsandfamilymemberswhoasked“How’sthebookgoing?”andofferedawordofencouragementwhenIinevitablyreplied“Slowly”—thankyou.Everyauthorfacesafewdarkmomentswhenwritingabook,andonekindwordcanbeenoughtogetyoutoshowupagainthenextday.

IamsuretherearepeopleIhaveforgotten,butIkeepanupdatedlistofanyonewhohasinfluencedmythinkinginmeaningfulwaysatjamesclear.com/thanks.

Andfinally,toyou.Lifeisshortandyouhavesharedsomeofyourprecioustimewithmebyreadingthisbook.Thankyou.

—May2018

NTHISSECTION,Ihaveincludedadetailedlistofnotes,references,andcitationsforeachchapterinthebook.Itrustthatmostreaderswill

findthislisttobesufficient.However,Ialsorealizethatscientificliteraturechangesovertimeandthereferencesforthisbookmayneedtobeupdated.Furthermore,IfullyexpectthatIhavemadeamistakesomewhereinthisbook—eitherinattributinganideatothewrongpersonornotgivingcredittosomeonewhereitisdue.(Ifyoubelievethistobethecase,pleaseemailmeatjames@jamesclear.comsoIcanfixtheissueassoonaspossible.)

Inadditiontothenotesbelow,youcanfindafulllistofupdatedendnotesandcorrectionsatatomichabits.com/endnotes.

INTRODUCTIONWealldealwithsetbacks:Whataboutluck,youmightask?Luckmatters,certainly.Habits

arenottheonlythingthatinfluenceyoursuccess,buttheyareprobablythemostimportantfactorthatiswithinyourcontrol.Andtheonlyself-improvementstrategythatmakesanysenseistofocusonwhatyoucancontrol.

TheentrepreneurandinvestorNavalRavikant:NavalRavikant(@naval),“Towriteagreatbook,youmustfirstbecomethebook,”Twitter,May15,2018,https://twitter.com/naval/status/996460948029362176.

“stimulus,response,reward”:B.F.Skinner,TheBehaviorofOrganisms(NewYork:Appleton-Century-Crofts,1938).

“cue,routine,reward”:CharlesDuhigg,ThePowerofHabit:WhyWeDoWhatWeDoinLifeandBusiness(NewYork:RandomHouse,2014).

CHAPTER1justasinglegoldmedalattheOlympicGames:MattSlater,“HowGBCyclingWent

fromTragictoMagic,”BBCSport,April14,2008,http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/olympics/cycling/7534073.stm.

theTourdeFrance:TomFordyce,“TourdeFrance2017:IsChrisFroomeBritain’sLeastLovedGreatSportsman?”BBCSport,July23,2017,https://www.bbc.com/sport/cycling/40692045.

oneofthetopbikemanufacturersinEuroperefusedtosellbikes:RichardMoore,Mastermind:HowDaveBrailsfordReinventedtheWheel(Glasgow:BackPagePress,2013).

“Thewholeprinciplecamefromtheidea”:MattSlater,“OlympicsCycling:MarginalGainsUnderpinTeamGBDominance,”BBC,August8,2012,https://www.bbc.com/sport/olympics/19174302.

Brailsfordandhiscoachesbeganbymakingsmalladjustments:TimHarford,“MarginalGainsMatterbutGamechangersTransform,”TimHarford,April2017,http://timharford.com/2017/04/marginal-gains-matter-but-gamechangers-transform.

theyevenpaintedtheinsideoftheteamtruckwhite:EbenHarrell,“How1%PerformanceImprovementsLedtoOlympicGold,”HarvardBusinessReview,October30,2015,https://hbr.org/2015/10/how-1-performance-improvements-led-to-olympic-gold;KevinClark,“HowaCyclingTeamTurnedtheFalconsIntoNFCChampions,”TheRinger,September12,2017,https://www.theringer.com/nfl/2017/9/12/16293216/atlanta-falcons-thomas-dimitroff-cycling-team-sky.

JustfiveyearsafterBrailsfordtookover:Technically,theBritishriderswon57percentoftheroadandtrackcyclingmedalsatthe2008Olympics.Fourteengoldmedalswereavailableinroadandtrackcyclingevents.TheBritswoneightofthem.

theBritsraisedthebar:“WorldandOlympicRecordsSetatthe2012SummerOlympics,”Wikipedia,December8,2017,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_and_Olympic_records_set_at_the_2012_Summer_Olympics#Cycling

BradleyWigginsbecamethefirstBritishcyclist:AndrewLongmore,“BradleyWiggins,”EncyclopaediaBritannica,https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bradley-Wiggins,lastmodifiedApril21,2018.

ChrisFroomewon:KarenSparks,“ChrisFroome,”EncyclopaediaBritannica,https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chris-Froome,lastmodifiedOctober23,2017.

Duringtheten-yearspanfrom2007to2017:“MedalswonbytheGreatBritainCyclingTeamatworldchampionships,OlympicGamesandParalympicGamessince2000,”BritishCycling,https://www.britishcycling.org.uk/gbcyclingteam/article/Gbrst_gb-cyclingteam-GB-Cycling-Team-Medal-History—0?c=EN#K0dWAPjq84CV8Wzw.99,accessedJune8,2018.

you’llendupthirty-seventimesbetter:JasonShen,anentrepreneurandwriter,receivedanearlylookatthisbook.Afterreadingthischapter,heremarked:“Ifthegainswerelinear,you’dpredicttobe3.65xbetteroff.Butbecauseitisexponential,theimprovementisactually10xgreater.”April3,2018.

Habitsarethecompoundinterest:Manypeoplehavenotedhowhabitsmultiplyovertime.Herearesomeofmyfavoritearticlesandbooksonthesubject:LeoBabauta,“ThePowerofHabitInvestments,”ZenHabits,January28,2013,https://zenhabits.net/bank;MorganHousel,“TheFreakishlyStrongBase,”CollaborativeFund,October31,2017,http://www.collaborativefund.com/blog/the-freakishly-strong-base;DarrenHardy,TheCompoundEffect(NewYork:VanguardPress,2012).

Accomplishingoneextratask:AsSamAltmansays,“Asmallproductivitygain,compoundedover50years,isworthalot.”“Productivity,”SamAltman.April10,2018,http://blog.samaltman.com/productivity.

Habitsareadouble-edgedsword:I’dliketocreditJasonHrehawithoriginallydescribinghabitstomeinthisway.JasonHreha(@jhreha),“They’readoubleedgedsword,”Twitter,February21,2018,https://twitter.com/jhreha/status/966430907371433984.

Themoretasksyoucanhandlewithoutthinking:Michael(@mmay3r),“Thefoundationofproductivityishabits.Themoreyoudoautomatically,themoreyou’re

subsequentlyfreedtodo.Thiseffectcompounds,”Twitter,April10,2018,https://twitter.com/mmay3r/status/983837519274889216.

eachbookyoureadnotonlyteaches:Thisidea—thatlearningnewideasincreasesthevalueofyouroldideas—issomethingIfirstheardaboutfromPatrickO’Shaughnessy,whowrites,“Thisiswhyknowledgecompounds.Oldstuffthatwasa4/10invaluecanbecomea10/10,unlockedbyanotherbookinthefuture.”http://investorfieldguide.com/reading-tweet-storm.

Cancerspends80percentofitslifeundetectable:“HowtoLiveaLonger,HigherQualityLife,withPeterAttia,M.D.,”Investor’sFieldGuide,March7,2017,http://investorfieldguide.com/attia.

TheSanAntonioSpurs:MattMoore,“NBAFinals:ARock,HammerandCrackingofSpurs’MajestyinGame7,”CBSSports,June21,2013,https://www.cbssports.com/nba/news/nba-finals-a-rock-hammer-and-cracking-of-spurs-majesty-in-game-7.

Inspirationforthisdrawingcamefromatweettitled“Deceptionoflinearvsexponential”by@MlichaelW.May19,2018.https://twitter.com/MlichaelW/status/997878086132817920.

Theseedofeveryhabit:ThisparagraphwasinspiredbyaquotefromMr.Mircea,anaccountonTwitter,whowrote,“eachhabitbeganitslifeasasingledecision.”https://twitter.com/mistermircea.

thegoalcannotbewhatdifferentiatesthewinnersfromthelosers:HattiptoCrossFitcoachBenBergeronforinspiringthisquoteduringaconversationIhadwithhimonFebruary28,2017.

Youfalltothelevelofyoursystems:ThislinewasinspiredbythefollowingquotefromArchilochus:“Wedon’trisetothelevelofourexpectations,wefalltothelevelofourtraining.”

CHAPTER2Youcanimaginethemlikethelayersofanonion:HattiptoSimonSinek.His“Golden

Circle”frameworkissimilarindesign,butdiscussesdifferenttopics.Formore,seeSimonSinek,StartwithWhy:HowGreatLeadersInspireEveryonetoTakeAction(London:Portfolio/Penguin,2013),37.

Iresolvedtostopchewingmynails:Thequotesusedinthissectionarepresentedasaconversationforreadingclarity,butwereoriginallywrittenbyClark.See:BrianClark,“ThePowerfulPsychologicalBoostthatHelpsYouMakeandBreakHabits,”Further,November14,2017,https://further.net/pride-habits.

Researchhasshownthatonceaperson:ChristopherJ.Bryanetal.,“MotivatingVoterTurnoutbyInvokingtheSelf,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences108,no.31(2011):12653–12656.

Thereisinternalpressure:LeonFestinger,ATheoryofCognitiveDissonance(Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,1957).

Youridentityisliterallyyour“repeatedbeingness”:Technically,identidemisawordbelongingtotheLateLatinlanguage.Also,thankstoTamarShippony,areaderofjamesclear.com,whooriginallytoldmeabouttheetymologyofthewordidentity,whichshelookedupintheAmericanHeritageDictionary.

Wechangebitbybit:Thisisanotherreasonatomichabitsaresuchaneffectiveformofchange.Ifyouchangeyouridentitytooquicklyandbecomesomeoneradicallydifferentovernight,thenyoufeelasifyouloseyoursenseofself.Butifyouupdateandexpandyouridentitygradually,youwillfindyourselfrebornintosomeonetotallynewandyet

stillfamiliar.Slowly—habitbyhabit,votebyvote—youbecomeaccustomedtoyournewidentity.Atomichabitsandgradualimprovementarethekeystoidentitychangewithoutidentityloss.

CHAPTER3EdwardThorndikeconductedanexperiment:PeterGray,Psychology,6thed.(New

York:Worth,2011),108–109.

“bysomesimpleact,suchaspullingataloopofcord”:EdwardL.Thorndike,“AnimalIntelligence:AnExperimentalStudyoftheAssociativeProcessesinAnimals,”PsychologicalReview:MonographSupplements2,no.4(1898),doi:10.1037/h0092987.

“behaviorsfollowedbysatisfyingconsequences”:ThisisanabbreviatedversionoftheoriginalquotefromThorndike,whichreads:“responsesthatproduceasatisfyingeffectinaparticularsituationbecomemorelikelytooccuragaininthatsituation,andresponsesthatproduceadiscomfortingeffectbecomelesslikelytooccuragaininthatsituation.”Formore,seePeterGray,Psychology,6thed.(NewYork:Worth,2011),108–109.

Neurologicalactivityinthebrainishigh:CharlesDuhigg,ThePowerofHabit:WhyWeDoWhatWeDoinLifeandBusiness(NewYork:RandomHouse,2014),15;AnnM.Graybiel,“Network-LevelNeuroplasticityinCortico-BasalGangliaPathways,”ParkinsonismandRelatedDisorders10,no.5(2004),doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2004.03.007.

“Habitsare,simply,reliablesolutions”:JasonHreha,“WhyOurConsciousMindsAreSuckersforNovelty,”Revue,https://www.getrevue.co/profile/jason/issues/why-our-conscious-minds-are-suckers-for-novelty-54131,accessedJune8,2018.

Ashabitsarecreated:JohnR.Anderson,“AcquisitionofCognitiveSkill,”PsychologicalReview89,no.4(1982),doi:10.1037/0033–295X.89.4.369.

thebrainremembersthepast:ShahramHeshmat,“WhyDoWeRememberCertainThings,ButForgetOthers,”PsychologyToday,October8,2015,https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/science-choice/201510/why-do-we-remember-certain-things-forget-others.

theconsciousmindisthebottleneck:WilliamH.Gladstones,MichaelA.Regan,andRobertB.Lee,“DivisionofAttention:TheSingle-ChannelHypothesisRevisited,”QuarterlyJournalofExperimentalPsychologySectionA41,no.1(1989),doi:10.1080/14640748908402350.

theconsciousmindlikestopawnofftasks:DanielKahneman,Thinking,FastandSlow(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2015).

Habitsreducecognitiveload:JohnR.Anderson,“AcquisitionofCognitiveSkill,”PsychologicalReview89,no.4(1982),doi:10.1037/0033–295X.89.4.369.

Feelingsofpleasureanddisappointment:AntonioR.Damasio,TheStrangeOrderofThings:Life,Feeling,andtheMakingofCultures(NewYork:PantheonBooks,2018);LisaFeldmanBarrett,HowEmotionsAreMade(London:PanBooks,2018).

CHAPTER4ThepsychologistGaryKlein:IoriginallyheardaboutthisstoryfromDanielKahneman,

butitwasconfirmedbyGaryKleininanemailonMarch30,2017.Kleinalsocoversthestoryinhisownbook,whichusesslightlydifferentquotes:GaryA.Klein,SourcesofPower:HowPeopleMakeDecisions(Cambridge,MA:MITPress,1998),43–44.

militaryanalystscanidentifywhichbliponaradarscreen:GaryA.Klein,SourcesofPower:HowPeopleMakeDecisions(Cambridge,MA:MITPress,1998),38–40.

Museumcuratorshavebeenknowntodiscern:ThestoryoftheGettykouros,coveredinMalcolmGladwell’sbookBlink,isafamousexample.Thesculpture,initiallybelievedtobefromancientGreece,waspurchasedfor$10million.Thecontroversysurroundingthesculpturehappenedlaterwhenoneexpertidentifieditasaforgeryuponfirstglance.

Experiencedradiologistscanlookatabrainscan:SiddharthaMukherjee,“TheAlgorithmWillSeeYouNow,”NewYorker,April3,2017,https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2017/04/03/ai-versus-md.

Thehumanbrainisapredictionmachine:TheGermanphysicianHermannvonHelmholtzdevelopedtheideaofthebrainbeinga“predictionmachine.”

theclerkswipedthecustomer’sactualcreditcard:HelixvanBoron,“What’stheDumbestThingYou’veDoneWhileYourBrainIsonAutopilot,”Reddit,August21,2017,https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/6v1t91/whats_the_dumbest_thing_youve_done_while_your/dlxa5y9

shekeptaskingcoworkersiftheyhadwashedtheirhands:SwordOfTheLlama,“WhatStrangeHabitsHaveYouPickedUpfromYourLineofWork,”Reddit,January4,2016,https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/3zckq6/what_strange_habits_have_you_picked_up_from_your/cyl3nta

storyofamanwhohadspentyearsworkingasalifeguard:SwearImaChick,“WhatStrangeHabitsHaveYouPickedUpfromYourLineofWork,”Reddit,January4,2016,https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/3zckq6/what_strange_habits_have_you_picked_up_from_your/cyl681q

“Untilyoumaketheunconsciousconscious”:AlthoughthisquotebyJungispopular,Ihadtroubletrackingdowntheoriginalsource.It’sprobablyaparaphraseofthispassage:“Thepsychologicalrulesaysthatwhenaninnersituationisnotmadeconscious,ithappensoutside,asfate.Thatistosay,whentheindividualremainsundividedanddoesnotbecomeconsciousofhisinneropposite,theworldmustperforceactouttheconflictandbetornintoopposinghalves.”Formore,seeC.G.Jung,Aion:ResearchesintothePhenomenologyoftheSelf(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1959),71.

Pointing-and-Callingreduceserrors:AliceGordenker,“JRGestures,”JapanTimes,October21,2008,https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2008/10/21/reference/jr-gestures/#.WvIG49Mvzu1.

TheMTAsubwaysysteminNewYorkCity:AllanRicharz,“WhyJapan’sRailWorkersCan’tStopPointingatThings,”AtlasObscura,March29,2017,https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/pointing-and-calling-japan-trains.

CHAPTER5researchersinGreatBritainbeganworking:SarahMilne,SheinaOrbell,andPaschal

Sheeran,“CombiningMotivationalandVolitionalInterventionstoPromoteExerciseParticipation:ProtectionMotivationTheoryandImplementationIntentions,”BritishJournalofHealthPsychology7(May2002):163–184.

implementationintentionsareeffective:PeterGollwitzerandPaschalSheeran,“ImplementationIntentionsandGoalAchievement:AMeta‐AnalysisofEffectsandProcesses,”AdvancesinExperimentalSocialPsychology38(2006):69–119.

writingdowntheexacttimeanddateofwhenyouwillgetaflushot:KatherineL.Milkman,JohnBeshears,JamesJ.Choi,DavidLaibson,andBrigitteC.Madrian,“UsingImplementationIntentionsPromptstoEnhanceInfluenzaVaccinationRates,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences108,no.26(June2011):10415–10420.

recordingthetimeofyourcolonoscopyappointment:KatherineL.Milkman,JohnBeshears,JamesJ.Choi,DavidLaibson,andBrigitteC.Madrian,“PlanningPromptsasaMeansofIncreasingPreventiveScreeningRates,”PreventiveMedicine56,no.1(January2013):92–93.

voterturnoutincreases:DavidW.NickersonandToddRogers,“DoYouHaveaVotingPlan?ImplementationIntentions,VoterTurnout,andOrganicPlanMaking,”PsychologicalScience21,no.2(2010):194–199.

Othersuccessfulgovernmentprograms:“PolicymakersaroundtheWorldAreEmbracingBehaviouralScience,”TheEconomist,May18,2017,https://www.economist.com/news/international/21722163-experimental-iterative-data-driven-approach-gaining-ground-policymakers-around.

peoplewhomakeaspecificplanforwhenandwhere:EdwinLockeandGaryLatham,“BuildingaPracticallyUsefulTheoryofGoalSettingandTaskMotivation:A35-YearOdyssey,”AmericanPsychologist57,no.9(2002):705–717,doi:10.1037//0003–066x.57.9.705.

hopeisusuallyhigher:HengchenDai,KatherineL.Milkman,andJasonRiis,“TheFreshStartEffect:TemporalLandmarksMotivateAspirationalBehavior,”PsycEXTRADataset,2014,doi:10.1037/e513702014–058.

writerJasonZweignoted:JasonZweig,“ElevateYourFinancialIQ:AValuePackedDiscussionwithJasonZweig,”interviewbyShaneParrish,TheKnowledgeProject,FarnamStreet,audio,https://www.fs.blog/2015/10/jason-zweig-knowledge-project.

manywaystouseimplementationintentions:Forthetermhabitstacking,IamindebtedtoS.J.Scott,whowroteabookbythesamename.FromwhatIunderstand,hisconceptisslightlydifferent,butIlikethetermandthoughtitappropriatetouseinthischapter.PreviouswriterssuchasCourtneyCarverandJulienSmithhavealsousedthetermhabitstacking,butindifferentcontexts.

TheFrenchphilosopherDenisDiderot:“DenisDiderot,”NewWorldEncyclopedia,http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Denis_Diderot,lastmodifiedOctober26,2017.

acquiredascarletrobe:EncyclopædiaBritannica,vol.8(1911),s.v.“DenisDiderot.”Diderot’sscarletrobeisfrequentlydescribedasagiftfromafriend.However,Icouldfindnooriginalsourceclaimingitwasagiftnoranymentionofthefriendwhosuppliedtherobe.Ifyouhappentoknowanyhistoriansspecializinginrobeacquisitions,feelfreetopointthemmywaysowecanclarifythemysteryofthesourceofDiderot’sfamousscarletrobe.

“nomorecoordination,nomoreunity,nomorebeauty”:DenisDiderot,“RegretsforMyOldDressingGown,”trans.MitchellAbidor,2005,https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/diderot/1769/regrets.htm.

TheDiderotEffectstates:JulietSchor,TheOverspentAmerican:WhyWeWantWhatWeDon’tNeed(NewYork:HarperPerennial,1999).

whichwascreatedbyBJFogg:Inthischapter,Iusedthetermhabitstackingtorefertolinkinganewhabittoanoldone.Forthisidea,IgivecredittoBJFogg.Inhiswork,Foggusesthetermanchoringtodescribethisapproachbecauseyouroldhabitactsasan“anchor”thatkeepsthenewoneinplace.Nomatterwhattermyouprefer,Ibelieveitisaveryeffectivestrategy.YoucanlearnmoreaboutFogg’sworkandhisTinyHabitsMethodathttps://www.tinyhabits.com.

“Onein,oneout”:DevBasu(@devbasu),“Haveaone-in-one-outpolicywhenbuyingthings,”Twitter,February11,2018,

https://twitter.com/devbasu/status/962778141965000704.

CHAPTER6AnneThorndike:AnneN.Thorndikeetal.,“A2-PhaseLabelingandChoiceArchitecture

InterventiontoImproveHealthyFoodandBeverageChoices,”AmericanJournalofPublicHealth102,no.3(2012),doi:10.2105/ajph.2011.300391.

chooseproductsnotbecauseofwhattheyare:Multipleresearchstudieshaveshownthatthemeresightoffoodcanmakeusfeelhungryevenwhenwedon’thaveactualphysiologicalhunger.Accordingtooneresearcher,“dietarybehaviorsare,inlargepart,theconsequenceofautomaticresponsestocontextualfoodcues.”Formore,seeD.A.CohenandS.H.Babey,“ContextualInfluencesonEatingBehaviours:HeuristicProcessingandDietaryChoices,”ObesityReviews13,no.9(2012),doi:10.1111/j.1467–789x.2012.01001.x;andAndrewJ.Hill,LynnD.Magson,andJohnE.Blundell,“HungerandPalatability:TrackingRatingsofSubjectiveExperienceBefore,duringandaftertheConsumptionofPreferredandLessPreferredFood,”Appetite5,no.4(1984),doi:10.1016/s0195–6663(84)80008–2.

BehaviorisafunctionofthePersonintheirEnvironment:KurtLewin,PrinciplesofTopologicalPsychology(NewYork:McGraw-Hill,1936).

SuggestionImpulseBuying:HawkinsStern,“TheSignificanceofImpulseBuyingToday,”JournalofMarketing26,no.2(1962),doi:10.2307/1248439.

45percentofCoca-Colasales:MichaelMoss,“NudgedtotheProduceAislebyaLookintheMirror,”NewYorkTimes,August27,2013,https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/28/dining/wooing-us-down-the-produce-aisle.html?_r=0.

PeopledrinkBudLightbecause:Themoreexposurepeoplehavetofood,themorelikelytheyaretopurchaseitandeatit.T.Burgoineetal.,“AssociationsbetweenExposuretoTakeawayFoodOutlets,TakeawayFoodConsumption,andBodyWeightinCambridgeshire,UK:PopulationBased,CrossSectionalStudy,”BritishMedicalJournal348,no.5(2014),doi:10.1136/bmj.g1464.

Thehumanbodyhasaboutelevenmillionsensoryreceptors:TimothyD.Wilson,StrangerstoOurselves:DiscoveringtheAdaptiveUnconscious(Cambridge,MA:BelknapPress,2004),24.

halfofthebrain’sresourcesareusedonvision:B.R.Shethetal.,“OrientationMapsofSubjectiveContoursinVisualCortex,”Science274,no.5295(1996),doi:10.1126/science.274.5295.2110.

Whentheirenergyusewasobviousandeasytotrack:ThisstorywastoldtoDonellaMeadowsataconferenceinKollekolle,Denmark,in1973.Formore,seeDonellaMeadowsandDianaWright,ThinkinginSystems:APrimer(WhiteRiverJunction,VT:ChelseaGreen,2015),109.

thestickerscutbathroomcleaningcosts:Theactualestimatewas8percent,butgiventhevariablesused,anywherebetween5percentand10percentsavingsannuallyisareasonableguess.BlakeEvans-Pritchard,“AimingtoReduceCleaningCosts,”WorksThatWork,Winter2013,https://worksthatwork.com/1/urinal-fly.

sleeping...wastheonlyactionthathappenedinthatroom:“Techniquesinvolvingstimuluscontrolhaveevenbeensuccessfullyusedtohelppeoplewithinsomnia.Inshort,thosewhohadtroublefallingasleepweretoldtoonlygototheirroomandlieintheirbedwhentheyweretired.Iftheycouldn’tfallasleep,theyweretoldtogetupandchangerooms.Strangeadvice,butovertime,researchersfoundthatbyassociatingthebedwith‘It’stimetogotosleep’andnotwithotheractivities(readingabook,justlying

there,etc.),participantswereeventuallyabletoquicklyfallasleepduetotherepeatedprocess:itbecamealmostautomatictofallasleepintheirbedbecauseasuccessfultriggerhadbeencreated.”Formore,seeCharlesM.Morinetal.,“PsychologicalandBehavioralTreatmentofInsomnia:UpdateoftheRecentEvidence(1998–2004),”Sleep29,no.11(2006),doi:10.1093/sleep/29.11.1398;andGregoryCiotti,“TheBestWaytoChangeYourHabits?ControlYourEnvironment,”SparringMind,https://www.sparringmind.com/changing-habits.

habitscanbeeasiertochangeinanewenvironment:S.Thompson,J.Michaelson,S.Abdallah,V.Johnson,D.Morris,K.Riley,andA.Simms,‘MomentsofChange’asOpportunitiesforInfluencingBehaviour:AReporttotheDepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs(London:Defra,2011),http://randd.defra.gov.uk/Document.aspx?Document=MomentsofChangeEV0506FinalReportNov2011(2).pdf.

whenyoustepoutsideyournormalenvironment:Variousresearchstudieshavefoundthatitiseasiertochangeyourbehaviorwhenyourenvironmentchanges.Forexample,studentschangetheirtelevisionwatchinghabitswhentheytransferschools.WendyWoodandDavidT.Neal,“HealthythroughHabit:InterventionsforInitiatingandMaintainingHealthBehaviorChange,”BehavioralScienceandPolicy2,no.1(2016),doi:10.1353/bsp.2016.0008;W.Wood,L.Tam,andM.G.Witt,“ChangingCircumstances,DisruptingHabits,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology88,no.6(2005),doi:10.1037/0022–3514.88.6.918

Youaren’tbattlingoldenvironmentalcues:Perhapsthisiswhy36percentofsuccessfulchangesinbehaviorwereassociatedwithamovetoanewplace.MelissaGuerrero-Witt,WendyWood,andLeonaTam,“ChangingCircumstances,DisruptingHabits,”PsycEXTRADataset88,no.6(2005),doi:10.1037/e529412014–144.

CHAPTER7Follow-upresearchrevealedthat35percentofservicemembers:LeeN.Robinset

al.,“VietnamVeteransThreeYearsafterVietnam:HowOurStudyChangedOurViewofHeroin,”AmericanJournalonAddictions19,no.3(2010),doi:10.1111/j.1521–0391.2010.00046.x.

thecreationoftheSpecialActionOfficeofDrugAbusePrevention:“ExcerptsfromPresident’sMessageonDrugAbuseControl,”NewYorkTimes,June18,1971,https://www.nytimes.com/1971/06/18/archives/excerpts-from-presidents-message-on-drug-abuse-control.html.

nineoutoftensoldierswhousedheroininVietnam:LeeN.Robins,DarleneH.Davis,andDavidN.Nurco,“HowPermanentWasVietnamDrugAddiction?”AmericanJournalofPublicHealth64,no.12(suppl.)(1974),doi:10.2105/ajph.64.12_suppl.38.

90percentofheroinusersbecomere-addicted:BobbyP.Smythetal.,“LapseandRelapsefollowingInpatientTreatmentofOpiateDependence,”IrishMedicalJournal103,no.6(June2010).

“disciplined”peoplearebetteratstructuringtheirlives:WilhelmHofmannetal.,“EverydayTemptations:AnExperienceSamplingStudyonHowPeopleControlTheirDesires,”PsycEXTRADataset102,no.6(2012),doi:10.1037/e634112013–146.

It’seasiertopracticeself-restraintwhenyoudon’thavetouseit:“Ourprototypicalmodelofself-controlisangelononesideanddevilontheother,andtheybattleitout....Wetendtothinkofpeoplewithstrongwillpoweraspeoplewhoareabletofightthisbattleeffectively.Actually,thepeoplewhoarereallygoodatself-controlneverhavethesebattlesinthefirstplace.”Formore,seeBrianResnick,“TheMythofSelf-Control,”

Vox,November24,2016,https://www.vox.com/science-and-health/2016/11/3/13486940/self-control-psychology-myth.

Ahabitthathasbeenencodedinthemindisreadytobeused:WendyWoodandDennisRünger,“PsychologyofHabit,”AnnualReviewofPsychology67,no.1(2016),doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-122414–033417.

Thecueswerestillinternalized:“TheBiologyofMotivationandHabits:WhyWeDroptheBall,”TherapistUncensored),20:00,http://www.therapistuncensored.com/biology-of-motivation-habits,accessedJune8,2018.

Shamingobesepeoplewithweight-losspresentations:SarahE.Jackson,RebeccaJ.Beeken,andJaneWardle,“PerceivedWeightDiscriminationandChangesinWeight,WaistCircumference,andWeightStatus,”Obesity,2014,doi:10.1002/oby.20891.

Showingpicturesofblackenedlungstosmokers:KellyMcGonigal,TheUpsideofStress:WhyStressIsGoodforYou,andHowtoGetGoodatIt(NewYork:Avery,2016),xv.

showingaddictsapictureofcocaineforjustthirty-threemilliseconds:FranSmith,“HowScienceIsUnlockingtheSecretsofAddiction,”NationalGeographic,September2017,https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/09/the-addicted-brain.

CHAPTER8NikoTinbergenperformedaseriesofexperiments:NikolaasTinbergen,TheHerring

Gull’sWorld(London:Collins,1953);“NikolaasTinbergen,”NewWorldEncyclopedia,http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Nikolaas_Tinbergen,lastmodifiedSeptember30,2016.

thegoosewillpullanynearbyroundobject:JamesL.Gould,Ethology:TheMechanismsandEvolutionofBehavior(NewYork:Norton,1982),36–41.

themodernfoodindustryreliesonstretching:StevenWitherly,WhyHumansLikeJunkFood(NewYork:IUniverse,2007).

Nearlyeveryfoodinabag:“TweakingTastesandCreatingCravings,”60Minutes,November27,2011.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a7Wh3uq1yTc.

Frenchfries...areapotentcombination:StevenWitherly,WhyHumansLikeJunkFood(NewYork:IUniverse,2007).

suchstrategiesenablefoodscientiststofindthe“blisspoint”:MichaelMoss,Salt,Sugar,Fat:HowtheFoodGiantsHookedUs(London:Allen,2014).

“We’vegottentoogoodatpushingourownbuttons”:ThisquoteoriginallyappearedinStephanGuyenet,“WhyAreSomePeople‘Carboholics’?”July26,2017,http://www.stephanguyenet.com/why-are-some-people-carboholics.TheadaptedversionisgivenwithpermissiongrantedinanemailexchangewiththeauthorinApril2018.

Theimportanceofdopamine:“Theimportanceofdopaminewasdiscoveredbyaccident.In1954,JamesOldsandPeterMilner,twoneuroscientistsatMcGillUniversity,decidedtoimplantanelectrodedeepintothecenterofarat’sbrain.Thepreciseplacementoftheelectrodewaslargelyhappenstance;atthetime,thegeographyofthemindremainedamystery.ButOldsandMilnergotlucky.Theyinsertedtheneedlerightnexttothenucleusaccumbens(NAcc),apartofthebrainthatgeneratespleasurablefeelings.Wheneveryoueatapieceofchocolatecake,orlistentoafavoritepopsong,orwatchyourfavoriteteamwintheWorldSeries,itisyourNAccthathelpsyoufeelsohappy.ButOldsandMilnerquicklydiscoveredthattoomuchpleasurecanbefatal.Theyplacedtheelectrodesinseveralrodents’brainsandthenranasmallcurrentintoeachwire,

makingtheNAccscontinuallyexcited.Thescientistsnoticedthattherodentslostinterestineverything.Theystoppedeatinganddrinking.Allcourtshipbehaviorceased.Theratswouldjusthuddleinthecornersoftheircages,transfixedbytheirbliss.Withindays,alloftheanimalshadperished.Theydiedofthirst.Formore,seeJonahLehrer,HowWeDecide(Boston:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2009).

neurologicalprocessesbehindcravinganddesire:JamesOldsandPeterMilner,“PositiveReinforcementProducedbyElectricalStimulationofSeptalAreaandOtherRegionsofRatBrain,”JournalofComparativeandPhysiologicalPsychology47,no.6(1954),doi:10.1037/h0058775.

ratslostallwilltolive:Qun-YongZhouandRichardD.Palmiter,“Dopamine-DeficientMiceAreSeverelyHypoactive,Adipsic,andAphagic,”Cell83,no.7(1995),doi:10.1016/0092–8674(95)90145–0.

withoutdesire,actionstopped:KentC.Berridge,IsabelL.Venier,andTerryE.Robinson,“TasteReactivityAnalysisof6-Hydroxydopamine-InducedAphagia:ImplicationsforArousalandAnhedoniaHypothesesofDopamineFunction,”BehavioralNeuroscience103,no.1(1989),doi:10.1037//0735–7044.103.1.36.

themicedevelopedacravingsostrong:RossA.Mcdevittetal.,“SerotonergicversusNonserotonergicDorsalRapheProjectionNeurons:DifferentialParticipationinRewardCircuitry,”CellReports8,no.6(2014),doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2014.08.037.

theaverageslotmachineplayer:NatashaDowSchüll,AddictionbyDesign:MachineGamblinginLasVegas(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2014),55.

Habitsareadopamine-drivenfeedbackloop:Ifirstheardthetermdopamine-drivenfeedbackloopfromChamathPalihapitiya.Formore,see“ChamathPalihapitiya,FounderandCEOSocialCapital,onMoneyasanInstrumentofChange,”StanfordGraduateSchoolofBusiness,November13,2017,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PMotykw0SIk.

dopamine...playsacentralroleinmanyneurologicalprocesses:Researcherslaterdiscoveredthatendorphinsandopioidswereresponsibleforpleasureresponses.Formore,seeV.S.Chakravarthy,DennyJoseph,andRajuS.Bapi,“WhatDotheBasalGangliaDo?AModelingPerspective,”BiologicalCybernetics103,no.3(2010),doi:10.1007/s00422–010–0401-y.

dopamineisreleasednotonlywhenyouexperiencepleasure:WolframSchultz,“NeuronalRewardandDecisionSignals:FromTheoriestoData,”PhysiologicalReviews95,no.3(2015),doi:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014,fig.8;FranSmith,“HowScienceIsUnlockingtheSecretsofAddiction,”NationalGeographic,September2017,https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/2017/09/the-addicted-brain.

wheneverdopaminerises,sodoesyourmotivation:Dopaminecompelsyoutoseek,explore,andtakeaction:“Dopamine-energized,thismesolimbicSEEKINGsystem,arisingfromtheventraltegmentalarea(VTA),encouragesforaging,exploration,investigation,curiosity,interestandexpectancy.Dopaminefireseachtimetherat(orhuman)exploresitsenvironment....IcanlookattheanimalandtellwhenIamticklingitsSEEKINGsystembecauseitisexploringandsniffing.”Formore,seeKarinBadt,“Depressed?Your‘SEEKING’SystemMightNotBeWorking:AConversationwithNeuroscientistJaakPanksepp,”HuffingtonPost,December6,2017,http://www.huffingtonpost.com/karin-badt/depressed-your-seeking-sy_b_3616967.html.

therewardsystemthatisactivatedinthebrain:WolframSchultz,“MultipleRewardSignalsintheBrain,”NatureReviewsNeuroscience1,no.3(2000),doi:10.1038/35044563.

100percentofthenucleusaccumbensisactivatedduringwanting:KentBerridge,conversationwithauthor,March8,2017.

Byrnehackedhisstationarybike:HacksterStaff,“NetflixandCycle!,”Hackster,July12,2017,https://blog.hackster.io/netflix-and-cycle-1734d0179deb.

“eliminatingobesityoneNetflixbingeatatime”:“Cycflix:ExercisePoweredEntertainment,”Roboro,July8,2017,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-nc0irLB-iY.

“WeseeThursdaynightasaviewershipopportunity”:JeaninePoggi,“ShondaRhimesLooksBeyondABC’sNighttimeSoaps,”AdAge,May16,2016,http://adage.com/article/special-report-tv-upfront/shonda-rhimes-abc-soaps/303996.

“moreprobablebehaviorswillreinforcelessprobablebehaviors”:JonE.Roeckelein,DictionaryofTheories,Laws,andConceptsinPsychology(Westport,CT:GreenwoodPress,1998),384.

CHAPTER9“Ageniusisnotborn,butiseducatedandtrained”:HaroldLundstrom,“Fatherof3

ProdigiesSaysChessGeniusCanBeTaught,”DeseretNews,December25,1992,https://www.deseretnews.com/article/266378/FATHER-OF-3-PRODIGIES-SAYS-CHESS-GENIUS-CAN-BE-TAUGHT.html?pg=all.

Weimitatethehabitsofthreegroups:PeterJ.RichersonandRobertBoyd,NotbyGenesAlone:HowCultureTransformedHumanEvolution(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2006).

“aperson’schancesofbecomingobeseincreasedby57percent”:NicholasA.ChristakisandJamesH.Fowler,“TheSpreadofObesityinaLargeSocialNetworkover32Years,”NewEnglandJournalofMedicine357,no.4(2007),doi:10.1056/nejmsa066082.J.A.Stockman,“TheSpreadofObesityinaLargeSocialNetworkover32Years,”YearbookofPediatrics2009(2009),doi:10.1016/s0084–3954(08)79134–6.

ifonepersoninarelationshiplostweight:AmyA.Gorinetal.,“RandomizedControlledTrialExaminingtheRippleEffectofaNationallyAvailableWeightManagementProgramonUntreatedSpouses,”Obesity26,no.3(2018),doi:10.1002/oby.22098.

Ofthetenpeopleintheclass,fourbecameastronauts:MikeMassimino,“FindingtheDifferenceBetween‘Improbable’and‘Impossible,’”interviewbyJamesAltucher,TheJamesAltucherShow,January2017,https://jamesaltucher.com/2017/01/mike-massimino-i-am-not-good-enough.

thehigheryourbestfriend’sIQatageelevenortwelve:RyanMeldrum,NicholasKavish,andBrianBoutwell,“OntheLongitudinalAssociationBetweenPeerandAdolescentIntelligence:CanOurFriendsMakeUsSmarter?,”PsyArXiv,February10,2018,doi:10.17605/OSF.IO/TVJ9Z.

SolomonAschconductedaseriesofexperiments:HaroldSteereGuetzkow,Groups,LeadershipandMen:ResearchinHumanRelations(Pittsburgh,PA:CarnegiePress,1951),177–190.

Bytheendoftheexperiment,nearly75percentofthesubjects:Follow-upstudiesshowthatiftherewasjustoneactorinthegroupwhodisagreedwiththegroup,thenthesubjectwasfarmorelikelytostatetheirtruebeliefthatthelinesweredifferentlengths.Whenyouhaveanopinionthatdissentsfromthetribe,itismucheasiertostandbyitifyouhaveanally.Whenyouneedthestrengthtostanduptothesocialnorm,findapartner.Formore,seeSolomonE.Asch,“OpinionsandSocialPressure,”ScientificAmerican193,no.5(1955),doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1155–31;andWilliamN.

MorrisandRobertS.Miller,“TheEffectsofConsensus-BreakingandConsensus-PreemptingPartnersonReductionofConformity,”JournalofExperimentalSocialPsychology11,no.3(1975),doi:10.1016/s0022–1031(75)80023–0.

Nearly75percentofsubjectsmadetheincorrectchoiceatleastonce.However,consideringthetotalnumberofresponsesthroughouttheexperiment,abouttwothirdswerecorrect.Eitherway,thepointstands:grouppressurecansignificantlyalterourabilitytomakeaccuratedecisions.

achimpanzeelearnsaneffectiveway:LydiaV.Luncz,GiuliaSirianni,RogerMundry,andChristopheBoesch.“Costlyculture:differencesinnut-crackingefficiencybetweenwildchimpanzeegroups.”AnimalBehaviour137(2018):63–73.

CHAPTER10Iwouldn’tsay,“BecauseIneedfoodtosurvive”:Iheardasimilarexamplefromthe

Twitteraccount,simpolism(@simpolism),“Let’sextendthismetaphor.Ifsocietyisahumanbody,thenthestateisthebrain.Humansareunawareoftheirmotives.Ifasked‘whydoyoueat?’youmightsay‘bcfoodtastesgood’andnot‘bcIneedfoodtosurvive.’Whatmightastate’sfoodbe?(hint:arepillsfood?),”Twitter,May7,2018,https://twitter.com/simpolism/status/993632142700826624.

whenemotionsandfeelingsareimpaired:AntoineBecharaetal.,“InsensitivitytoFutureConsequencesfollowingDamagetoHumanPrefrontalCortex,”Cognition50,no.1–3(1994),doi:10.1016/0010–0277(94)90018–3.

AstheneuroscientistAntonioDamasio:“WhenEmotionsMakeBetterDecisions—AntonioDamasio,”August11,2009.https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1wup_K2WN0I

Youdon’t“have”to.You“get”to:Iamindebtedtomycollegestrengthandconditioningcoach,MarkWatts,whooriginallysharedthissimplemind-setshiftwithme.

“I’mnotconfinedtomywheelchair”:RedheadBanshee,“WhatIsSomethingSomeoneSaidThatForeverChangedYourWayofThinking,”Reddit,October22,2014,https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/2jzn0j/what_is_something_someone_said_that_forever/clgm4s2

“It’stimetobuildenduranceandgetfast”:WingedAdventurer,“InsteadofThinking‘GoRunintheMorning,’Think‘GoBuildEnduranceandGetFast.’MakeYourHabitaBenefit,NotaTask,”Reddit,January19,2017,https://www.reddit.com/r/selfimprovement/comments/5ovrqf/instead_of_thinking_go_run_in_the_morning_think/?st=izmz9pks&sh=059312db.

“I’mgettinganadrenalinerushtohelpmeconcentrate”:AlisonWoodBrooks,“GetExcited:ReappraisingPre-PerformanceAnxietyasExcitementwithMinimalCues,”PsycEXTRADataset,June2014,doi:10.1037/e578192014–321;CarolineWebb,HowtoHaveaGoodDay(London:PanBooks,2017),238.“WendyBerryMendesandJeremyJamiesonhaveconductedanumberofstudies[that]showthatpeopleperformbetterwhentheydecidetointerprettheirfastheartbeatandbreathingas‘aresourcethataidsperformance.’”

EdLatimore,aboxerandwriter:EdLatimore(@EdLatimore),“Oddrealization:Myfocusandconcentrationgoesupjustbyputtingmyheadphones[on]whilewriting.Idon’tevenhavetoplayanymusic,”Twitter,May7,2018,https://twitter.com/EdLatimore/status/993496493171662849.

CHAPTER11Intheend,theyhadlittletoshowfortheirefforts:Thisstorycomesfrompage29of

Art&FearbyDavidBaylesandTedOrland.InanemailconversationwithOrlandonOctober18,2016,heexplainedtheoriginsofthestory.“Yes,the‘ceramicsstory’in‘Art

&Fear’isindeedtrue,allowingforsomeliterarylicenseintheretelling.Itsreal-worldoriginwasasagambitemployedbyphotographerJerryUelsmanntomotivatehisBeginningPhotographystudentsattheUniversityofFlorida.Asretoldin‘Art&Fear’itfaithfullycapturesthesceneasJerrytoldittome—exceptIreplacedphotographywithceramicsasthemediumbeingexplored.Admittedly,itwould’vebeeneasiertoretainphotographyastheartmediumbeingdiscussed,butDavidBayles(co-author)&Iarebothphotographersourselves,andatthetimewewereconsciouslytryingtobroadentherangeofmediabeingreferencedinthetext.Theintriguingthingtomeisthatithardlymatterswhatartformwasinvoked—themoralofthestoryappearstoholdequallytruestraightacrossthewholeartspectrum(andevenoutsidethearts,forthatmatter).”Laterinthatsameemail,Orlandsaid,“Youhaveourpermissiontoreprintanyorallofthe‘ceramics’passageinyourforthcomingbook.”Intheend,Isettledonpublishinganadaptedversion,whichcombinestheirtellingoftheceramicsstorywithfactsfromtheoriginalsourceofUelsmann’sphotographystudents.DavidBaylesandTedOrland,Art&Fear:ObservationsonthePerils(andRewards)ofArtmaking(SantaCruz,CA:ImageContinuumPress,1993),29.

AsVoltaireoncewrote:Voltaire,LaBégueule.ConteMoral(1772).

long-termpotentiation:Long-termpotentiationwasdiscoveredbyTerjeLømoin1966.Moreprecisely,hediscoveredthatwhenaseriesofsignalswasrepeatedlytransmittedbythebrain,therewasapersistenteffectthatlastedafterwardthatmadeiteasierforthosesignalstobetransmittedinthefuture.

“Neuronsthatfiretogetherwiretogether”:DonaldO.Hebb,TheOrganizationofBehavior:ANeuropsychologicalTheory(NewYork:Wiley,1949).

Inmusicians,thecerebellum:S.Hutchinson,“CerebellarVolumeofMusicians,”CerebralCortex13,no.9(2003),doi:10.1093/cercor/13.9.943.

Mathematicians,meanwhile,haveincreasedgraymatter:A.Verma,“IncreasedGrayMatterDensityintheParietalCortexofMathematicians:AVoxel-BasedMorphometryStudy,”YearbookofNeurologyandNeurosurgery2008(2008),doi:10.1016/s0513–5117(08)79083–5.

WhenscientistsanalyzedthebrainsoftaxidriversinLondon:EleanorA.Maguireetal.,“Navigation-RelatedStructuralChangeintheHippocampiofTaxiDrivers,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences97,no.8(2000),doi:10.1073/pnas.070039597;KatherineWoollettandEleanorA.Maguire,“Acquiring‘theKnowledge’ofLondon’sLayoutDrivesStructuralBrainChanges,”CurrentBiology21,no.24(December2011),doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.11.018;EleanorA.Maguire,KatherineWoollett,andHugoJ.Spiers,“LondonTaxiDriversandBusDrivers:AStructuralMRIandNeuropsychologicalAnalysis,”Hippocampus16,no.12(2006),doi:10.1002/hipo.20233.

“theactionsbecomesoautomatic”:GeorgeHenryLewes,ThePhysiologyofCommonLife(Leipzig:Tauchnitz,1860).

repetitionisaformofchange:Apparently,BrianEnosaysthesamethinginhisexcellent,creativelyinspiringObliqueStrategiescardset,whichIdidn’tknowwhenIwrotethisline!Greatmindsandallthat.

Automaticityistheabilitytoperformabehavior:PhillippaLallyetal.,“HowAreHabitsFormed:ModellingHabitFormationintheRealWorld,”EuropeanJournalofSocialPsychology40,no.6(2009),doi:10.1002/ejsp.674.

habitsformbasedonfrequency,nottime:HermannEbbinghauswasthefirstpersontodescribelearningcurvesinhis1885bookÜberdasGedächtnis.HermannEbbinghaus,

Memory:AContributiontoExperimentalPsychology(UnitedStates:ScholarSelect,2016).

CHAPTER12thisdifferenceinshapeplayedasignificantroleinthespreadofagriculture:

JaredDiamond,Guns,Germs,andSteel:TheFatesofHumanSocieties(NewYork:Norton,1997).

ItishumannaturetofollowtheLawofLeastEffort:DeepakChoprausesthephrase“lawofleasteffort”todescribeoneofhisSevenSpiritualLawsofYoga.ThisconceptisnotrelatedtotheprincipleIamdiscussinghere.

agardenhosethatisbentinthemiddle:ThisanalogyisamodifiedversionofanideaJoshWaitzkinmentionedinhisinterviewwithTimFerriss.“TheTimFerrissShow,Episode2:JoshWaitzkin,”May2,2014,audio,https://soundcloud.com/tim-ferriss/the-tim-ferriss-show-episode-2-josh-waitzkin.

“ittookAmericanworkersthreetimesaslongtoassembletheirsets”:JamesSurowiecki,“BetterAlltheTime,”NewYorker,November10,2014,https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/11/10/better-time.

additionbysubtraction:Additionbysubtractionisanexampleofalargerprincipleknownasinversion,whichIhavewrittenaboutpreviouslyathttps://jamesclear.com/inversion.I’mindebtedtoShaneParrishforprimingmythoughtsonthistopicbywritingaboutwhy“avoidingstupidityiseasierthanseekingbrilliance.”ShaneParrish,“AvoidingStupidityIsEasierThanSeekingBrilliance,”FarnamStreet,June2014,https://www.fs.blog/2014/06/avoiding-stupidity.

thosepercentagepointsrepresentmillionsintaxrevenue:OwainServiceetal.,“East:FourSimpleWaystoApplyBehaviouralInsights,”BehaviouralInsightsTeam,2015,http://38r8om2xjhhl25mw24492dir.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/BIT-Publication-EAST_FA_WEB.pdf.

Nuckolsdialedinhiscleaninghabits:OswaldNuckolsisanalias,usedbyrequest.

“perfecttimetocleanthetoilet”:Saul_Panzer_NY,“[Question]WhatOneHabitLiterallyChangedYourLife?”Reddit,June5,2017,https://www.reddit.com/r/getdisciplined/comments/6fgqbv/question_what_one_habit_literally_changed_your/diieswq.

CHAPTER13“arsenalofroutines”:TwylaTharpandMarkReiter,TheCreativeHabit:LearnItandUse

ItforLife:APracticalGuide(NewYork:SimonandSchuster,2006).

40to50percentofouractionsonanygivendayaredoneoutofhabit:WendyWood,“HabitsAcrosstheLifespan,”2006,https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315552294_Habits_Across_the_Lifespan.

habitsyoufollowwithoutthinking:BenjaminGardner,“AReviewandAnalysisoftheUseof‘Habit’inUnderstanding,PredictingandInfluencingHealth-RelatedBehaviour,”HealthPsychologyReview9,no.3(2014),doi:10.1080/17437199.2013.876238.

decisivemoments:ShoutouttoHenriCartier-Bresson,oneofthegreateststreetphotographersofalltime,whocoinedthetermdecisivemoment,butforanentirelydifferentpurpose:capturingamazingimagesatjusttherighttime.

theTwo-MinuteRule:HattiptoDavidAllen,whoseversionoftheTwo-MinuteRulestates,“Ifittakeslessthantwominutes,thendoitnow.”Formore,seeDavidAllen,GettingThingsDone(NewYork:Penguin,2015).

power-downhabit:AuthorCalNewportusesashutdownritualinwhichhedoesalastemailinboxcheck,prepareshisto-dolistforthenextday,andsays“shutdown

complete”toendworkfortheday.Formore,seeCalNewport,DeepWork(Boston:Little,Brown,2016).

Healwaysstoppedjournalingbeforeitseemedlikeahassle:GregMcKeown,Essentialism:TheDisciplinedPursuitofLess(NewYork:Crown,2014),78.

habitshaping:GailB.Peterson,“ADayofGreatIllumination:B.F.Skinner’sDiscoveryofShaping,”JournaloftheExperimentalAnalysisofBehavior82,no.3(2004),doi:10.1901/jeab.2004.82–317.

CHAPTER14heremainedinhisstudyandwrotefuriously:AdèleHugoandCharlesE.Wilbour,

VictorHugo,byaWitnessofHisLife(NewYork:Carleton,1864).

Acommitmentdeviceisachoiceyoumakeinthepresent:GharadBryan,DeanKarlan,andScottNelson,“CommitmentDevices,”AnnualReviewofEconomics2,no.1(2010),doi:10.1146/annurev.economics.102308.124324.

outlettimercutsoffthepowertotherouter:“NirEyal:AddictiveTech,KillingBadHabits&AppsforLifeHacking—#260,”interviewbyDaveAsprey,Bulletproof,November13,2015,https://blog.bulletproof.com/nir-eyal-life-hacking-260/.

Thisisalsoreferredtoasa“Ulyssespact”:PeterUbel,“TheUlyssesStrategy,”TheNewYorker,December11,2014,https://www.newyorker.com/business/currency/ulysses-strategy-self-control.

Patterson’sbusinesswentfromlosingmoneytomaking$5,000inprofit:“JohnH.Patterson—RingingUpSuccesswiththeIncorruptibleCashier,”DaytonInnovationLegacy,http://www.daytoninnovationlegacy.org/patterson.html,accessedJune8,2016.

onetimeactionsthatleadtobetterlong-termhabits:JamesClear(@james_clear),“Whatareone-timeactionsthatpayoffagainandagaininthefuture?”Twitter,February11,2018,https://twitter.com/james_clear/status/962694722702790659

“Civilizationadvancesbyextendingthenumberofoperations”:AlfredNorthWhitehead,IntroductiontoMathematics(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,1911),166.

Theaveragepersonspendsovertwohoursperdayonsocialmedia:“GWISocial,”GlobalWebIndex,2017,Q3,https://cdn2.hubspot.net/hubfs/304927/Downloads/GWI%20Social%20Summary%20Q3%202017.pdf

CHAPTER15overninemillionpeoplecalledithome:“PopulationSizeandGrowthofMajorCities,

1998Census,”PopulationCensusOrganization,http://www.pbs.gov.pk/sites/default/files//tables/POPULATION%20SIZE%20AND%20GROWTH%20OF%20MAJOR%20CITIES.pdf

Over60percentofKarachi’sresidents:SabiahAskari,StudiesonKarachi:PapersPresentedattheKarachiConference2013(NewcastleuponTyne,UK:CambridgeScholars,2015).

ItwasthispublichealthcrisisthathadbroughtStephenLubytoPakistan:AtulGawande,TheChecklistManifesto:HowtoGetThingsRight(Gurgaon,India:PenguinRandomHouse,2014).

“InPakistan,Safeguardwasapremiumsoap”:AllquotesinthissectionarefromanemailconversationwithStephenLubyonMay28,2018.

Therateofdiarrheafellby52percent:StephenP.Lubyetal.,“EffectofHandwashingonChildHealth:ARandomisedControlledTrial,”Lancet366,no.9481(2005),

doi:10.1016/s0140–6736(05)66912–7.

“Over95percentofhouseholds”:AnnaBowen,MubinaAgboatwalla,TracyAyers,TimothyTobery,MariaTariq,andStephenP.Luby.“Sustainedimprovementsinhandwashingindicatorsmorethan5yearsafteracluster‐randomised,community‐basedtrialofhandwashingpromotioninKarachi,Pakistan,”TropicalMedicine&InternationalHealth18,no.3(2013):259–267.https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4626884/

Chewinggumhadbeensoldcommerciallythroughoutthe1800s:MaryBellis,“HowWeHaveBubbleGumToday,”ThoughtCo,October16,2017,https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-bubble-and-chewing-gum-1991856.

Wrigleyrevolutionizedtheindustry:JenniferP.Mathews,Chicle:TheChewingGumoftheAmericas,fromtheAncientMayatoWilliamWrigley(Tucson:UniversityofArizonaPress,2009),44–46.

Wrigleybecamethelargestchewinggumcompany:“WilliamWrigley,Jr.,”EncyclopædiaBritannica,https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Wrigley-Jr,accessedJune8,2018.

Toothpastehadasimilartrajectory:CharlesDuhigg,ThePowerofHabit:WhyWeDoWhatWeDoinLifeandBusiness(NewYork:RandomHouse,2014),chap.2.

hestartedavoidingher:Sparkly_alpaca,“WhatAretheCoolestPsychologyTricksThatYouKnoworHaveUsed?”Reddit,November11,2016,https://www.reddit.com/r/AskReddit/comments/5cgqbj/what_are_the_coolest_psychology_tricks_that_you/d9wcqsr/

Theearliestremainsofmodernhumans:IanMcdougall,FrancisH.Brown,andJohnG.Fleagle,“StratigraphicPlacementandAgeofModernHumansfromKibish,Ethiopia,”Nature433,no.7027(2005),doi:10.1038/nature03258.

theneocortex...wasroughlythesame:Someresearchindicatesthatthesizeofthehumanbrainreachedmodernproportionsaroundthreehundredthousandyearsago.Evolutionneverstops,ofcourse,andtheshapeofthestructureappearstohavecontinuedtoevolveinmeaningfulwaysuntilitreachedbothmodernsizeandshapesometimebetweenonehundredthousandandthirty-fivethousandyearsago.SimonNeubauer,Jean-JacquesHublin,andPhilippGunz,“TheEvolutionofModernHumanBrainShape,”ScienceAdvances4,no.1(2018):eaao5961.

societyhasshiftedtoapredominantlydelayed-returnenvironment:Theoriginalresearchonthistopicusedthetermsdelayed-returnsocietiesandimmediate-returnsocieties.JamesWoodburn,“EgalitarianSocieties,”Man17,no.3(1982),doi:10.2307/2801707.Ifirstheardofthedifferencebetweenimmediate-returnenvironmentsanddelayed-returnenvironmentsinalecturefromMarkLeary.MarkLeary,UnderstandingtheMysteriesofHumanBehavior(Chantilly,VA:Teaching,2012).

Theworldhaschangedmuchinrecentyears:Therapidenvironmentalchangesofrecentcenturieshavefaroutpacedourbiologicalabilitytoadapt.Onaverage,ittakesabouttwenty-fivethousandyearsformeaningfulgeneticchangestobeselectedforinahumanpopulation.Formore,seeEdwardO.Wilson,Sociobiology(Cambridge,MA:BelknapPress,1980),151.

ourbrainsevolvedtopreferquickpayoffstolong-termones:DanielGilbert,“HumansWiredtoRespondtoShort-TermProblems,”interviewbyNealConan,TalkoftheNation,NPR,July3,2006,https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5530483.

Diseaseandinfectionwon’tshowupfordaysorweeks,evenyears:Thetopicsofirrationalbehaviorandcognitivebiaseshavebecomequitepopularinrecentyears.However,manyactionsthatseemirrationalonthewholehaverationaloriginsifyouconsidertheirimmediateoutcome.

FrédéricBastiat:FrédéricBastiatandW.B.Hodgson,WhatIsSeenandWhatIsNotSeen:OrPoliticalEconomyinOneLesson(London:Smith,1859).

FutureYou:HattiptobehavioraleconomistDanielGoldstein,whosaid,“It’sanunequalbattlebetweenthepresentselfandthefutureself.Imean,let’sfaceit,thepresentselfispresent.It’sincontrol.It’sinpowerrightnow.Ithasthesestrong,heroicarmsthatcanliftdoughnutsintoyourmouth.Andthefutureselfisnotevenaround.It’soffinthefuture.It’sweak.Itdoesn’tevenhavealawyerpresent.There’snobodytostickupforthefutureself.Andsothepresentselfcantrouncealloveritsdreams.”Formore,seeDanielGoldstein,“TheBattlebetweenYourPresentandFutureSelf,”TEDSalonNY2011,November2011,video,https://www.ted.com/talks/daniel_goldstein_the_battle_between_your_present_and_future_self

PeoplewhoarebetteratdelayinggratificationhavehigherSATscores:WalterMischel,EbbeB.Ebbesen,andAntonetteRaskoffZeiss,“CognitiveandAttentionalMechanismsinDelayofGratification,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology21,no.2(1972),doi:10.1037/h0032198;W.Mischel,Y.Shoda,andM.Rodriguez,“DelayofGratificationinChildren,”Science244,no.4907(1989),doi:10.1126/science.2658056;WalterMischel,YuichiShoda,andPhilipK.Peake,“TheNatureofAdolescentCompetenciesPredictedbyPreschoolDelayofGratification,”JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology54,no.4(1988),doi:10.1037//0022–3514.54.4.687;YuichiShoda,WalterMischel,andPhilipK.Peake,“PredictingAdolescentCognitiveandSelf-RegulatoryCompetenciesfromPreschoolDelayofGratification:IdentifyingDiagnosticConditions,”DevelopmentalPsychology26,no.6(1990),doi:10.1037//0012–1649.26.6.978.

CHAPTER16“Iwouldstartwith120paperclipsinonejar”:TrentDyrsmid,emailtoauthor,April1,

BenjaminFranklin:BenjaminFranklinandFrankWoodworthPine,AutobiographyofBenjaminFranklin(NewYork:Holt,1916),148.

Don’tbreakthechainofcreatingeveryday:Shout-outtomyfriendNathanBarry,whooriginallyinspiredmewiththemantra,“CreateEveryDay.”

peoplewhotracktheirprogressongoalslikelosingweight:BenjaminHarkinetal.,“DoesMonitoringGoalProgressPromoteGoalAttainment?AMeta-analysisoftheExperimentalEvidence,”PsychologicalBulletin142,no.2(2016),doi:10.1037/bul0000025.

thosewhokeptadailyfoodloglosttwiceasmuchweightasthosewhodidnot:MirandaHitti,“KeepingFoodDiaryHelpsLoseWeight,”WebMD,July8,2008,http://www.webmd.com/diet/news/20080708/keeping-food-diary-helps-lose-weight;KaiserPermanente,“KeepingaFoodDiaryDoublesDietWeightLoss,StudySuggests,”ScienceDaily,July8,2008,https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/07/080708080738.htm;JackF.Hollisetal.,“WeightLossduringtheIntensiveInterventionPhaseoftheWeight-LossMaintenanceTrial,”AmericanJournalofPreventiveMedicine35,no.2(2008),doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2008.04.013;LoraE.Burke,JingWang,andMaryAnnSevick,“Self-MonitoringinWeightLoss:ASystematicReviewoftheLiterature,”JournaloftheAmericanDieteticAssociation111,no.1(2011),doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.10.008.

Themosteffectiveformofmotivationisprogress:ThislineisparaphrasedfromGregMcKeown,whowrote,“Researchhasshownthatofallformsofhumanmotivationthemosteffectiveoneisprogress.”GregMcKeown,Essentialism:TheDisciplinedPursuitofLess(Currency,2014).

Thefirstmistakeisnevertheonethatruinsyou:Infact,researchhasshownthatmissingahabitoncehasvirtuallynoimpactontheoddsofdevelopingahabitoverthelong-term,regardlessofwhenthemistakeoccurs.Aslongasyougetbackontrack,you’refine.See:PhillippaLallyetal.,“HowAreHabitsFormed:ModellingHabitFormationintheRealWorld,”EuropeanJournalofSocialPsychology40,no.6(2009),doi:10.1002/ejsp.674.

Missingonceisanaccident:“Missingonceisanaccident.Missingtwiceisthestartofanewhabit.”IswearIreadthislinesomewhereorperhapsparaphraseditfromsomethingsimilar,butdespitemybesteffortsallofmysearchesforasourcearecomingupempty.MaybeIcameupwithit,butmybestguessisitbelongstoanunidentifiedgeniusinstead.

“Whenameasurebecomesatarget”:ThisdefinitionofGoodhart’sLawwasactuallyformulatedbytheBritishanthropologistMarilynStrathern.“‘ImprovingRatings’:AuditintheBritishUniversitySystem,”EuropeanReview5(1997):305–321,https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-review/article/improving-ratings-audit-in-the-british-university-system/FC2EE640C0C44E3DB87C29FB666E9AAB.Goodharthimselfreportedlyadvancedtheideasometimearound1975andputitformallyintowritingin1981.CharlesGoodhart,“ProblemsofMonetaryManagement:TheU.K.Experience,”inAnthonyS.Courakis(ed.),Inflation,Depression,andEconomicPolicyintheWest(London:RowmanandLittlefield,1981),111–146.

CHAPTER17“WhenIsuggestedthistofriendsinthePentagon”:RogerFisher,“PreventingNuclear

War,”BulletinoftheAtomicScientists37,no.3(1981),doi:10.1080/00963402.1981.11458828.

Thefirstseatbeltlaw:MichaelGorylandMichaelCynecki,“RestraintSystemUsageintheTrafficPopulation,”JournalofSafetyResearch17,no.2(1986),doi:10.1016/0022–4375(86)90107–6.

wearingaseatbeltisenforceablebylaw:NewHampshireistheloneexception,whereseatbeltsareonlyrequiredforchildren.“NewHampshire,”GovernorsHighwaySafetyAssociation,https://www.ghsa.org/state-laws/states/new%20hampshire,accessedJune8,2016.

over88percentofAmericansbuckledup:“SeatBeltUseinU.S.ReachesHistoric90Percent,”NationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministration,November21,2016,https://www.nhtsa.gov/press-releases/seat-belt-use-us-reaches-historic-90-percent.

BryanHarris:BryanHarris,emailconversationwithauthor,October24,2017.

Shedoesthe“songaday”challenge:CourtneyShea,“ComedianMargaretCho’sTipsforSuccess:IfYou’reFunny,Don’tDoComedy,”GlobeandMail,July1,2013,https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/comedian-margaret-chos-tips-for-success-if-youre-funny-dont-do-comedy/article12902304/?service=mobile.

ThomasFrank,anentrepreneurinBoulder,Colorado:ThomasFrank,“HowBufferForcesMetoWakeUpat5:55AMEveryDay,”CollegeInfoGeek,July2,2014,https://collegeinfogeek.com/early-waking-with-buffer/.

CHAPTER18

PhelpshaswonmoreOlympicmedals:“MichaelPhelpsBiography,”Biography,https://www.biography.com/people/michael-phelps-345192,lastmodifiedMarch29,2018.

ElGuerrouj:DougGillan,“ElGuerrouj:TheGreatestofAllTime,”IAFF,November15,2004,https://www.iaaf.org/news/news/el-guerrouj-the-greatest-of-all-time.

theydiffersignificantlyinheight:HeightsandweightsforMichaelPhelpsandHichamElGuerroujwerepulledfromtheirathleteprofilesduringthe2008SummerOlympics.“MichaelPhelps,”ESPN,2008,http://www.espn.com/olympics/summer08/fanguide/athlete?athlete=29547l;“HichamElGuerrouj,”ESPN,2008,http://www.espn.com/oly/summer08/fanguide/athlete?athlete=29886.

samelengthinseamontheirpants:DavidEpstein,TheSportsGene:InsidetheScienceofExtraordinaryAthleticPerformance(St.Louis,MO:TurtlebackBooks,2014).

averageheightofOlympicgoldmedalistsinthemen’s1,500-meterrun:AlexHutchinson,“TheIncredibleShrinkingMarathoner,”Runner’sWorld,November12,2013,https://www.runnersworld.com/sweat-science/the-incredible-shrinking-marathoner.

averageheightofOlympicgoldmedalistsinthemen’s100-meter:AlvinChang,“WanttoWinOlympicGold?Here’sHowTallYouShouldBeforArchery,Swimming,andMore,”Vox,August9,2016,http://www.vox.com/2016/8/9/12387684/olympic-heights.

“Genescanpredispose,buttheydon’tpredetermine”:GaborMaté,“Dr.GaborMaté—NewParadigms,Ayahuasca,andRedefiningAddiction,”TheTimFerrissShow,February20,2018,https://tim.blog/2018/02/20/gabor-mate/.

Geneshavebeenshowntoinfluenceeverything:“Alltraitsareheritable”isabitofanexaggeration,butnotbymuch.Concretebehavioraltraitsthatpatentlydependoncontentprovidedbythehomeorcultureare,ofcourse,notheritableatall;whichlanguageyouspeak,whichreligionyouworshipin,whichpoliticalpartyyoubelongto.Butbehavioraltraitsthatreflecttheunderlyingtalentsandtemperamentsareheritable:howproficientwithlanguageyouare,howreligious,howliberalorconservative.Generalintelligenceisheritable,andsoarethefivemajorwaysinwhichpersonalitycanvary...opennesstoexperience,conscientiousness,extroversion-introversion,antagonism-agreeableness,andneuroticism.Andtraitsthataresurprisinglyspecificturnouttobeheritable,too,suchasdependenceonnicotineoralcohol,numberofhoursoftelevisionwatched,andlikelihoodofdivorcing.ThomasJ.Bouchard,“GeneticInfluenceonHumanPsychologicalTraits,”CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience13,no.4(2004),doi:10.1111/j.0963–7214.2004.00295.x;RobertPlomin,NatureandNurture:AnIntroductiontoHumanBehavioralGenetics(Stamford,CT:Wadsworth,1996);RobertPlomin,“WhyWe’reDifferent,”Edge,June29,2016,https://soundcloud.com/edgefoundationinc/edge2016-robert-plomin.

There’sastronggeneticcomponent:DanielGoleman,“MajorPersonalityStudyFindsThatTraitsAreMostlyInherited,”NewYorkTimes,December2,1986,http://www.nytimes.com/1986/12/02/science/major-personality-study-finds-that-traits-are-mostly-inherited.html?pagewanted=all.

RobertPlomin:RobertPlomin,phonecallwiththeauthor,August9,2016.

morelikelytobecomeintroverts:JeromeKaganetal.,“ReactivityinInfants:ACross-NationalComparison,”DevelopmentalPsychology30,no.3(1994),doi:10.1037//0012–1649.30.3.342;MichaelV.EllisandEricaS.Robbins,“InCelebrationofNature:ADialoguewithJeromeKagan,”JournalofCounselingand

Development68,no.6(1990),doi:10.1002/j.1556–6676.1990.tb01426.x;BrianR.Little,Me,Myself,andUs:TheScienceofPersonalityandtheArtofWell-Being(NewYork:PublicAffairs,2016);SusanCain,Quiet:ThePowerofIntrovertsinaWorldThatCan’tStopTalking(London:Penguin,2013),99–100.

Peoplewhoarehighinagreeableness:W.G.GrazianoandR.M.Tobin,“TheCognitiveandMotivationalFoundationsUnderlyingAgreeableness,”inM.D.Robinson,E.Watkins,andE.Harmon-Jones,eds.,HandbookofCognitionandEmotion(NewYork:Guilford,2013),347–364.

Theyalsotendtohavehighernaturaloxytocinlevels:MitsuhiroMatsuzakietal.,“Oxytocin:ATherapeuticTargetforMentalDisorders,”JournalofPhysiologicalSciences62,no.6(2012),doi:10.1007/s12576–012–0232–9;AngelikiTheodoridouetal.,“OxytocinandSocialPerception:OxytocinIncreasesPerceivedFacialTrustworthinessandAttractiveness,”HormonesandBehavior56,no.1(2009),doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.03.019;AnthonyLaneetal.,“OxytocinIncreasesWillingnesstoSociallyShareOne’sEmotions,”InternationalJournalofPsychology48,no.4(2013),doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.677540;ChristopherCardosoetal.,“Stress-InducedNegativeMoodModeratestheRelationbetweenOxytocinAdministrationandTrust:EvidencefortheTend-and-BefriendResponsetoStress?”Psychoneuroendocrinology38,no.11(2013),doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.05.006.

hypersensitivityoftheamygdala:J.Ormel,A.Bastiaansen,H.Riese,E.H.Bos,M.Servaas,M.Ellenbogen,J.G.Rosmalen,andA.Aleman,“TheBiologicalandPsychologicalBasisofNeuroticism:CurrentStatusandFutureDirections,”NeuroscienceandBiobehavioralReviews37,no.1(2013),doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.09.004.PMID23068306;R.A.DepueandY.Fu,“NeurogeneticandExperientialProcessesUnderlyingMajorPersonalityTraits:ImplicationsforModellingPersonalityDisorders,”InternationalReviewofPsychiatry23,no.3(2011),doi:10.3109/09540261.2011.599315.

Ourdeeplyrootedpreferencesmakecertainbehaviorseasier:“Forexample,allpeoplehavebrainsystemsthatrespondtorewards,butindifferentindividualsthesesystemswillrespondwithdifferentdegreesofvigortoaparticularreward,andthesystems’averagelevelofresponsemaybeassociatedwithsomepersonalitytrait.”Formore,seeColinG.Deyoung,“PersonalityNeuroscienceandtheBiologyofTraits,”SocialandPersonalityPsychologyCompass4,no.12(2010),doi:10.1111/j.1751–9004.2010.00327.x.

Ifyourfriendfollowsalow-carbdiet:Researchconductedinmajorrandomizedclinicaltrialsshowsnodifferenceinlow-carbversuslow-fatdietsforweightloss.Aswithmanyhabits,therearemanywaystothesamedestinationifyoustickwithit.Formore,seeChristopherD.Gardneretal.,“EffectofLow-FatvsLow-CarbohydrateDieton12-MonthWeightLossinOverweightAdultsandtheAssociationwithGenotypePatternorInsulinSecretion,”JournaloftheAmericanMedicalAssociation319,no.7(2018),doi:10.1001/jama.2018.0245.

explore/exploittrade-off:M.A.Addicottetal.,“APrimeronForagingandtheExplore/ExploitTrade-OffforPsychiatryResearch,”Neuropsychopharmacology42,no.10(2017),doi:10.1038/npp.2017.108.

Googlefamouslyasksemployees:BharatMedirattaandJulieBick,“TheGoogleWay:GiveEngineersRoom,”NewYorkTimes,October21,2007,https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/21/jobs/21pre.html.

“Flowisthementalstate”:MihalyCsikszentmihalyi,FindingFlow:ThePsychologyofEngagementwithEverydayLife(NewYork:BasicBooks,2008).

“Everyonehasatleastafewareas”:ScottAdams,“CareerAdvice,”DilbertBlog,July20,2007,http://dilbertblog.typepad.com/the_dilbert_blog/2007/07/career-advice.html.

CHAPTER19mostsuccessfulcomedians:SteveMartin,BornStandingUp:AComic’sLife(Leicester,

UK:Charnwood,2008).

“4yearsasawildsuccess”:SteveMartin,BornStandingUp:AComic’sLife(Leicester,UK:Charnwood,2008),1.

“justmanageabledifficulty”:NicholasHobbs,“ThePsychologistasAdministrator,”JournalofClinicalPsychology15,no.3(1959),doi:10.1002/1097–4679(195907)15:33.0.co;2–4;GilbertBrim,Ambition:HowWeManageSuccessandFailureThroughoutOurLives(Lincoln,NE:IUniverse.com,2000);MihalyCsikszentmihalyi,FindingFlow:ThePsychologyofEngagementwithEverydayLife(NewYork:BasicBooks,2008).

InpsychologyresearchthisisknownastheYerkes-Dodsonlaw:RobertYerkesandJohnDodson,“TheRelationofStrengthofStimulustoRapidityofHabitFormation,”JournalofComparativeNeurologyandPsychology18(1908):459–482.

4percentbeyondyourcurrentability:StevenKotler,TheRiseofSuperman:DecodingtheScienceofUltimateHumanPerformance(Boston:NewHarvest,2014).Inhisbook,Kotlercites:“ChipConley,AI,September2013.Therealratio,accordingtocalculationsperformedby[Mihaly]Csikszentmihalyi,is1:96.”

“Mendesirenoveltytosuchanextent”:NiccolòMachiavelli,PeterBondanella,andMarkMusa,ThePortableMachiavelli(London:Penguin,2005).

variablereward:C.B.FersterandB.F.Skinner,“SchedulesofReinforcement,”1957,doi:10.1037/10627–000.Formore,seeB.F.Skinner,“ACaseHistoryinScientificMethod,”AmericanPsychologist11,no.5(1956):226,doi:10.1037/h0047662.

Thisvarianceleadstothegreatestspikeofdopamine:MatchingLawshowsthattherateoftherewardscheduleimpactsbehavior:“MatchingLaw,”Wikipedia,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matching_law.

CHAPTER20thereisusuallyaslightdeclineinperformance:K.AndersEricssonandRobertPool,

Peak:SecretsfromtheNewScienceofExpertise(Boston:MarinerBooks,2017),13.

“Thepunditsweresaying”:PatRileyandByronLaursen,“TemporaryInsanityandOtherManagementTechniques:TheLosAngelesLakers’CoachTellsAll,”LosAngelesTimesMagazine,April19,1987,http://articles.latimes.com/1987–04–19/magazine/tm-1669_1_lakers.

asystemthathecalledtheCareerBestEffortprogramorCBE:MacMullan’sbookclaimsthatRileybeganhisCBEprogramduringthe1984–1985NBAseason.MyresearchshowsthattheLakersbegantrackingstatisticsofindividualplayersatthattime,buttheCBEprogramasitisdescribedherewasfirstusedin1986–1987.

Iftheysucceeded,itwouldbeaCBE:LarryBird,EarvinJohnson,andJackieMacMullan,WhentheGameWasOurs(Boston:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2010).

“Sustaininganeffort”:PatRileyandByronLaursen,“TemporaryInsanityandOtherManagementTechniques:TheLosAngelesLakers’CoachTellsAll,”LosAngelesTimesMagazine,April19,1987,http://articles.latimes.com/1987–04–19/magazine/tm-1669_1_lakers.

EliudKipchoge:CathalDennehy,“TheSimpleLifeofOneoftheWorld’sBestMarathoners,”Runner’sWorld,April19,2016,https://www.runnersworld.com/elite-runners/the-

simple-life-of-one-of-the-worlds-best-marathoners.“EliudKip-choge:FullTrainingLogLeadingUptoMarathonWorldRecordAttempt,”SweatElite,2017,http://www.sweatelite.co/eliud-kipchoge-full-training-log-leading-marathon-world-record-attempt/.

hercoachgoesoverhernotesandaddshisthoughts:YuriSuguiyama,“TrainingKatieLedecky,”AmericanSwimmingCoachesAssociation,November30,2016,https://swimmingcoach.org/training-katie-ledecky-by-yuri-suguiyama-curl-burke-swim-club-2012/.

WhencomedianChrisRockispreparingfreshmaterial:PeterSims,“InnovateLikeChrisRock,”HarvardBusinessReview,January26,2009,https://hbr.org/2009/01/innovate-like-chris-rock.

AnnualReview:I’dliketothankChrisGuillebeau,whoinspiredmetostartmyownannualreviewprocessbypubliclysharinghisannualrevieweachyearathttps://chrisguillebeau.com.

“keepyouridentitysmall”:PaulGraham,“KeepYourIdentitySmall,”February2009,http://www.paulgraham.com/identity.html.

CONCLUSIONNoonecanberichunlessonecoincanmakehimorherso:DesideriusErasmusand

VanLoonHendrikWillem,ThePraiseofFolly(NewYork:Black,1942),31.HattiptoGretchenRubin.Ifirstreadaboutthisparableinherbook,BetterThanBefore,andthentrackeddowntheoriginstory.Formore,seeGretchenRubin,BetterThanBefore(NewYork:Hodder,2016).

LITTLELESSONSFROMTHEFOURLAWS“Happinessisthespacebetweenonedesire”:Caed(@caedbudris),“Happinessisthe

spacebetweendesirebeingfulfilledandanewdesireforming,”Twitter,November10,2017,https://twitter.com/caedbudris/status/929042389930594304.

happinesscannotbepursued,itmustensue:Frankl’sfullquotationisasfollows:“Don’taimatsuccess.Themoreyouaimatitandmakeitatarget,themoreyouaregoingtomissit.Forsuccess,likehappiness,cannotbepursued;itmustensue,anditonlydoessoastheunintendedsideeffectofone’spersonaldedicationtoacausegreaterthanoneselforastheby-productofone’ssurrendertoapersonotherthanoneself.”Formore,seeViktorE.Frankl,Man’sSearchforMeaning:AnIntroductiontoLogotherapy(Boston:BeaconPress,1962).

“Hewhohasawhytoliveforcanbearalmostanyhow”:FriedrichNietzscheandOscarLevy,TheTwilightoftheIdols(Edinburgh:Foulis,1909).

Thefeelingcomesfirst(System1):DanielKahneman,Thinking,FastandSlow(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2015).

appealingtoemotionistypicallymorepowerfulthanappealingtoreason:“Ifyouwishtopersuade,appealtointerest,ratherthanreason”(BenjaminFranklin).

Satisfaction=Liking−Wanting:ThisissimilartoDavidMeister’sfifthlawofservicebusinesses:Satisfaction=perception−expectation.

“Beingpoorisnothavingtoolittle,itiswantingmore”:LuciusAnnaeusSenecaandAnnaLydiaMotto,MoralEpistles(Chico,CA:ScholarsPress,1985).

AsAristotlenoted:ItisdebatedwhetherAristotleactuallysaidthis.Thequotehasbeenattributedtohimforcenturies,butIcouldfindnoprimarysourceforthephrase.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Thepagenumbersinthisindexrefertotheprintedversionofthisbook.Thelinkprovidedwilltakeyoutothebeginningofthatprintpage.Youmayneedtoscrollforwardfromthatlocationtofindthecorrespondingreferenceonyoure-reader.

acceptingthatyouhaveparticularabilities,218–19

accountability,209–10

actionvs.motion,142–43

Adams,Scott,23,225

addiction

effectofenvironmentonreaddiction,92

smoking,125–26

VietnamWarheroinproblem,91–92

additionbysubtractionstrategy,154

“theaggregationofmarginalgains,”13–14

agriculturalexpansionexampleofdoingthatwhichrequirestheleasteffort,149–51

AllenCarr’sEasyWaytoStopSmoking(Carr),125–26

amateursvs.professionals,236

animalbehavior

withinanimmediate-returnenvironment,187

catescapestudy,43–44

greylaggeeseandsupernormalstimuli,102

herringgullsandsupernormalstimuli,101–102

methodsforsensingandunderstandingtheworld,84

Art&Fear(BaylesandOrland),142n

Asch,Solomon,118–20

athletes

CareerBestEffortprogram(CBE),242–44

comparingchampionsofdifferentsports,217–18

examplesofreflectionandreview,244–45

handlingtheboredomoftraining,233–34

LosAngelesLakersexampleofreflectionandreview,242–44

useofmotivationrituals,132–33

atomichabits

cumulativeeffectofstacking,251–52

defined,27

automaticity,144–46

automatingahabit

cashregisterexample,171–72

tableofonetimeactionsthatlockingoodhabits,173

ThomasFrankexampleofautomatingahabitcontract,210

usingtechnology,173–75

awareness

HabitsScorecard,64–66

ofnonconscioushabits,62

Pointing-and-Callingsubwaysafetysystem,62–63

badhabits

breaking(table),97,137,179,213

reducingexposuretothecuesthatcausethem,94–95

behaviorchange

CardinalRuleofBehaviorChange,186,189

fourlawsof,53–55,186,252–53(seealsospecificnumberedlaws)

learningcurves,145–46

threelayersof,29–31

benefitsofhabits,46–47,239

“BetterAlltheTime”(article),154

biologicalconsiderations

“BigFive”personalitytraits,220–22

genes,218–21,226–27

boredom,233–36

Brailsford,Dave,13–14

thebrain

careerchoicesandbraindifferences,143–44

dopamine-drivenfeedbackloops,105–108

evolutionarysimilarityof,187

ashabitsarecreated,45–46

Hebb’sLaw,143

inaccurateperceptionsofthreats,189n

long-termpotentiation,143

physicalchangesinthebrainduetorepetition,143–44

System1vs.System2thinking,232n,261

“wanting”vs.“liking”rewards,106–108,263

breakthroughmoments

icecubemeltingexample,20–21

BritishCycling,13–15,25,243

Budris,Caed,260

buildingahabit

four-stepprocess

1.cue,47–48

2.craving,48

3.response,48–49

4.reward,49

problemphaseandsolutionphase,51–53

lessonsfrom,259–64

businessapplicationsofhabitstrategies,265

Byrne,Ronan,108–109

cashregisterexampleofautomatingahabit,171–72

catescapestudy,43–44

changingyourmind-setfrom“haveto”to“getto,”130–31

Cho,Margaret,210

choosingtherightopportunities

combiningyourskillstoreducethecompetition,225–26

explore/exploittrade-off,223–25

importanceof,222–23

specialization,226

Clark,Brian,33

commitmentdevices,170–71

compoundingeffectofsmallchanges

airplanerouteexample,17

author’scollegeexperiences,6–7

negativeresults,19

1percentchanges,15–16,17–18

positiveresults,19

conditioning,132–33

consequencesofgoodandbadhabits,188–90,206–207

context,87–90

cravings

asthesensethatsomethingismissing,129

timingof,259,263–64

andunderlyingmotives,127–28,130

cue-inducedwanting,93–94

automaticallypickingup,59–62

makingpredictionsafterperceiving,128–29

obviousvisualcues,85–87

aspartofthefour-stepprocessofbuildingahabit,47–48

selectingcuesforhabitstacking,77–79

culture

imitationofcommunityhabitsandstandards,115–18

NerdFitnessexampleofsimilaritywithinagroup,117–18

Polgarfamilychessexampleoftheroleof,113–14,122

curiosity,261

Damasio,Antonio,130

Darwin,Charles,115

decisionjournal,245

decisivemoments,160–62

desire,129–30,263–64

Diderot,Denis,72–73

DiderotEffect,73

“don’tbreakthechain,”196–97

dopamine-drivenfeedbackloops,105–108

downsideofhabits,239–40

Dyrsmid,Trent,195

emotions,129–30,261–62,263–64

energyandlikelihoodofaction,151–52

environment

andcontext,87–90

creatinganenvironmentwheredoingtherightthingisaseasyaspossible,155

dedicatedspacesfordifferentactivities,87–90

delayed-return,187–90

Dutchelectricalmeterexampleofobviouscues,85

effectofenvironmentonanaddiction,92

immediate-return,187–90

Lewin’sEquationforhumanbehavior,83

MassachusettsGeneralHospitalcafeteriaexampleofdesignchange,81–82

primingyourenvironment,156–58

redesigningyourenvironment,86–87

suggestionimpulsebuying,83

VietnamWarheroinaddictionproblemexample,91–92

exercisestudyofimplementationintention,69–70

expectations,262–63,264

Eyal,Nir,170

failure,263

feedbackloops

inallhumanbehavior,45

dopamine-driven,105–108

formationofallhabitsthatshapeone’sidentity,40

habit,49–51

feelings,129–30,261–62,263–64

1stLawofBehaviorChange(MakeItObvious)

habitstacking,74–79,110–11

habittracking,197

implementationintention,69–72

makingthecuesofbadhabitsinvisible,94–95

Fisher,Roger,205–206

flowstate,224,232–33

Fogg,BJ,72,74

foodscience

“blisspoint”foreachproduct,103

cravingsforjunkfood,102–103

dynamiccontrastofprocessedfoods,103

orosensation,103

fourlawsofbehaviorchange,53–55,186,252–53.Seealsospecificnumberedlaws

four-stepprocessofbuildingahabit

1.cue,47–48

2.craving,48

3.response,48–49

4.reward,49

habitloop,49–51

lessonsfrom,259–64

problemphaseandsolutionphase,51–53

4thLawofBehaviorChange(MakeItSatisfying)

habitcontract,207–10

habittracking,198–99

instantgratification,188–93

makingthecuesofbadhabitsunsatisfying,205–206

SafeguardsoapinPakistanexample,184–85

Frankl,Victor,260

Franklin,Benjamin,196

frequency’seffectonhabits,145–47

friction

associatedwithabehavior,152–58

gardenhoseexampleofreducing,153

Japanesefactoryexampleofeliminatingwastedtimeandeffort,154–55

topreventunwantedbehavior,157–58

“gatewayhabit,”163

genes,218–21,226–27

effectonhappiness,26

fleetingnatureof,25

sharedbywinnersandlosers,24–25

short-termeffectsof,26–27

vs.systems,23–24

theGoldilocksRule

flowstate,224,232–33

theGoldilocksZone,232

tennisexample,231

goodhabits

creating(table),96,136,178,212

Two-MinuteRule,162–67

Goodhart,Charles,203

Goodhart’sLaw,203

Graham,Paul,247–48

greylaggeeseandsupernormalstimuli,102

Guerrouj,HichamEl,217–18,225

Guns,Germs,andSteel(Diamond),149–51

habitcontract

BryanHarrisweightlossexample,208–209

defined,208

seatbeltlawexample,207–208

ThomasFrankalarmexample,210

habitline,145–47

habitloop,49–51

habits

ofavoidance,191–92

benefitsof,46–47,239

breakingbadhabits(table),97,137,179,213

inthebusinessworld,265

changingyourmind-setabout,130–31

creatinggoodhabits(table),96,136,178,212

downsideof,239–40

effectontherestofyourday,160,162

eliminatingbadhabits,94–95

astheembodimentofidentity,36–38

formationof,44–46,145–47

four-stepprocessofbuildingahabit,47–53,259–64

identity-based,31,39–40

imitationofothers’habits

theclose,116–18

themany,118–21

thepowerful,121–22

outcome-based,31

andparenting,267

reframinghabitstohighlighttheirbenefits,131–32

short-termandlong-termconsequencesof,188–90

stickingwith,230–31

suitabilityforyourpersonality,221–22

usingimplementationintentiontostart,71–72

HabitsAcademy,8

habitshaping,165–67

habitstacking

combiningtemptationbundlingwith,110–11

explained,74–79

habittracking,196–200,202–204

handwashinginPakistanexampleofasatisfyingbehaviorchange,184–85

happiness

astheabsenceofdesire,259–60

andgoals,26

relativityof,263

Harris,Bryan,208–209

Hebb,Donald,143

Hebb’sLaw,143

herringgullsandsupernormalstimuli,101–102

hope,264

Hreha,Jason,45

Hugo,Victor,169–70

TheHunchbackofNotreDame(Hugo),169–70

hyperbolicdiscounting(timeinconsistency),188–89

identity

acceptingblanketpersonalstatementsasfacts,35

andbehaviorchange,29–32,34–36

behaviorthatisatoddswiththeself,32–33

habitsastheembodimentof,36–38,247–49

identity-basedhabits,31,39–40

lettingasinglebeliefdefineyou,247–49

prideinaparticularaspectofone’sidentity,33–34

reinforcingyourdesiredidentitybyusingtheTwo-MinuteRule,165

two-stepprocessofchangingyouridentity,39–40

implementationintention,69–72

improvements,makingsmall,231–32,233,253

instantgratification,188–93

Johnson,Magic,243–44

journaling,165

Jung,Carl,62

Kamb,Steve,117–18

Kubitz,Andrew,109

LaoTzu,249

TaoTeChing,249

Latimore,Ed,132

Lewes,GeorgeH.,144

long-termpotentiation,143

LosAngelesLakersexampleofreflectionandreview,242–44

Luby,Stephen,183–85

MacMullan,Jackie,243–44

Martin,Steve,229–30,231

MassachusettsGeneralHospitalcafeteriaexampleofenvironmentdesignchange,81–82

Massimino,Mike,117

mastery,240–42

Mate,Gabor,219

McKeown,Greg,165

measurements

usefulnessof,202–204

visual,195–96

Mike(Turkishtravelguide/ex-smoker),125–26

Milner,Peter,105

mind-setshifts

from“haveto”to“getto,”130–31

motivationrituals,132–33

motionvs.action,142–43

motivation

theGoldilocksRule,231–33

maximummotivation,232

rituals,132–33

andtakingaction,260–61

Murphy,Morgan,91

negativecompounding,19

Nietzsche,Friedrich,260

nonconsciousactivities,34n

nonscalevictories,203–204

novelty,234

Nuckols,Oswald,156

observations,260

obstaclestogettingwhatyouwant,152

Olds,James,105

Olwell,Patty,93

1percentchanges

CareerBestEffortprogram(CBE),242–44

compoundingeffectofmakingchanges,15–16,17–18

SoritesParadox,251–52

operantconditioning,9–10

opportunities,choosingtheright

combiningyourskillstoreducethecompetition,225–26

specialization,226

outcomes

andbehaviorchange,29–31

outcome-basedhabits,31

pain,206–207

PaperClipStrategyofvisualprogressmeasurements,195–96

parentingapplicationsofhabitstrategies,267

Patterson,JohnHenry,171–72

Phelps,Michael,217–18,225

photographyclassexampleofactivepractice,141–42,144

PlateauofLatentPotential,21–23

pleasure

anticipatingvs.experiencing,106–108

imageof,260

repeatingabehaviorwhenit’sasatisfyingsensoryexperience,184–86,264

Safeguardsoapexample,184–85

Plomin,Robert,220

Pointing-and-Callingsubwaysafetysystem,62–63

positivecompounding,19

ThePowerofHabit(Duhigg),9,47n

predictions,making

afterperceivingcues,128–29

thehumanbrainasapredictionmachine,60–61

Premack,David,110

Premack’sPrinciple,110

manicureexample,33

inaparticularaspectofone’sidentity,33–34

primingyourenvironmenttomakethenextactioneasy,156–58

problemphaseofahabitloop,51–53

processandbehaviorchange,30–31

professionalsvs.amateurs,236

progress,262

proximity’seffectonbehavior,116–18

quittingsmoking,32,125–26

readingresources

AtomicHabitsnewsletter,257

businessapplicationsofhabitstrategies,265

parentingapplicationsofhabitstrategies,267

recoveringwhenhabitsbreakdown,200–202

reflectionandreview

author’sAnnualReviewandIntegrityReport,245–46

benefitsof,246–47

CareerBestEffortprogram(CBE)example,242–44

ChrisRockexample,245

EliudKipchogeexample,244–45

flexibilityandadaptation,247–49

KatieLedeckyexample,245

reinforcement,191–93

repetition

asactivepracticeofanewhabit,144

automaticity,144–46

tomasterahabit,143

photographyclassexampleofactivepractice,141–42,144

respondingtothingsbasedonemotions,261–62

rewards

aftersacrifice,262

immediatevs.delayed,187–90

purposeof,49

reinforcement,191–93

trainingyourselftodelaygratification,190–93

variablerewards,235

“wanting”vs.“liking,”106–108,263

Riis,Jacob,21

Riley,Michael,60

Riley,Pat,242–44

Ritty,James,171–72

Robins,Lee,91–92

sacrifice,262

satisfaction

asthecompletionofthehabitloop,186

andexpectations,262–63

pleasurablesensoryexperiences,184–86

2ndLawofBehaviorChange(MakeItAttractive)

ABCThursdaynightTVlineupexample,109

desireforapproval,respect,andpraise,121–22

habittracking,198

highlyengineeredversionsofreality,104

makingthecuesofbadhabitsunattractive,126

supernormalstimuli,102

temptationbundling,108–11

Seinfeld,Jerry,196–97

self-control

controllingtheenvironmenttoachieve,92–93

cue-inducedwanting,93–94

difficultyof,262

ridingandsmokingexampleofcontrollingyourenvironment,93

asashort-termstrategy,95

thesenses

Safeguardsoapexample,184–85

toothpasteexampleofasatisfyingbehaviorchange,186

vision,84,85–87

Wrigleychewinggumexample,185

showingup,masteringtheartof,163–64,201–202,236

Skinner,B.F.,9–10,235n

smoking,quitting,32,125–26

socialmedia,174–75

socialnorms

Asch’ssocialconformitylineexperiments,118–20

downsideofgoingalongwiththegroup,120–21

herdmentality,115

imitationofothers’habits

theclose,116–18

themany,118–21

thepowerful,121–22

solutionphaseofahabitloop,51–53

SoritesParadox,251–52

startingahabit,71–72

Steele,Robert,91

Stern,Hawkins,83

success

acceptingwhereyourstrengthsare,218–19

importanceoffeelingsuccessful,190

suffering,262

suggestionimpulsebuying,83

supernormalstimuli,102

Suroweicki,James,154

System1vs.System2thinking,232n,261

systems

changestosolveproblems,25

asacycleofcontinuousimprovement,26–27

vs.goals,23–24

technology

forautomatingahabit,173–75

socialmedia,174–75

temptationbundling,108–11

3rdLawofBehaviorChange(MakeItEasy)

agriculturalexpansionexampleofusingtheleasteffort,149–51

energyrequirementsandlikelihoodofaction,151–52

frictionassociatedwithabehavior,152–58

gardenhoseexampleofreducingfriction,153

Japanesefactoryexampleofadditionbysubtraction,154–55

makingthecuesofbadhabitsdifficult,169–70

onetimeactionsthatleadtobetterhabits,172–74

PrincipleofLeastAction,151n

repetitionasthekeytohabitformation,146–47

TwylaTharpexampleofadailyritual,159–60

Thorndike,Anne,81–82

Thorndike,Edward,43–44

timeinconsistency,188–89

Tinbergen,Niko,101–102

toothpasteexampleofasatisfyingbehaviorchange,186

trackingahabit

automated,199

combininghabitstackingwithhabittracking,200

manual,199–200

usefulnessof,202–204

trajectoryofyourcurrentpath,18

two-stepprocessofchangingyouridentity,39–40

Uelsmann,Jerry,141–42

Ulyssespact(Ulyssescontract),170n

underlyingmotivesandcravings,127–28,130

ValleyofDisappointment,20,22

variablerewards,235

VietnamWarheroinaddictionproblem,91–92

vision

impactonhumanbehavior,84

obviousvisualcues,85–87

visualmeasurements,195–96

weightloss

nonscalevictories,203–204

usingahabitcontracttoensure,208–209

Yerkes-Dodsonlaw,232

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

AbouttheAuthor

JamesClear‘sworkhasappearedintheNewYorkTimes,Time,andEntrepreneur,andonCBSThisMorning,andistaughtincollegesaroundtheworld.Hiswebsite,jamesclear.com,receivesmillionsofvisitorseachmonth,andhundredsofthousandssubscribetohisemailnewsletter.HeisthecreatorofTheHabitsAcademy,thepremiertrainingplatformfororganizationsandindividualsthatareinterestedinbuildingbetterhabitsinlifeandwork.

What’snextonyourreadinglist?

Discoveryournextgreatread!

Getpersonalizedbookpicksandup-to-datenewsaboutthisauthor.

Signupnow.

*Interestedreaderscanlearnmoreathabitsacademy.com.

*Asthisbookwasgoingtoprint,newinformationabouttheBritishCyclingteamhascomeout.Youcanseemythoughtsatatomichabits.com/cycling.

*Igeekedoutandactuallycalculatedthis.Washington,D.C.,isabout225milesfromNewYorkCity.Assumingyouareflyingona747oranAirbusA380,changingtheheadingby3.5degreesasyouleaveLosAngeleslikelycausesthenoseoftheairplanetoshiftbetween7.2to7.6feet,orabout86to92inches.Averysmallshiftindirectioncanleadtoaverymeaningfulchangeindestination.

*Thetermsunconscious,nonconscious,andsubconsciouscanallbeusedtodescribetheabsenceofawarenessorthought.Eveninacademiccircles,thesewordsareoftenusedinterchangeablywithoutmuchnitpicking(foronce).NonconsciousisthetermI’mgoingtousebecauseitisbroadenoughtoencompassboththeprocessesofthemindwecouldneverconsciouslyaccessandthemomentswhenwearesimplynotpayingattentiontowhatsurroundsus.Nonconsciousisadescriptionofanythingyouarenotconsciouslythinkingabout.

*Certainly,therearesomeaspectsofyouridentitythattendtoremainunchangedovertime—likeidentifyingassomeonewhoistallorshort.Butevenformorefixedqualitiesandcharacteristics,whetheryouviewtheminapositiveornegativelightisdeterminedbyyourexperiencesthroughoutlife.

*ReadersofThePowerofHabitbyCharlesDuhiggwillrecognizetheseterms.Duhiggwroteagreatbookandmyintentionistopickupwhereheleftoffbyintegratingthesestagesintofoursimplelawsyoucanapplytobuildbetterhabitsinlifeandwork.

*CharlesDuhiggandNirEyaldeservespecialrecognitionfortheirinfluenceonthisimage.ThisrepresentationofthehabitloopisacombinationoflanguagethatwaspopularizedbyDuhigg’sbook,ThePowerofHabit,andadesignthatwaspopularizedbyEyal’sbook,Hooked.

*WhenIvisitedJapan,Isawthisstrategysaveawoman’slife.HeryoungsonsteppedontotheShinkansen,oneofJapan’sfamousbullettrainsthattravelatovertwohundredmilesperhour,justasthedoorswereclosing.Shewasleftoutsideontheplatformandjammedherarmthroughthedoortograbhim.Withherarmstuckinthedoor,thetrainwasabouttotakeoff,butrightbeforeitpulledawayanemployeeperformedasafetycheckbyPointing-and-Callingupanddowntheplatform.Inlessthanfiveseconds,henoticedthewomanandmanagedtostopthetrainfromleaving.Thedooropened,thewoman—nowintears—rantoherson,andaminutelaterthetraindepartedsafely.

*InterestedreaderscangetatemplatetocreatetheirownHabitsScorecardatatomichabits.com/scorecard.

*Inadditiontoherpaymentforthelibrary,CatherinetheGreataskedDiderottokeepthebooksuntilsheneededthemandofferedtopayhimayearlysalarytoactasherlibrarian.

*Foggreferstothisstrategyasthe“TinyHabitsrecipe,”butI’llcallitthehabitstackingformulathroughoutthebook.

*Ifyou’relookingformoreexamplesandguidance,youcandownloadaHabitStackingtemplateatatomichabits.com/habitstacking.

*Dopamineisnottheonlychemicalthatinfluencesyourhabits.Everybehaviorinvolvesmultiplebrainregionsandneurochemicals,andanyonewhoclaimsthat“habitsareallaboutdopamine”isskippingovermajorportionsoftheprocess.Itisjustoneoftheimportantroleplayersinhabitformation.However,Iwillsingleoutthedopaminecircuitinthischapterbecauseitprovidesawindowintothebiologicalunderpinningsofdesire,craving,andmotivationthatarebehindeveryhabit.

*I’msohappyIwasabletofitaGameofThronesreferenceintothisbook.

*Thisisjustapartiallistofunderlyingmotives.Iofferamorecompletelistandmoreexamplesofhowtoapplythemtobusinessatatomichabits.com/business.

*AsimilarstoryistoldinthebookArt&FearbyDavidBaylesandTedOrland.Ithasbeenadaptedherewithpermission.Seetheendnotesforafullexplanation.

*Thisisafoundationalprincipleinphysics,whereitisknownasthePrincipleofLeastAction.Itstatesthatthepathfollowedbetweenanytwopointswillalwaysbethepathrequiringtheleastenergy.Thissimpleprincipleunderpinsthelawsoftheuniverse.Fromthisoneidea,youcandescribethelawsofmotionandrelativity.

*Thephraseadditionbysubtractionisalsousedbyteamsandbusinessestodescriberemovingpeoplefromagroupinordertomaketheteamstrongeroverall.

*Tobefair,thisstillsoundslikeanamazingnight.

*Idesignedahabitjournalspecificallytomakejournalingeasier.Itincludesa“OneLinePerDay”sectionwhereyousimplywriteonesentenceaboutyourday.Youcanlearnmoreatatomichabits.com/journal.

*Theironyofhowcloselythisstorymatchesmyprocessofwritingthisbookisnotlostonme.Althoughmypublisherwasmuchmoreaccommodating,andmyclosetremainedfull,IdidfeellikeIhadtoplacemyselfonhousearresttofinishthemanuscript.

*Thisisalsoreferredtoasa“Ulyssespact”ora“Ulyssescontract.”NamedafterUlysses,theheroofTheOdyssey,whotoldhissailorstotiehimtothemastoftheshipsothathecouldheartheenchantingsongoftheSirensbutwouldn’tbeabletosteertheshiptowardthemandcrashontherocks.Ulyssesrealizedthebenefitsoflockinginyourfutureactionswhileyourmindisintherightplaceratherthanwaitingtoseewhereyourdesirestakeyouinthemoment.

*Theshifttoadelayed-returnenvironmentlikelybeganaroundtheadventofagriculturetenthousandyearsagowhenfarmersbeganplantingcropsinanticipationofaharvestmonthslater.However,itwasnotuntilrecentcenturiesthatourlivesbecamefilledwithdelayed-returnchoices:careerplanning,retirementplanning,vacationplanning,andeverythingelsethatoccupiesourcalendars.

*Timeinconsistencyisalsoreferredtoashyperbolicdiscounting.

*Thiscanderailourdecisionmakingaswell.Thebrainoverestimatesthedangerofanythingthatseemslikeanimmediatethreatbuthasalmostnolikelihoodofactuallyoccurring:yourplanecrashingduringabitofturbulence,aburglarbreakinginwhileyou’rehomealone,aterroristblowingupthebusyou’reon.Meanwhile,itunderestimateswhatappearstobeadistantthreatbutisactuallyverylikely:thesteadyaccumulationoffatfromeatingunhealthyfood,thegradualdecayofyourmusclesfromsittingatadesk,theslowcreepofclutterwhenyoufailtotidyup.

*Interestedreaderscanfindahabittrackertemplateatatomichabits.com/tracker.

*YoucanseetheactualHabitContractsusedbyBryanHarrisandgetablanktemplateatatomichabits.com/contract.

*Ifyouareinterestedintakingapersonalitytest,youcanfindlinkstothemostreliabletestshere:atomichabits.com/personality.

*Ifit’sHarryPotteronrepeat,Ifeelyou.

*Ihaveapettheoryaboutwhathappenswhenweachieveaflowstate.Thisisn’tconfirmed.It’sjustmyguess.Psychologistscommonlyrefertothebrainasoperatingintwomodes:System1andSystem2.System1isfastandinstinctual.Generallyspeaking,processesyoucanperformveryquickly(likehabits)aregovernedbySystem1.Meanwhile,System2controlsthinkingprocessesthataremoreeffortfulandslow—likecalculatingtheanswertoadifficultmathproblem.Withregardtoflow,IliketoimagineSystem1andSystem2asresidingonoppositeendsofthespectrumofthinking.Themoreautomaticacognitiveprocessis,themoreitslidestowardtheSystem1sideofthespectrum.Themoreeffortfulataskis,themoreitslidestowardSystem2.Flow,Ibelieve,residesontherazor’sedgebetweenSystem1andSystem2.Youarefullyusingallofyourautomaticandimplicitknowledgerelatedtothetaskwhilealsoworkinghardtorisetoachallengebeyondyourability.Bothbrainmodesarefullyengaged.Theconsciousandnonconsciousareworkingperfectlyinsync.

*Thediscoveryofvariablerewardshappenedbyaccident.Onedayinthelab,thefamousHarvardpsychologistB.F.Skinnerwasrunninglowonfoodpelletsduringoneexperimentandmakingmorewasatime-consumingprocessbecausehehadtomanuallypressthepelletsinamachine.Thissituationledhimto“askmyselfwhyeverypressoftheleverhadtobereinforced.”Hedecidedtoonlygivetreatstotheratsintermittentlyand,tohissurprise,varyingthedeliveryoffooddidnotdecreasebehavior,butactuallyincreasedit.

*Icreatedatemplateforreadersinterestedinkeepingadecisionjournal.Itisincludedaspartofthehabitjournalatatomichabits.com/journal.

*YoucanseemypreviousAnnualReviewsatjamesclear.com/annual-review.

*YoucanseemypreviousIntegrityReportsatjamesclear.com/integrity.

*SoritesisderivedfromtheGreekwordsorós,whichmeansheaporpile.

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