alkaloid - wikipedia, the f
TRANSCRIPT
The first individual alkaloid, morphine,was isolated in 1804 from poppy
(Papaver somniferum).[1]
AlkaloidFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring chemicalcompounds which mostly contain basic nitrogen atoms. This
group also includes some related compounds with neutral[2] and
even weakly acidic properties.[3] Also some synthetic
compounds of similar structure are attributed to alkaloids.[4]
Beside carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, molecules of alkaloidsmay contain sulfur and rarely chlorine, bromine or
phosphorus.[5]
Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms,including bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals and are part of thegroup of natural products (also called secondary metabolites).Many alkaloids can be purified from crude extracts by acid-baseextraction. Many alkaloids are toxic to other organisms. Theyoften have pharmacological effects and are used as medications, as recreational drugs, or in entheogenicrituals. Examples are the local anesthetic and stimulant cocaine, the stimulant caffeine, nicotine, theanalgesic morphine, or the antimalarial drug quinine. Although alkaloids act on a diversity of metabolic
systems in humans and other animals, they almost uniformly invoke a bitter taste.[6]
The boundary between alkaloids and other nitrogen-containing natural compounds is not clear-cut.[7]
Compounds like amino acid peptides, proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acid, amines and antibiotics are usually
not called alkaloids.[2] Natural compounds containing nitrogen in the exocyclic position (mescaline,
serotonin, dopamine, etc.) are usually attributed to amines rather than alkaloids.[8] Some authors, however,
consider alkaloids a special case of amines.[9][10][11]
Contents
1 Naming2 History3 Classification4 Properties5 Distribution in nature6 Extraction7 Biosynthesis
7.1 Synthesis of Schiff bases7.2 Mannich reaction
8 Dimer alkaloids9 The biological role10 Applications
10.1 In medicine10.2 In agriculture10.3 Use as psychoactive drugs
11 See also12 Notes13 References
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The article whichintroduced the concept
of "alkaloid".
Friedrich Sertürner, the German chemistwho first isolated morphine from
opium.
14 Bibliography
Naming
The name "alkaloids" (German: Alkaloide) was introduced in 1819 by the
German chemist Carl F.W. Meissner,[12] and is derived from late Latin rootLatin: alkali (which, in turn, comes from the Arabic al qualja - "ashes of
plants") and the suffix Greek: ειδοσ - "like".[nb 1] However, the term came intowide use only after the publication of a review article by O. Jacobsen in the
chemical dictionary of Albert Ladenburg in the 1880s.[13]
There is no unique method of naming alkaloids.[14] Many individual names areformed by adding the suffix "-ine" to the species or generic alkaloids. Forexample, atropine is isolated from the plant Atropa belladonna, strychnine is
obtained from the seed of Strychnine tree.[5] If several alkaloids are extractedfrom one plant then their names often contain suffixes "-idine", "-anine","-aline", "-inine", etc. There are also at least 86 alkaloids containing the root
"vin" (extracted from the Vinca plant).[15]
History
Alkaloid-containing plants were used by humans since ancient times for therapeutic and recreational
purposes. For example, medicinal plants have been known in the Mesopotamia at least around 2000 BC.[16]
The Odyssey of Homer referred to a gift given to Helen by the Egyptian queen, a drug bringing oblivion. It is
believed that the gift was an opium-containing drug.[17] A Chinese book on houseplants written in 1st-3rd
centuries BC mentioned a medical use of Ephedra and opium poppies.[18] Also, coca leaves were used by
South American Indians since ancient times.[19]
Extracts from plants containing toxic alkaloids, such as aconitine and tubocurarine, were used since
antiquity for poisoning arrows.[16]
Studies of alkaloids began in the 19th century. In 1804, theGerman chemist Friedrich Sertürner isolated from opium a"soporific principle" (Latin: principium somniferum), which hecalled "morphium" in honor of Morpheus, the Greek god ofdreams (the modern name "morphine" was given by the Frenchphysicist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac). A significant contributionto the chemistry of alkaloids in the early years of itsdevelopment was made by the French researchers Pierre JosephPelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou who discovered quinine(1820) and strychnine (1818). Several other alkaloids werediscovered around that time, including xanthine (1817), atropine(1819), caffeine (1820), coniine (1827), nicotine (1828),
colchicine (1833), sparteine (1851) and cocaine (1860).[20]
The first complete synthesis of an alkaloid was achieved in 1886by the German chemist Albert Ladenburg. He produced coniineby reacting 2-methylpyridine with acetaldehyde and reducing the resulting 2-propenyl pyridine with sodium.[21][22] The development of chemistry of alkaloids was accelerated by the emergence of spectroscopical and
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Bufotenin, a poison fromsome toads, contains an
indole core and isproduced in livingorganisms from the
amino acid tryptophan.
The nicotine moleculecontains both pyridine(left) and pyrrolidine
rings (right).
chromatographical methods in the 20th century and by 2008 more than 12,000 alkaloids were identified.[23]
Classification
Compared with most other classes of natural compounds, alkaloids arecharacterized by a great structural diversity and there is no uniform
classification of alkaloids.[24] Historically, first classification methodscombined alkaloids by the common natural source, e.g., a certain type ofplants. This classification was justified by the lack of knowledge about the
chemical structure of alkaloids and is now considered obsolete.[5][25]
More recent classifications are based on similarity of the carbon skeleton (e.g.,indole, isoquinoline and pyridine-like) or biogenetic precursor (ornithine,
lysine, tyrosine, tryptophan, etc.).[5] However, they require compromises in
borderline cases;[24] for example, nicotine contains a pyridine fragment from
nicotinamide and pyrrolidine part from ornithine[26] and therefore can be
assigned to both classes.[27]
Alkaloids are often divided into the following major groups:[28]
"True alkaloids", which contain nitrogen in the heterocycle and originate
from amino acids.[29] Their characteristic examples are atropine,nicotine and morphine. This group also includes some alkaloids which
beside nitrogen heterocycle contain terpene (e.g. evonine[30]) or peptide
fragments (e.g. ergotamine[31]). This group also includes piperidine
alkaloids coniine and coniceine[32] although they do not originate from
amino acids.[33]
1.
"Protoalkaloids", which contain nitrogen and also originate from amino
acids.[29] Examples include mescaline, adrenaline and ephedrine.
2.
Polyamine alkaloids – derivatives of putrescine, spermidine and spermine.3.
Peptide and cyclopeptide alkaloids.[34]4.
Pseudalkaloids – alkaloid-like compounds which do not originate from amino acids.[35] This group
includes, terpene-like and steroid-like alkaloids,[36] as well as purine-like alkaloids such as caffeine,
theobromine and theophylline.[37] Some authors classify as pseudoalkaloids such compounds such asephedrine and cathinone. Those originate from the amino acid phenylalanine, but acquire their
nitrogen atom not from the amino acid but through transamination.[37][38]
5.
Some alkaloids do not have the carbon skeleton characteristic of their group. So, galantamine andhomoaporphines do not contain isoquinoline fragment, but are generally attributed to isoquinoline
alkaloids.[39]
Main classes of monomeric alkaloids are listed in the table below:
Class Major groups Main synthesis steps Examples
Alkaloids with nitrogen heterocycles (true alkaloids)
Pyrrolidine
derivatives[40]Ornithine or arginine →putrescine →N-methylputrescine →
Hygrine, hygroline,
stachydrine[40][42]
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N-methyl-∆1-pyrroline[41]
Tropane
derivatives[43] Atropine groupSubstitution in positions 3, 6 or 7
Ornithine or arginine →putrescine →N-methylputrescine →
N-methyl-∆1-pyrroline[41]
Atropine, scopolamine,
hyoscyamine[40][43][44]
Cocaine groupSubstitution in positions 2 and 3
Cocaine, ecgonine[43][45]
Pyrrolizidine
derivatives[46]
Non-estersIn plants: ornithine orarginine → putrescine→ homospermidine →
retronecine [41]
Retronecine,heliotridine, laburnine[46][47]
Complex esters ofmonocarboxylic acids
Indicine, lindelophin,
sarracine [46]
Macrocyclic diestersPlatyphylline,
trichodesmine[46]
1-aminopyrrolizidines (lolines)
In fungi: L-proline +L-homoserine →N-(3-amino-3-carboxypropyl)proline
→ norloline[48][49]
Loline, N-formylloline,
N-acetylloline[50]
Piperidine
derivatives[51]Lysine → cadaverine
→ ∆1-piperideine [52]
Sedamine, lobeline,anaferine, piperine[32][53]
Octanoic acid →coniceine → coniine[33]
Coniine, coniceine [33]
Quinolizidine
derivatives[54][55]
Lupinine group
Lysine → cadaverine
→ ∆1-piperideine [56]
Lupinine, nupharidin[54]
Cytisine group Cytisine [54]
Sparteine groupSparteine, lupanine,
anahygrine[54]
Matrine groupMatrine, oxymatrine,
allomatridine[54][57][58]
Ormosanine groupOrmosanine,
piptantine[54][59]
Indolizidine
derivatives[60]
Lysine →δ-semialdehyde ofα-aminoadipic acid →pipecolic acid → 1
indolizidinone [61]
Swainsonine,
castanospermine [62]
Pyridine
derivatives[63][64] Simple derivatives of pyridineNicotinic acid →digidronikotinovaya
Trigonelline, ricinine,
arecoline [63][66]
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acid →
1,2-dihydropyridine [65]
Polycyclic noncondensingpyridine derivatives
Nicotine, nornicotine,anabasine, anatabine[63][66]
Polycyclic condensed pyridinederivatives
Actinidine, gentianine,
pediculinine [67]
Sesquiterpene pyridinederivatives
Nicotinic acid,
isoleucine [11]Evonine, hippocrateine,
triptonine [64][65]
Isoquinolinederivatives andrelated alkaloids[68]
Simple derivatives of
isoquinoline [69]
Tyrosine orphenylalanine →dopamine or tyramine(for alkaloids Amarillis)[70][71]
Salsoline, lophocerine[68][69]
Derivatives of 1- and
3-isoquinolines [72]N-methylcoridaldine,
noroxyhydrastinine [72]
Derivatives of 1- and4-phenyltetrahydroisoquinolines[69]
Cryptostilin [69][73]
Derivatives of 5-naftil-
isoquinoline [74] Ancistrocladine [74]
Derivatives of 1- and 2-benzyl-
izoquinolines [75]
Papaverine,laudanosine,sendaverine
Cularine group[76] Cularine, yagonine [76]
Pavines and isopavines [77] Argemonine, amurensin[77]
Benzopyrrocolines [78] Cryptaustoline [69]
Protoberberines [69]
Berberine, canadine,ophiocarpine,mecambridine,
corydaline [79]
Phtalidisoquinolines [69] Hydrastine, narcotine
(Noscapine) [80]
Spirobenzylisoquinolines [69] Fumaricine [77]
Ipecacuanha alkaloids[81] Emetine, protoemetine,
ipecoside [81]
Benzophenanthridines [69]Sanguinarine,oxynitidine,
corynoloxine [82]
Aporphines [69] Glaucine, coridine,
liriodenine [83]
Proaporphines [69] Pronuciferine,
glaziovine [69][78]
Homoaporphines [84] Kreysiginine,
multifloramine [84]
Homoproaporphines [84] Bulbocodine [76]
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Morphines[85]Morphine, codeine,thebaine, sinomenine[86]
Homomorphines [87] Kreysiginine,
androcymbine [85]
Tropoloisoquinolines [69] Imerubrine [69]
Azofluoranthenes [69] Rufescine, imeluteine[88]
Amaryllis alkaloids[89]Lycorine, ambelline,tazettine, galantamine,
montanine [90]
Erythrite alkaloids[73] Erysodine, erythroidine[73]
Phenanthrene derivatives [69] Atherosperminine[69][79]
Protopins [69]Protopine,oxomuramine,
corycavidine [82]
Aristolactam [69] Doriflavin [69]
Oxazole
derivatives[91]
Tyrosine → tyramine[92]
Annuloline, halfordinol,
texaline, texamine[93]
Isoxazolederivatives
Ibotenic acid →Muscimol
Ibotenic acid, Muscimol
Thiazole
derivatives[94]1-Deoxy-D-xylulose5-phosphate (DOXP),
tyrosine, cysteine [95]
Nostocyclamide,
thiostreptone [94][96]
Quinazoline
derivatives[97]
3,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolonederivatives
Anthranilic acid orphenylalanine or
ornithine [98]
Febrifugine[99]
1,4-Dihydro-4-quinazolonederivatives
Glycorine, arborine,
glycosminine[99]
Pyrrolidine and piperidinequinazoline derivatives Vazicine (peganine) [91]
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Acridine
derivatives[91]
Anthranilic acid [100] Rutacridone,
acronicine[101][102]
Quinoline
derivatives[103][104]
Simple derivatives of quinolinederivatives of 2 - quinolonesand 4-quinolone
Anthranilic acid →3-carboxyquinoline[105]
Cusparine, echinopsine,
evocarpine[104]
[106][107]
Tricyclic terpenoids Flindersine[104][108]
Furanoquinoline derivativesDictamnine, fagarine,
skimmianine[104]
[109][110]
Quinines
Tryptophan →tryptamine →strictosidine (withsecologanin) →korinanteal →
cinhoninon [71][105]
Quinine quinidinecinchonine, cinhonidine[108]
Indole
derivatives[86]
See also:
indole
alkaloids
Non-isoprene indole alkaloids
Simple indole derivatives [111]
Tryptophan →tryptamine or
5-hydroxitriptofan [112]
Serotonin, psilocybin,dimethyltryptamine(DMT), bufotenin[113][114]
Simple derivatives of
β-carboline [115]
Harman, harmine,harmaline, eleagnine[111]
Pyrroloindole alkaloids [116]
Physostigmine (eserine),etheramine,physovenine,
eptastigmine[116]
Semiterpenoid indole alkaloids
Ergot alkaloids[86]
Tryptophan →chanoclavine →agroclavine →elimoclavine →paspalic acid → lysergic
acid [116]
Ergotamine, ergobasine,
ergosine[117]
Monoterpenoid indole alkaloids
Corynanthe type alkaloids[112]
Tryptophan →tryptamine →strictosidine (with
secologanin) [112]
Ajmalicine, sarpagine,vobasine, ajmaline,yohimbine, reserpine,
mitragynine,[118][119]
group strychnine and(Strychnine brucine,aquamicine, vomicine[120])
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Iboga-type alkaloids[112] Ibogamine, ibogaine,
voacangine[112]
Aspidosperma-type
alkaloids[112]Vincamine, vincotine,
aspidospermine[121][122]
Imidazole
derivatives[91]Directly from
histidine[123]
Histamine, pilocarpine,pilosine,
stevensine[91][123]
Purine
derivatives[124]Xantosine (formed inpurine biosynthesis) →7 methylxantosine →7-methyl xanthine →theobromine → caffeine[71]
Caffeine theobrominetheophylline saxitoxin[125][126]
Alkaloids with nitrogen in the side chain (protoalkaloids)
β-Phenylethylamine
derivatives[78]
Tyrosine orphenylalanine →dioxyphenilalanine →dopamine → adrenalineand mescaline tyrosine→ tyraminephenylalanine →1-phenylpropane-1,2-dione → cathinone→ ephedrine andpseudoephedrine[11][38][127]
Tyramine, ephedrine,pseudoephedrine,mescaline, cathinone,catecholamines(adrenaline,noradrenaline,
dopamine)[11][128]
Colchicine alkaloids[129] Tyrosine or
phenylalanine →dopamine →autumnaline →
colchicine [130]
Colchicine,
colchamine[129]
Muscarine [131]Glutamic acid →3-ketoglutamic acid →muscarine (with pyruvic
acid)[132]
Muscarine,allomuscarine,epimuscarine,
epiallomuscarine[131]
Benzylamine[133] Phenylalanine withvaline, leucine or
isoleucine[134]
Capsaicin,dihydrocapsaicin,nordihydrocapsaicin[133][135]
Polyamines alkaloids
Putrescine
derivatives[136]ornithine → putrescine→ spermidine →
spermine[137]Paucine [136]
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Spermidine
derivatives[136] Lunarine,
codonocarpine[136]
Spermine
derivatives[136] Verbascenine,
aphelandrine [136]
Peptide (cyclopeptide) alkaloids
Peptide alkaloidswith a13-membered cycle[34][138]
Numularine C type
From different amino
acids [34]
Numularine C,
numularine S [34]
Ziziphin type Ziziphin A, sativanine H[34]
Peptide alkaloidswith a14-membered cycle[34][138]
Frangulanine typeFrangulanine, scutianine
J [138]
Scutianine A type Scutianine A [34]
Integerrine type Integerrine, discarine D[138]
Amphibine F typeAmphibine F, spinanine
A [34]
Amfibine B type Amphibine B, lotusine C[34]
Peptide alkaloidswith a15-membered cycle[138]
Mucronine A type Mucronine A [31][138]
Pseudoalkaloids (terpenes and steroids)
Diterpenes [31]
Licoctonine type
Mevalonic acid →izopentenilpyrophosfate→ geranylpyrophosphate[139][140]
Aconitine, delphinine[31][141]
Steroids[142]
Cholesterol,
arginine[143]Solasodine, solanidine,
veralkamine[144]
Properties
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Head of a lamb born by a sheepwhich ate leaves of the corn lilyplant. The cyclopia in the calf is
induced by the alkaloidcyclopamine present in the plant.
Strychnine tree. Its seeds are rich instrychnine and brucine.
Most alkaloids contain oxygen; those compounds are usuallycolorless crystals at ambient conditions. Oxygen-free alkaloids, such
as nicotine[145] or coniine,[21] are typically volatile, colorless, oily
liquids.[146] Some alkaloids are colored, like berberine (yellow) and
sanguinarine (orange).[146]
Most alkaloid are weak bases, but some are amphoteric, for example
theobromine and theophylline).[147] Most alkaloids are poorlysoluble in water but readily dissolve in organic solvents, such asdiethyl ether, chloroform and 1,2-dichloroethane. However, caffeine
dissolves well in boiling water.[147] With acids, alkaloids form saltsof various strengths. Those salts are usually soluble in water andalcohol and poorly soluble in most organic solvents. Exceptionsinclude scopolamine hydrobromide which is soluble in organic
solvents and water-soluble quinine sulfate.[146]
Most alkaloids have a bitter flavor. It is believed that plants evolvedthe ability to produce these bitter substances, many of which arepoisonous, in order to protect themselves from animals; however,
animals in turn evolved the ability to detoxify alkaloids.[148] Somealkaloids can produce developmental defects in the offspring ofanimals that consume them but cannot detoxify them. A characteristic example is the alkaloid cyclopamine,which is present in the leaves of corn lily. During the 1950s, up to 25% lambs born by sheep that had grazedon corn lily suffered serious facial defects. Those defects ranged from deformed jaws to cyclopia (seepicture). After decades of research, in 1980s, the substance that was responsible for the deformities was
identified as the alkaloid 11-deoxyjervine, which was renamed cyclopamine.[149]
Distribution in nature
Alkaloids are generated by various living organisms, especially by
higher plants – about 10 to 25% of those contain alkaloids.[150][151]
Therefore, in the past the term "alkaloid" was associated with
plants.[152]
The alkaloids content in plants is usually within a few percent and isinhomogeneous over the plant tissues. Depending on the type ofplants, the maximum concentration is observed in the leaves (blackhenbane), fruits or seeds (Strychnine tree), root (Rauwolfia
serpentina) or bark (cinchona).[153] Furthermore, different tissues of
the same plants may contain different alkaloids.[154]
Beside plants, alkaloids are found in certain types of fungi, such aspsilocybin in the fungus of the genus Psilocybe, and in animals, such
as bufotenin in the skin of some toads.[14] Many marine organisms
also contain alkaloids.[155] Some amines, such as adrenaline andserotonin, which play an important role in higher animals, are similarto alkaloids in their structure and biosynthesis and are sometimes
called alkaloids.[156]
Extraction
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Crystals of piperine extracted fromblack pepper.
Because of the structural diversity of alkaloids, there is no single
method of their extraction from natural raw materials.[157] Mostmethods exploit the property of most alkaloids to be soluble inorganic solvents but not in water, and the opposite tendency of theirsalts.
Most plants contain several alkaloids. Their mixture is extracted first
and then individual alkaloids are separated.[158] Plants are
thoroughly ground before extraction.[157][159] Most alkaloids are
present in the raw plants in the form of salts of organic acids.[157]
The extracted alkaloids may remain salts or change into bases.[158]
Base extraction is achieved by processing the raw material with alkaline solutions and extracting the alkaloidbases with organic solvents, such as 1,2-dichloroethane, chloroform, diethyl ether or benzene. Then, theimpurities are dissolved by weak acids; this converts alkaloid bases into salts which are washed away withwater. If necessary, an aqueous solution of alkaloid salts is again made alkaline and treated with an organicsolvent. The process is repeated until the desired purity is achieved.
In the acidic extraction, the raw plant material is processed by a weak acidic solution (e.g., acetic acid inwater, ethanol or methanol). A base is then added to convert alkaloids to basic forms which are extractedwith organic solvent (if the extraction was performed with alcohol, it is removed first, and the remainder is
dissolved in water). The solution is purified as described above.[157][160]
Alkaloids are separated from their mixture using their different solubility in certain solvents and different
reactivity with certain reagents or by distillation.[161]
Biosynthesis
Biological precursors of most alkaloids are amino acids, such as ornithine, lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine,tryptophan, histidine, aspartic acid and anthranilic acid; all these amino acids, except anthranilic acid, are
proteinogenic, that is they are contained in proteins.[162] Nicotinic acid can be synthesized from tryptophan
or aspartic acid. Ways of alkaloid biosynthesis are too numerous and can not be easily classified.[71]
However, there are a few typical reactions involved in the biosynthesis of various classes of alkaloids,
including synthesis of Schiff bases and Mannich reaction.[162]
Synthesis of Schiff bases
Main article: Schiff base
Schiff bases can be obtained by reacting amines with ketones or aldehydes.[163] These reactions are a
common method of producing C=N bonds.[164]
In the biosynthesis of alkaloids, such reactions may take place within a molecule,[162] such as in the
synthesis of piperidine:[27]
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Mannich reaction
Main article: Mannich reaction
An integral component of the Mannich reaction, in addition to an amine and a carbonyl compound, is acarbanion, which plays the role of the nucleophile in the nucleophilic addition to the ion formed by the
reaction of the amine and the carbonyl.[164]
The Mannich reaction can proceed both intermolecularly and intramolecularly:[165][166]
Dimer alkaloids
In addition to the described above monomeric alkaloids, there are also dimeric, and even trimeric andtetrameric alkaloids formed upon condensation of two, three and four monomeric alkaloids. Dimeric
alkaloids are usually formed from monomers of the same type through the following mechanisms:[167]
Mannich reaction, resulting in, e.g., voacamineMichael reaction (villalstonine).Condensation of aldehydes with amines (toxiferine).Oxidative addition of phenols (dauricine, tubocurarine).Lactonization (carpaine).
Voacamine Villalstonine Toxiferine
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Dauricine Tubocurarine Carpaine
The biological role
The role of alkaloids for living organisms which produce them is still unclear.[168] Initially it was assumedthat the alkaloids are the final products of nitrogen metabolism in plants, and urea in mammals. Later it was
shown that alkaloid concentrations varies over time and this hypothesis was refuted.[7]
Most of the known functions of alkaloids are related to protection. For example, aporphine alkaloidliriodenine produced by the tulip tree protects it from parasitic mushrooms. In addition, presence of alkaloidsin the plant prevents insects and chordate animals from eating it. However, some animals adapted to
alkaloids and even use them in their own metabolism.[169] Such alkaloid-related substances as serotonin,dopamine and histamine are important neurotransmitters in animals. Alkaloids are also known to regulate
plant growth.[170]
Applications
In medicine
Medical use of alkaloid plants has a long history, and thus when the first alkaloids were synthesized in the
19th century, they immediately found application in clinical practice.[171] Many alkaloids are still used in
medicine, usually in the form of salts, including the following:[7][172]:
Alkaloid Action
Ajmaline antiarrhythmic
Atropine, scopolamine, hyoscyamine anticholinergic
Vinblastine, vincristine antitumor
Vincamine vasodilating, antihypertensive
Codeine cough medicine
Cocaine anesthetic
Colchicine remedy for gout
Morphine analgesic
Reserpine antihypertensive
Tubocurarine Muscle relaxant
Physostigmine inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase
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Quinidine antiarrhythmic
Quinine antipyretics, antimalarial
Emetine antiprotozoal agent
Ergot alkaloids sympathomimetic, vasodilator, antihypertensive
Many synthetic and semisynthetic drugs are structural modifications of the alkaloids, which were designed to
enhance or change the primary effect of the drug and reduce unwanted side effects.[173] For example,
naloxone, an opioid receptor antagonist, is a derivative of thebaine which is present in opium.[174]
Thebaine Naloxone
In agriculture
Prior to the development of a wide range of relatively low-toxic synthetic pesticides, some alkaloids, such assalts of nicotine and anabasine, were used as insecticides. Their use was limited by their high toxicity to
humans.[175]
Use as psychoactive drugs
Preparations of plants containing alkaloids and their extracts, and later pure alkaloids have long been used as
psychoactive substances. Cocaine and cathinone are stimulants of the central nervous system.[176][177]
Mescaline and many of indole alkaloids (such as psilocybin, dimethyltryptamine and ibogaine) have
hallucinogenic effect.[178][179] Morphine and codeine are strong narcotic pain killers.[180]
There are alkaloids that do not have strong psychoactive effect themselves, but are precursors forsemi-synthetic psychoactive drugs. For example, ephedrine and pseudoephedrine are used to produce
methcathinone (ephedrine) and methamphetamine.[181]
See also
AmineBase (chemistry)
Natural productsSecondary metabolite
Notes
^ In the penultimate sentence of his article [W. Meissner (1819) "Über Pflanzenalkalien: II. Über ein neuesPflanzenalkali (Alkaloid)" (On plant alkalis: II. On a new plant alkali (alkaloid)), Journal für Chemie und
Physik, vol. 25, pp. 377–381] Meissner wrote "Überhaupt scheint es mir auch angemessen, die bis jetztbekannten Pflanzenstoffe nicht mit dem Namen Alkalien, sondern Alkaloide zu belegen, da sie doch in manchen
1.
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Eigenschaften von den Alkalien sehr abweichen, sie würden daher in dem Abschnitt der Pflanzenchemie vor denPflanzensäuren ihre Stelle finden." (In general, it seems appropriate to me to impose on the known plantsubstances not the name "alkalis" but "alkaloids", since they differ greatly in some properties from the alkalis;among the chapters of plant chemistry, they would therefore find their place before plant acids [since "Alkaloid"would precede "Säure" (acid)].)
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