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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.Chap, Copyright No..

Shelf.

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.


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ADVANCED

English Grammar

/JOHN HART,Principal of several schools, and Author of

Lectures on English, &c.

B. F. Johnson Publishing Co.,Richmond, Virginia.

1898.


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TWO COPIES RECEIVED.Library of Co&gc&Office of t\wDEC 1 9 Wd

Rogist.r of Copjrl8)it%TEiiii

49467Copyright, 1898,

BYB. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING CO.,Richmond, Va.

SECOND COPV,


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THIS book is dedicated to that large number of my oldpupils who have gone into the profession of teachingand who have expressed the wish to have, in con-venient form, for their own students, the same direct and

simple presentation of the essentials of English Grammarwhich they used themselves when in my classes.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS.Page.

Sketch of the English Tongue . . 9Sources of Words 11Alphabet 12Classification of Letters 14Classification of Words 15Propositions and Sentences 15Subject and Predicate 16Divisions of Grammar 17Etymology 18Parts of Speech 18The Noun 21, 114-118Gender in the Noun 24Distinctions of Gender 25-27Person, Number and Case 28Formation of Plural 28-33Case 33Possessive Case 33-34Paradigm of Noun 34The Verb 37, 56, 125-130Voice 37Mood 37-38Tense 38-39Person and Number 39Transitive and Intransitive Verb 40Regular and Irregular Verb 40


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TABLE OF CONTENTS.Page.

Principal Parts of Verb 41Conjugation 41Auxiliary Verb 41Unipersonal Verb 41Various Forms of Conjugation 55Syntax of Noun 57Syntax of Verb 63The Pronoun 67-77, 119-121Personal Pronoun 67-69Reflexive Pronoun 69Intensive Pronoun 70Interrogative Pronoun 70Demonstrative Pronoun 71Anticipative Pronoun 71Relative Pronoun 72Syntax of the Pronoun 74The Adjective 73-87, 122-124Limiting Adjective 78Article 79Qualifying Adjective 83Comparison 83Irregular Comparison 84Syntax of the Adjective 87The Adverb 90-96Adverbial Phrase 94Syntax of the Adverb 96The Preposition 99-103Syntax of the Preposition 102The Exclamation 104-105


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ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7Page.

The Conjunction 106-108Syntax of the Conjunction 107-108Variables 109-111Syntax 113, 131-135Infinitive 126-129Subjunctive 129-130Analysis 137-140Irregular Verb 142-148Selections 149-157Punctuation 159-197


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ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.PART I.

BRIEF SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH TONGUE.THE birthplace of the English Language was the island ofBritain. The earliest inhabitants of this island wereCelts who, at the time that they became known to our presenthistory, had lost all record of the circumstances of their settle-ment in Britain, and who are regarded to be a part of the greatCeltic race that lived on the continent of Europe in Gaul, thepresent France.The language of Britain was pure Celtic up to the year 55

B. C. At that time Julius Caesar made a campaign into Britain,and in A. D. 43 the island was conquered by the Romans andheld until the year 426 as a Roman province. During theseyears a considerable number of military and legal terms, anda number of local names, were grafted from the Latin on theCeltic speech.The great influence, however, in the formation of the Eng-lish language was the invasion of Britain by the Saxons, begun

in 449. These conquerors and their associates and kindred,the Jutes and Angles, came from the low country of northernGermany, and made a terribly complete conquest of the island.The Angles gave their name ' * Engla-land ' ' to the whole terri-tory, and the native language gave place almost entirely to theAnglo-Saxon, the language of the conquerors.

In 596 priests from Rome began the conversion of the peo-ple, and, in the main, grew steadily in influence and numbers.By this means a considerable body of Latin words became partof the language of the island.

2


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10 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.Beginning in 870 large numbers of Danes made inroads and

settlements in Britain, and in 1017 a Danish prince, Canute,became king. During these years a number of Danish wordswere added to the language, but the value of this additioncannot be estimated because the Danish speech was essentiallythe same as the Saxon.The next event which affected the language was the con-

quest of England by the Normans in 1066. The language ofthese conquerors was Norman- French, derived from a mixtureof Latin and Celtic, and, as the island remained under the gov-ernment of the Normans until all the various races becameone, it is hard to overestimate the effect that the Normanconquest has had on the present condition of the Englishtongue.About the beginning of the 16th century the revival of

learning took place. From that time to the present it hasbeen the custom to makemainly out of Latin and Greeksuch new words as are demanded by the advance in thesciences, and a large number of terms have come into Englishby this means.While the several sources enumerated above have all con-

tributed words to the English language, they have, with theexception of Saxon, had almost no effect on the grammar ofthe tongue. The frame-work of English is wholly Saxon, andits minor grammatical peculiarities are almost entirely so.

English is now the every-day speech of 140,000,000 people.In the age of Elizabeth300 years agoit was spoken byabout 5,000,000. This is a rate of increase that has neverbeen equalled by any other tongue, and the character of thepeoples who speak it, its present rate of growth, its adaptationto every purpose of human speech, and the ease with which itcan be acquired as a spoken language might seem to warrantthe claims of those enthusiasts who predict that English willbecome in time the one surviving language of the earth.


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INTRODUCTORY. 11The following table gives approximately the number of

words in English from the principal sources. The proportionof words in the language as it is spoken is very different fromthat in the dictionaries, because, in speech, the commonerwords are frequently repeated. As most of these words thatoccur so often are Saxon, the proportion of Saxon is far higherin the language in motion, as spoken, than in the language atrest, as in the lexicons

Celtic ........ 100 words.In Lexicons. ( In Use.

Latin (all sources) . . . 60 per cent. 30 per cent.Anglo-Saxon 25 60Greek 10 5All others 5 5


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12 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.ALPHABET, ETC.

Written languages are either Symbolic or Sylla-bic. In a symbolic language a written sign standsfor an idea, and the language must contain a vastnumber of these signs. Many ancient languageswere symbolic, and, in modern times, Chinese andJapanese are so.

In a syllabic language a written sign stands fora sound or syllable, and these signs, which we callletters, can be combined in many different ways.By this means a small number of letters may bemade to represent a countless number of sounds.English, as well as most other languages, is syllabic.The alphabet of a syllabic language is the arrange-ment of all the signs that stands for sounds. The

English alphabet is almost identical with the Latin,and the present form of our written letters is sim-plified from the Roman letters. It is likely that allletters were originally pictures.The letters used in printing attained their present

shape, the capitals directly from the Roman forms,and the small letters by gradual alteration, from theintroduction of printing, 1474, down to about 1800,when the long s went out of use. In addition tothe Roman letters we employ J, introduced bythe early Dutch printers and suggested by the formof the last i in Roman numerals, as vij for 7 ; U,a form of the Roman V, and W, which was theLatin V doubled.


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INTRODUCTORY. 13The written alphabet in English contains twenty-

six letters ; the alphabet as pronounced containsforty-three sounds. This difference is produced bythe variety of the sound given to the same letter, asthe six sounds of a illustrated in ale, hat, rare,farm, task, all. It is also true that, in many cases,different letters have the same sound, as in the useof c for a or k ; the use of y fori, &c.Those letters which can be sounded without

changing the position of the organs of speech arecalled vowels. They are a, e, i, o, u and also w andy when they end a syllable. In this case w issounded like u, as in how, and y is , sounded like i,as in boy. Vowels often change in words which areof the same origindifferent forms of the samewordas band, bend, bind, bond, bundle. Twovowels pronounced as one form a diphthong, as oiin toil. When two vowels come together and butone is pronounced the other is termed silent, as ain boat. Final e in English is silent, as tree,horse.

All the letters except vowels are called consonantsbecause they must be sounded by the help of vowels.Consonants form the real body of a word, and, ingeneral, words that are kin to each other contain thesame consonants. (See example under vowels.)The consonants are divided into classes asfollows


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14 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.Mutes. Spirants.

Dentals . . d n t z s 1 thGutterals . g k ng hLabials . . b P m V w f whPalatals . . j ch zh sh y rThe dental mutes have their sound stopped by

the teeth (dens), and the dental spirants have theirsound slightly prolonged by a breath after thetongue leaves the teeth.The gutteral mutes have their sounds stopped by

the throat (gutta), and the spirants have a breathafter the sound is made.The labial mutes have their sound stopped by the

lips (labium), and the spirants have a breath afterthe sound is made.The palatal mutes have their sound stopped by

the palate (palatum), and the spirants have a breathafter the sound is made.The action of the vocal organs in producing con-

sonant sounds should be carefully noted and prac-ticed until the above classification can be reproduced,not as a matter of memory, but as a matter ofobservation and common sense.


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INTRODUCTORY. 15

CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.According to its form a word is called primitive

when no simpler word with the same sense can befound in the language ; as, man, child.

It is called derivative when it can be obtainedfrom some simpler form ; as, manly, from manchildish, from child.A word is called simple when it cannot be dividedinto several words ; as, horse, ox.

It is called compound when it can be divided intoseveral words ; as, horse-fly, ox-cart.

PROPOSITIONS AND SENTENCES.A Proposition is a thought expressed in words,

and may be principal or dependent.A Principal Proposition is one that makes com-plete sense by itself; as, Snow melts. It is oftencalled Principal Clause.A Dependent Proposition is one that does notmake complete sense by itself, but must be under-stood in connection with a principal proposition ; as,When the sun shines. It is often called DependentClause, and modifies some word in the principalproposition.The distinction is made according to the sense of

the proposition.


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16 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.A Sentence is a collection of words that has some

meaning, and may be Simple or Complex or Com-pound.A Simple Sentence is one that contains one princi-pal proposition.A Complex Sentence is one that contains one prin-cipal proposition, and any number of dependentpropositions.A Compound Sentence is one that contains two ormore principal propositions, and it may or may nothave dependent propositions in it.The distinction is made according to the form of

the sentence.

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.Every proposition must consist of two parts

Subject and a Predicate. The subject is that ofwhich the declaration is made. The predicate isthat which makes the declaration. Thus in theproposition, Snow melts, a declaration is made aboutsnow. Snow is therefore the subject. The wordmelts makes a statement about snow, and melts istherefore the predicate.A Phrase is a collection of words that has nosubject or predicate.Note.The names employed in formal grammar, in Eng-

lish, are entirely of Latin origin, and when a word is given asthe source of one of these terms, it is understood to be aLatin word.


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INTRODUCTORY. 17

THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.Language is the expression of thought. This

expression commonly takes the form of spoken orwritten words.Grammar is the collection of the laws of lan-guage.A complete grammar should treat of the historyof the letters in a language, but the subject has

never been sufficiently investigated and the slightsketch already given of the English letters mustsuffice for the purposes of this book.

It should also treat of the spelling of words (or-thography) and of their pronunciation (orthoepy).But thesein a living languageare constantlychanging and are better left to lexicons.

It should also treat of the order of words in sen-tences ; but people know by instinct and early prac-tice the order of words in their own language andrules on this subject in an English grammar, writtenfor English-speaking people, would be needless.The other divisions of grammar are Etymology,

Syntax and Prosody.Etymology is the statement of the laws that

govern the forms of single words.Syntax is the statement of the laws by which one

word influences or governs another, and these twoare the usual divisions of grammar.


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18 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.Prosody is the statement of the laws of poetry,

and is commonly considered a science by itself.ETYMOLOGY.

The words in a language are divided according totheir meaning into eight classes called Parts ofSpeech. They are Noun, Verb, Preposition,Adjective, Pronoun, Adverb, Exclamation,Conjunction.A Noun is the name of any person, place orthing ; as, James, New York, hat.A Verb is a word that declares action or being ;as, run, is. Verbs often consist of several words ;as, will run, have been.A Preposition is a word that shows the relationbetween a noun or pronoun and some other word,as in the sentence, Run into the house, where thepreposition into shows the relation between the nounhouse and the verb run.An Adjective is a word that describes or limits

a noun ; as, tall trees. A rough road. The goodold man.A Pronoun is a word that is used instead of anoun ; as in the sentence, John lost his hat, thepronoun his is used for John's.An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaningof a verb or an adjective or another adverb ; as,He runs slowly. She is very good. He runs tooslowly.


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INTRODUCTORY. 19An Exclamation is a word used to express some

emotion ; as, Oh Ah Exclamations have no rela-tion to other words. They are often called inter-jections.A Conju7ictio7i is a word used to join words orphrases or propositions ; as, John and Henry. Inthe day or in the night. I called you, but you didnot hear.

In the following exercise state the class to whicheach sentence and proposition belongs, pick out thephrases and tell what part of speech each word is.Also point out the subjects and the predicates :

EXERCISE.The tree fell in the road. The water deafened us with its

roar. The kind man gave the beggar some money. You willbe wet if it rains. James fell from the horse when it reared.The train ran so fast that we were greatly frightened. Ohwhat noise was that ? Robert tried to catch the hare, but sheran too fast. Alas I fear he will never reach home. Owlsstay in hollows by day, but by night they search for food. Astrong wind blew fiercely over the water, but it did not drivethe sailors from their work. I cannot tell whom you mean.The king raised a great army that he might conquer his neigh-bors. Do not give him the knife, lest he cut himself with it.If we had horses we might ride. When the traveler reachedthe village he found all the guides sick. If we could tell whenthe wolf was coming, we could prepare for him. No man canfight successfully unless he has arms. We started to town be-cause we wanted some books, but soon turned back when wesaw the horse was lame. If the river is too high you mustcome home, however anxious you may be to cross. The gun


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20 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.would not have exploded if Henry had not loaded it tooheavily. Many men have fought through long and dangerouswars, and come home at last safe and sound. The familymoved from England to America, because the cost of livingwas not so great in this country. The lady asked the littlegirl where she lived. Ah, I am sorry for him. Columbus,though he had many discouragements, persisted in his voyagetoward the west until, at last, he came to land. When themerchant saw the robbers he ran into the wood and hid in athick tangle of bushes. The mill runs slowly because the wateris low, but when the rains come the pond will fill again, and thewheels will turn as rapidly as ever. The depth of the riverwas so great that we did not try the ford. He was chosenking of England because he possessed the wisdom necessaryto direct the affairs of the country. The solons of the stateretreated from the capital when the enemy approached. Thecity of London is, in some respects, the capital of the world.The clergy of New England were busy in arranging for theoccasion of the trial.


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THE NOUN. 21

PART II.

THE NOUN.1. A Noun is a name of a person or a place or a

thing. The word noun is derived frm the Latinnomen, a name, through the French nom, and nounsare of the following sorts :

(1) A Common Noun is a general or class name,and is given to all objects of the same kind ; as,city, town, river, man, cow.

(2) A Proper Noun is a particular name, and isused to point out some one individual of a class ;as, James, Mary, London, Washington city.

In the last word Washington city, the nouncity evidently shows the kind of thing spoken of,and the noun Washington points out what specialcity is meant. Proper nouns, as such, have nomeaning. The meanings which they once had (whena man's name was Hunter because he hunted, etc.)have been lost. They are spelled with a capital letter.

(3) An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality oran action ; as, warmth, cowardice, beauty, distance,singing. These nouns are called abstract becausethey name qualities which are considered apart orabstracted from things to which they belong. In


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22 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.the phrase a deep river/' the depth is a quality ofthe river, and taken by itself, apart from that whichhas depth, it is called abstract.

(4) A Material Noun is a common noun which isthe name of a material ; as, wood, iron, glass, gold.These nouns do not naturally have a plural woodsmeaning different kinds of wood, irons meaning dif-ferent kinds of iron, etc.

(5) A Collective Noun is a common noun which isthe name of one body containing many individuals ;as, army, flock, crowd, herd. If the entire mass isconsidered as one, the noun takes a singular verb ;as, The army was beaten. If the individuals form-ing the mass are considered to act separately, thenoun takes a plural verb ; as, The people werealarmed at the news.

(6) Sometimes common nouns become proper ; as,the Governor, meaning a particular governor, theQueen of England,

(7) Sometimes proper nouns become common, aswhen we say a man is the Demosthenes of England,and use the proper noun Demosthenes in place ofthe common noun orator. So a great Americansoldier might be called the Napoleon of America.

Refer to Exercise I. and state the class to whicheach noun belongs.


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THE NOUN. 23Suggestions for Review Exercise.

Write five sentences containing a proper noun,five containing a common noun, five containing anabstract noun, five containing a collective noun, fivecontaining a proper noun ' used as a common noun.

Inflection is the change of form which a wordundergoes to fit it for its different uses. The inflec-tion of nouns and pronouns is called Declension,that of verbs is called Conjugation, and that of ad-jectives and adverbs is called Comparison. Prepo-sitions, Exclamations and Conjunctions have noinflection. These last are called Particles,


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24 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

GENDER IN THE NOUN.2. There are four Genders or classes of nouns in

English, according to whether the thing which thenoun represents is male or female, or may be eithermale or female, or has no sex and so is neither malenor female. Gender in English is determined bycommon sense, and is called Natural Gender. Inlanguages which determine the gender of a word byrules of grammar, it is said to be Grammatical orArtificial Gender.

(1) Nouns which are the names of males are saidto be Masculine Gender (from mas, a male).

(2) Nouns which are the names of females aresaid to be Feminine Gender (from femina, a female).

(3) Nouns which are the names of things thathave no sex are said to be Neuter Gender (fromneuter, neither).

(4) Nouns which are the names of things thatmay be either male or female are said to be CommonGender (from communis, common).Note.When a singular noun is used gcnerically, that is, to

stand for a whole class of things, it is masculine gender ; as,The elephant lives in India, he often reaches the age of a hun-dred years.


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GENDER IN THE NOUN. 25The use in English allows us to speak of small animals and

children as neuter gender ; as, The mouse ran into its hole.The child hurt its hand.An unpleasant but growing use is to refer to moving objectsas feminine', as when we say of a train of cars, ' ' Here shecomes. 'Things without life are often spoken of as if they were living

beings (personification). In this way the sun is consideredmasculine, the moonfeminine, etc.

3. The gender of masculine and feminine nounsis shown in three ways. (1) By using distinctwords ; (2) by using an additional word ; (3) byadding an ending.

(1)Distinction of Gender by Different Words.

Masculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine.bachelor spinster hart roeboar sow horse mareboy girl husband wifebrother sister king queenbuck doe lord ladybull cow man womancock hen monk nundog bitch nephew niecedrake duck ram ewedrone bee son daughterearl countess stag hindfather mother uncle auntfoal filly wizard witchgander goose youth maid


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26 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.f2)

Distinction of Gender by an Additional Word.Masculine.

cock-sparrowhe-bearman-servantpea-cock

Feminine.hen-sparrowshe-bearmaid-servantpea-hen

(3)Distinction of Gender by Adding an Ending toForm Feminine.

rasculine. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine.abbott abbess hunter huntressactor actress Jew Jewessbaron baroness Joseph Josephinecount countess lion lionessdeacon deaconess marquis marchionessdirector directress master mistressdon donna murderer murderessduke duchess negro negressemperor empress patron patronessenchanter enchantress poet poetessexecutor executrix prophet prophetessgiant giantess spinner spinsterheir heiress sultan sultanahero heroine traitor traitresshost hostess votary votaress

Note.The ending er so often found in masculine nouns isthe Anglo-Saxon masculine ending (ere, man). Its corre-sponding feminine was ster, as in spinster in list above. Thecommonest feminine termination in English is ess} borrowed


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GENDER IN THE NOUN. 27from the Norman- French, and it is by the use of this suffixthat new feminines are formed in the language. The best usageemploys such words as author, poet, &c, for both genders,and avoids as farias possible the use of the distinctively femi-nine forms in ess. A small number of feminines are formed bythe Greek suffix ine, as in heroine. A small number are formedby the South-Europe suffix a, as in sultana.

In the case of the four words bride, duck, goose and widowthe masculines are formed from the feminines.

Suggestions for Review Exercise.Write four sentences containing masculine nouns,

five containing feminine nouns, five containingneuter nouns, five containing nouns of the commongender.

S> & &


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PERSON, NUMBER AND CASE.4. Nouns have three grammatical forms or prop-

erties, which vary to suit the use of the word,person, number and case.

5. Person is the character which a word has ac-cording as it represents the speaker or the personspoken to or the person spoken of. If John is rep-resented as speaking, the noun John is said to befirst person. If he is spoken to, John is said to besecondperson. If he is spoken of, John is said to bethird person. Nouns are rarely in the first person.

6. Number is a form of a word to show whetherit denotes one or more than one. There are, inEnglish, two numbers. When a word means butone it is said to be Singular Number. When itmeans more than one it is said to be Plural Number.

(1) The plural is commonly formed from the sin-gular by adding s ; as, singular, boy ; plural, boys.This method is Norman-French.

(2) If the last letter of the singular does notunite readily with s, the plural is made by addinges ; as, box, boxes; church, churches.

(3) Nouns ending in y with a consonant before it,change y into ies ; as, lady, ladies ; enemy, enemies.

(4) Nouns ending in o add commonly s, sometimeses ; as, canto, cantos; potato, potatoes. About


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PERSON, NUMBER AND CASE. 29forty nouns add es. The most common are buffalo,cargo, calico, hero, mosquito, motto, negro, potato,tomato.

(5) Some nouns form the plural by the additionof the Anglo-Saxon plural ending en or ne ; as, ox,oxen ; cow, kine ; brother, brethren ; child, children.

(6) Some nouns form their plurals by changingthe vowels in the singular ; as,

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.loot teet man mengooselouse

geese mouselice tooth

miceteeth

(7) Many nouns which have comefrom other languages retain the plulanguages ; as,

into Englishrals of those

Singular.

axisdatummedium

Plural. Singular.Latin.

axes nebuladata radiusmedia radixGreek.

Plural.

nebulaeradiiradices

analysisautomaton

analyses crisisautomata miasma

French.crisesmiasmata

batteaubeau

batteaux madamebeaux monsieur

Italian.

mesdamesmessieurs

bandit banditti librettoHebrew.

libretti

cherub cherubim seraph seraphim


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30 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.(8) A number of nounsmainly names of fish y&jJB*'^fW fljltfe


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THE COLON.28. The word Kolojt means a member (an impor-

tant member of the body ; as, an arm). It is usedin punctuation to denote the largest division of thesentence made by any mark and, so, the mark itself.

29. The Added Clause.The colon is employedto cut off a clause added to a sentence already com-plete ; as, Be honest : it will pay you.When a connecting word is used with the added

clause, the semicolon is used to cut it off; as, Behonest ; for it will pay you.

In the following exercise point out the addedclauses, and give rule for the colons, etc. :

1. James could not climb the tree ; yet he continued to try.2. Come at night : I can give you more time then.3. Do not keep that ; for it is not yours.4. Write him at once : he will answer your letter.Write five sentences containing added clauses cut

off by colons and five containing added clauses cutoff by semicolons.

30. Formal Phrases.The colon is employedto cut off such phrases as, To be brief, To continue,To conclude, etc., when they begin a paragraph andrefer to all of it.


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PUNCTUATION. 18131. Compound Sentences.The colon is em-

ployed to separate the members of a compoundsentence if any or all of their members containsemicolons (see Article 24) ; as, He contracteddebts, without the means of payment ; he madepromises, having no prospect of fulfilling themthus, he accumulated a burden which he could nevershake off.Write five compound sentences containing colons

properly used.32. Quotation.The colon is employed before a

direct quotation and before a list of particulars in-troduced by such words as, thus, asfollows, etc. ; as,Heywood said : Rome was not built in one day.The ordinary divisions of time are these : first, theyear ; second, the month ; third, the week, etc.

If the quotation is a very long one it is usual toadd a dash to the colon, thus, :

.

If the quotation is short a comma is often em-ployed before it.

Write five sentences containing quotations prop-erly cut off by colons.

Write five sentences containing lists of particularsproperly cut off by colons.

33. The Responsives.The colon is employedafter yes and no when a continuation follows ; as,Yes : we will come. No : you cannot go. If a


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182 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.nominative independent follows the responsive, thecolon comes after the nominative and the responsiveis followed by a comma ; as, Yes, madam : I cango. No, sir : we did not do it.

Write ten sentences containing the responsivesproperly cut off by colons or by commas.

V


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PUNCTUATION. 18a

THE PERIOD.34. In Greek it was common for a sentence to

begin with the subject and to close with the predi-cate. By this means the two were brought togetherin the reader's mind and a sort of circuit was made.Periodos, a circular track, represented this idea ; andthe term was used for a set of words that madecomplete, rounded, sense. It was then transferredto the mark that cuts off the complete sentence.The word continues to be used in rhetoric in its oldsense. The period was the earliest of the punctua-tion marks, and it is easy to fancy that the forms ofmany of the others were based upon that of theperiod.The uses of the period are not numerous, and are

so simple that they need only to be stated.35. Complete Sentence.The period is em-

ployed after complete sentences. Sometimes writersmight differ as to the point at which the sentence isto be considered complete, but whenever it is com-plete the period must cut it off.

36. Abbreviations, etc.The period is em-ployed after abbreviations and titles of books, etc. ;as, Eng. for England, Va. for Virginia.

In its use with shortened forms the period doesno more than mark the fact of abbreviation. Other


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184 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.punctuation must be employed as if the period werenot used.

If an abbreviation close the sentence, the periodis not repeated.

In some words which are greatly used in theirabbreviated forms the period is not employed.The title pages of this or of any other book will

sufficiently illustrate the use of the period in titlesof books, etc.Write ten sentences containing periods properly

used with abbreviations.


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PUNCTUATION. 185

THE INTERROGATION.37. The interrogation or question mark (interrogo%

to ask, questio, a. question) is employed after directquestions ; as, Can we do this ? The portion of thesentence cut off by the interrogation mark is gener-ally the same as that cut off by the period, and hencea capital is commonly employed after it. This markis sometimes employed after a single word when itis used ironically ; as, William is a good (?) fellow.

In the part of the sentence cut off by it, theinterrogation mark is sometimes equal to a colon orto a semicolon or to a comma.When but one question stands in the construction,the interrogation mark has the force of a period, andcloses the sentence.When several questions follow each other in the

same construction, the interrogation mark has aforce less than that of the period, and the sentencecontinues through all the questions ; as, Must wesubmit to robbery ? to extortion ? to violence ?

In cases of difficulty the question may be decidedby recasting the interrogative sentence and makingit declarative. Then it may be seen whether theinterrogation marks take the place of periods or ofcolons, etc.

38. Some sentences, declarative in form, are in-tended as questions, and should be followed by the

13


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186 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.interrogation mark ; as, You are well ? You cannotcome with us ?Some questionsrhetoricalare questions in

form only. In meaning they are exclamatory, andmay have either the interrogation or the exclamationmark.

39. The tone in which a question is asked indi-cates much about the nature of the question andabout the answer expected. Commonly, questionswhich contain negative predicates expect the answer,Yes ; as, Did you not do this ? Strong accent onthe subject indicates that the answer, No, is ex-pected ; as, Did Henry do this ? etc. The interro-gation mark would be more serviceable if it hadbeen placed at the beginning of the sentenceinstead of at the end.

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of theinterrogation mark.


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PUNCTUATION. 187

THE EXCLAMATION.40. The exclamation mark (exclamo, to cry out)

must be employed at the end of expressions in-tended to indicate strong emotion ; as, Help thehouse is falling In some cases two points areused together. The exclamation is sometimes em-ployed after a word to show that its use is ironical ;as, The gentleman ( ) who could so hurt a child,etc. (See 37.)When several interjections occur together theymay take the mark after each one ; as, Fie fie fie you should not do that ; or,They may take a comma between them and theexclamation mark at the end of the sentence ; as,Fie, fie, fie, you should not do that or,They may take a comma between them and the

exclamation mark after the last one ; as, Fie, fie, fie you should not do that.The proper position of the exclamation mane may

be decided by settling how much of the sentence isexclamatory and placing the mark after that part.The interjection O should not have an exclama-

tion mark after it. It should be used only with thenominative independent to call the attention of theperson addressed.

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of theexclamation mark.


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THE APOSTROPHE.42. The apostrophe is, in form, a comma, but it

is placed above the word with which it belongs. Itis employed, somewhat as the comma is, to markomission (see Article 11) ; as, e er for ever, etc.The most common use of the apostrophe is withthe possessive case. (See Article 9 in the Gram-mar.) It is also employed in forming the pluralof letters and figures ; as, A's, c's, 2's, 3's, etc.Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the

apostrophe.

THE QUOTATION MARK.43. Quotation is the use by one writer of the

exact words of another, and it is marked by enclos-ing the borrowed expression within quotation marks.These signs are sometimes called guillemets, fromthe name of their French inventor.

44. When the connection is close between thequotation and the words which introduce it, thequotation does not begin with a capital ; as, I wroteme that, it was raining all day Sunday and no onecould go out.When a quotation is formal, or when a stanza ofpoetry is quoted, it is common to begin it with acapital.


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PUNCTUATION. 18945. When a quotation is inside another quotation,

it is cut off by semi-quotation marks ; as, Williamwrote, I saw a man, 'black as Erebus,' creepdown the stairs.There is no end to the complication which might

arise from placing one quotation within another andthat within another, etc. No rule can be stated forall these cases.

46. In quoting the substance of a statementwithout desire to reproduce its exact form, thequotation is frequently enclosed in semi-quotationmarks. When several quotations are made con-secutively, the mark is placed at the beginning ofeach, but at the end of the last one only.

47. The quotation mark is often employed toshow the ironical use of a word. (See 37.)

48. When the latter part of the quotation markcomes at the same place with some other punctua-tion mark, that mark is included in the quotationmark if it punctuates the words of the quotation ;but, if it punctuates the entire quotation with refer-ence to the rest of the sentence, the mark includesthe quotation mark.

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of thequotation mark.


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THE DASH.49. The dash is of comparatively recent origin,

but it is employed to such extent by carelesswriters, to save the thought necessary for exactpunctuation, that it has assumed some of the func-tions of the other marks. The dash has certainvaluable uses of its own, and it would be well toconfine it strictly to those uses.

50. Omission of Words.The dash is employedto mark omission of words, etc. ; as, In the townof . In the year 18

.

51. Repetition.The dash is employed before arepetition made for rhetorical effect ; as, Hear thefate of Carthageof Carthage, once the mistressof a continentof Carthage, once the rival of proudRome. This rhetorical repetition is called the Echo.

52. Change of Construction.The dash is em-ployed to mark sudden change of construction ; as,The traitor, the murderer, the thiefthe same darkdoom awaits them all.

53. Sudden Change of Thought.The dash isemployed to mark sudden change of thought, or tomark interruption or hesitation even when there isno break in the construction ; as, Brimful of wrathand cabbage. The general was energetic, accom-plished, far-sightedbut a coward. I wish I couldaid you,butbutI cannot,


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PUNCTUATION. 19154. Expressions Leading to a Conclusion.The

dash is employed before a concluding clause whena number of expressions, all tending towards it,come before ; as, His uncommon learning, his raregentleness, his unexampled courageall these havemade him what he is.

55. Parenthesis.-The dash is often employed tocut off parenthetical forms ; as, The dayneverlong at this seasonclosed before we finished. Itsuse denotes that the included words have less con-nection with the construction than forms cut off bycommas and more connection than forms cut off bythe parenthesis mark. It is, of course, difficult insome cases to choose among the three methods ofmarking parenthesis.

In cases in which the parenthesis may be left outwithout the sentence's requiring any punctuation atthat place, no mark except the dash is needed. Incases where the omission of the parenthesis wouldnecessitate punctuation, the proper mark must beemployed in addition to the dash.

56. Question and Answer.The dash is employedto separate question and answer when they areplaced on same line ; as, Where is Paris ?InFrance, etc.

57. Following Other Marks.The dash is em-ployed after the other marks to lengthen the pause


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192 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.which they indicate. This use may be seen in sev-eral of the articles above.

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the'ash. THE PARENTHESIS.58. The word parenthesis in Greek means some-

thing inserted, and it is applied to matter placed, byway of explanation or comment, in the midst of asentence with which it has no grammatical connec-tion ; as, Milton's Poems (London Publishing Com-pany). John (that is my boy's name) is a goodstudent, etc. From the thing itself the name hasbeen transferred to the marks which indicate thisinsertion.Commas and dashes also denote a sort of paren-

thesis, but the parenthesis mark is to be employedwhen the matter inserted is most disconnected fromthe construction in which it stands.

59. The words enclosed in parenthesis marksshould be those of the writer, and, in this respect,the use of these marks differs from that of thebracket. This distinction is, however, not strictlyobserved. We frequently see, in reports of speeches,the use of the parenthesis for remarks made by theaudience, and we often see the use of brackets toenclose the writer's own words. The distinction isshown in the following sentence, supposed to betaken from the report of a speech : Mr. President,


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PUNCTUATION. 193the time has come (here a voice interrupted thespeaker) when we shall no longer be in bondage[Hear Hear ] to those errors which have ruledour past. [Good Good ] The time has come(cheers), etc.

60. Parenthesis marks do not take the place ofpunctuation. All the other marks which would beneedful if the parenthesis were omitted must beused with it. Illustrations are given below of theposition of other points with regard to the paren-thesis mark.

(a) William (he was always careless of his com-pany) soon got into trouble in London. Here theomission of the parenthesis would leave a sentencewhich would demand no punctuation. There is,consequently, none used with the parenthesis.

(b) If you are ill, William, (I judge from yourface that you are) you can go home. Here theomission of the parenthesis would leave a sentencecontaining an independent nominative which shouldbe cut off by commas. It is so cut off.

(c) If ever you see John again (and who knowsbut you may do so ?), tell him, etc. Here the omis-sion of the parenthesis would leave a dependentclause which would have to be cut off by a comma;as the parenthesis is connected with the dependentsentence, the comma is placed after the parenthesis.

Write ten sentences illustrating the use of theparenthesis mark,


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THE BRACKET.61. The bracket is employed to enclose the

words of some person other than the writer. Thesewords can have no grammatical connection with thesentence. Its principal use is to enclose correc-tions or additions made by one writer to the wordsof another. The bracket is frequently used byeditors to indicate that the words enclosed areprobably not the words of the author.

62. In dictionaries the bracket is employed to cutoff certain parts of the statement made about aword.In printing plays, the bracket is employed to cutoff the stage directions.

In lines of poetry which are too long for thespace, the extra words are put at the end of theline, above or below, and cut off by a bracket.

63. The statement of the use of other punctua-tion marks with the parenthesis will apply to theiruse with the bracket.Write ten sentences illustrating the use of the

bracket.64. THE CARET.The caret (Latin caret, it

is lacking) is employed to call attention to the factthat a word has been omitted. The word is inserted


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PUNCTUATION. 195toabove the line; as, He is coming town soon.

The same mark has a valuable use in prosody.65. THE DIURESIS.The diaeresis is em-

ployed over either of two vowels to show that itdoes not make one syllable with the vowel by itsside ; as, coordinate.

66. THE HYPHEN.The hyphen is em-ployed to make compound words ; as, work-horse,etc. There is some tendency to omit the hyphenand to form single words of the compounds, butthis can probably never take place with such wordsas forget-me-not, etc. The cardinal numbers show-ing tens and units ; as, twenty-one, ninety-nine, arecommonly written with the hyphen. The markwould have disappeared from them long ago if ithad not been saved by the fact that few of the hastywriters, who do so much to destroy the niceties ofwords, take time to write out numerals at all, butcommonly express them by figures.

67. The hyphen is employed when part of a wordends one line and the rest has to be carried to theline below. In this case the word should be dividedso as not to part a syllable.

68. The hyphen has no little value, as a diacriticalmark, to determine the sense of words with whichit is used. Compare the phrases, much-valuedchina and much valued china, many-tinted cloudsand many tinted clouds.


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196 ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR.69. THE CONTINUATION.A line of

periods placed after an incompleted sentence marksthe break in it and is suggestive of what shouldfollow; as, Drowsily the little lips murmured, OurFather which art and the baby fell asleep.

70. THE CEDILLA.The cedilla is employedto give to the letter c, when it occurs before a, o, u,the sound of s. The sign is written under the letterand is employed in only a few words ; as, garcon,etc.

71. Besides the above there are numerous othermarks found in printed matter. These, however,have no use in punctuation, as is really the casewith some of those already mentioned. (See cedilla,caret, etc.)

Following is a list of these additional marks :The tilde (~) written over n gives the Spanish

sound ny as in canon.The breve (u) and macron (-) mark syllables as

short or long.The accents ; acute ('), grave ('), circumflex (^)

direct pronunciation or inflection of the voice.The index (b^~) points out something important.The brace ({) unites several things to be consid-

ered together.


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PUNCTUATION. 197The paragraph (If) is found in old books to mark

the beginning of a paragraph.The double comma (,,) is used to continue a word

immediately above it.The reference marks : star (*), dagger (}), double

dagger (J), section (), parallel line (||), are used tomark notes for reference. Where notes are numer-ous, figures are commonly employed.


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INDEX.Sec.

A, An . 47Absolute Nominative . . 31Abstract Noun 1,6Active Voice . . . ... 12, 94Adjective, 45, 48, 60, 62,

96, 101-102Adverb, 31, 63-64, 66-73,

89, 100, 102Adverbial Objective ... 31Alms 6Analysis . 34,etcAntecedent 40, 41, 95Anticipative Pronoun . . 39Any 50Apposition ....... 31Article 47, 97Artificial Gender .... 2Attributive Adjective . . 45Auxiliary Verb 25Barring 78Be 25, 27, 30But 40By 94Can 25, 27Cardinal 48Case 4, 7, 42Clause 43-44, 111Cognate Object. 31Collective Noun 1, 103Common Gender .... 2Common Noun 1Comparison of Adj ective,

1, 54-57Comparison of Adverb . 1, 67

Sec.Comparative Degree, 54,

62, 72, 98Complement 62Complex Sentence (p. 15) 114Compound Noun ... 6, 50, 60Compound Pronoun ... 40Compound Sentence (p. 15) 114Concerning 78Conjugation . . . . 1, 24, 27-29Conjunction 1, 85-89Conjunctive Adverb . . 66Coordinating Conjunc-

tion 85Context 6Correlative 87Declension 1, 7, 10Defective Verb 25Definite Article 47Degrees of Comparison . 54-57Demonstrative Adjective 48Demonstrative Pronoun, 38Dependent Clause (p. 15) 111Direct Object 31, 94Direct Narration .... 113Distributives 48Do 25, 27, 30Dozen 51During . . . 78Each other 49Eaves 6Ellipsis 91Else 50Emphatic Conjugation . 30Etymology 32


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INDEX. 199'EC.

Excepting 78Exclamations 1, 82-84Feminine Gender .... 2Finite Verb . . . 13Future Perfect Tense . . 16-17Future Tense 15, 17Gender 2Gerund 103Grammatical Gender . . 2Grammatical Predicate . 108Grammatical Subject . . 107Have 25, 27Idiom . 91Imperative ...... 13, 30, 32Impersonal Verb .... 26Indefinite Adjective . . 48, 96Indefinite Article .... 47Independent Nominative 31Indicative , 13, 30Indirect Object 31, 94Indirect Narration . . . 113Infinitive 13, 92Inflection 1Pronoun 36Interjection 1, 82-84Interrogative Adjective . 48Interrogative Adverb . . 66Interrogative Conjugation 30Interrogative Pronoun . 37Intransitive Verb .... 19, 31Irregular Comparison . . 55, 68Irregular Construction . 91Irregular Verb 22, 27It 39Its 36Limiting Adjective . . . 45-46Logical Predicate .... 108Logical Subject 107Masculine Gender ... 2

Sec.Material Noun 1May 25, 27Mood 11, 13Must 25, 27Natural Gender 2Need 103Negative 30Neuter Gender 2No, None ......... 50Nominative Absolute . 31Nominative Case 7, 8, 10, etcNominative Independent 31Notwithstanding .... 78Noun 1, 31, 90Number 4, 6, 11, 18Numeral 48, 51Object 31, 94Objective Adverbial . . 31Objective Case . 7, 8, 10, 80, 94Of . . 94One, Another 49Ordinal 48Own 59Pair 51Paradigm 7Parsing 33-34, etcParticiple 30, 103Particle 1Parts of Speech .... 1Passive Voice 12, etcPast Participle 103Past Perfect Tense . . . 16-17Past Tense 15, 17, 30Person ' Nouns) 4-5Person (Pronouns) .... 5Person (Verbs) ... 11, 18, 28Personal Pronoun . . . . 36, 95Personification 2Phrase 61, 69


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200 PRIMARY ENGLISH GRAMMAR.Sec.

Plural Number 6, 10Positive Degree 54Possessive Case . 7, 9, 10, 31. 93Potential Mood 13, 30Predicate . . 11, 32, 106Predicate Adjective . 45, 62, 96Predicate Noun 31, 92Preposition . . . . 1, 9, 31, etcPresent Participle . 30, 92, 103Present Perfect Tense . .16-17Present Tense .... 15, 17, 30Principal Clause . ... (p. 15)Principal Parts of Verb . 23Principal Verb 25Progressive Conjugation 30Pronominal Adjective . 48-50Pronoun, Anticipative . 39Pronoun, Demonstrative 38, 48Pronoun, Indefinite ... 48Pronoun, Intensive ... 36Pronoun, Interrogative . 37, 48Pronoun, Personal . . .36, 95Pronoun, Reflexive ... 36Pronoun, Relative . . 40-41, 95Proper Noun ..... 1,6Proposition 11, 32Qualifying Adjective . . 45, 52Rather 68Redundant Verb .... 25Reflexive Pronoun ... 36Regarding .... . . 78Regular Comparison . 54-56, 67Regular Construction . . 91Regular Verb 22, 28Review 10, 34, etc

Sec.Relative Adverb .... 66Respecting 78Relative Pronoun .... 40Responsives 65Riches 6Save 78Sentence (p. 15) 32, 41Shall 25, 27Simple Adverb 66Simple Sentence .... (p. 15)SingularNum er .... 6, 10Subject . 11, 31-32, 92, 103, etcSubjunctive Mood . 13, 86, 104Subordinating Conjunc-

tion 85Superlative Degree,54, 62, 73, 99Strong Words 6Syntax 31-32, 91, etcTense 11, 14-15That 40The 47There 39To 95Touching 78Transitive Verb 19Unipersonal Verb .... 26Variables 88-90Verb 11, 19, 89, 103Voice H-12Weak Words 6What 40Which 40Who 40Will 25, 27Yes, No 65


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