Topic 1: Population Geography The changing nature, rate and distribution of the world’s population

Young population: - Larger share of young people than

older people- High birth and death rates - Average age less than 20 years old

Stable population: - Balanced share of young and old. - Above replacement level fertility - Lower death rate - The average age of this population is

late 20s- Stage 3-4

Aging population: - Larger share of older people - Low birth rate and lower birth rate

fertility - Longer life span for the majority - Average of mid-late 30s.

Pre – reproductive (0-14), reproductive (15-44) and post reproductive years (45 and up).

Pyramid Shape Fertility Rates Life ExpectancyYoung, stable, ageingDependents v/s working age

Above or below replacement level. Indicated by pyramid

base.Short or long life span indicated

by pyramid tip.

• Population Growth: Natural Increase (Excess births over deaths), In Migration (Domestic and International)

• Population Decline: Natural Decrease (Excess deaths over births), Out Migration (Domestic and International)

Life expectancy Number of years a person can be expected to live Natural increase Excess of births over deaths. Birth rate Number of births per 1,000 people in a calendar year.

- 18.657 per 1000 people in 2017. Death rate Number of deaths per 1000 people in a given place and time

- 7.542 per 1000 people in 2017.Replacement fertility rate

Population exactly replaces itself from one generation to another - Fertility rate greater than 2 births per woman

Carry capacity Maximum population size of the species that an environment can sustain indefinitely, given the food, habitat, water, and other necessities available in the environment

Ecological footprint Measure of human impact on Earth’s ecosystem. Its typically measured in area of wilderness or amount of natural capital

consumed each year. Population control Policies developed by governments which aim to manage

population growth. E.g: one child policy in China. - Population formulas

Natural Increase number of births – number of deaths Net Overseas Migration

(the difference between immigrants and migrants IN (Immigrants) – OUT (Emigrants)

Annual population growth

original population + natural increase + net overseas

Annual pop. growth % change (difference between the two years) x 100 Original (figure for the earlier year)

Changing birth/ death rates into numbers

change(difference between the two years) x100 = % changeOriginal (figure for the earlier year)

- answer multiplied by birth or death rate

Spatial patters of fertility and mortality Macro Scale - Even or uneven pattern

- Disparity or consistence between MD and LD world? Meso Scale Continents then regions

- Middle East, SE Asia, Central America Micro Scale Countries or islands

Types, volumes and directions of population movementsImmigration  Entering another country and making it the person’s permanent

residence.Emigration Leaving a country to permanently settle in a foreign country.Migration Movement of people from one place to another with the intentions

of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location.Rural Urban Migration (RUM)

Movement of people from the countryside to the city. Causes: 1. Urban growth – towns and cities are expanding, covering a greater area of land. 2. Urbanisation – an increasing proportion of people living in towns and cities.

Labour migration Migration for the main purpose of employment.

Refugee migration Fled and cannot return to country due to well-founded fear of persecution for race, religion, nationality, member of a particular social group or political opinion, and is unable or unwilling to return.

Issues arising from the changing size and distribution of population

- Pressure of growing cities and use of resources such as water energy and food causing pollution leads to a range of localised environmental problems

Tipping Point Occurs when the human resource extraction exceeds the ability of the natural environment to regenerate and meet future population needs.

Sustainable Development

Type of economic development that meets the needs of the present generation without destroying the resource base that meets the needs of future generations.

Income Inequality The differences in income and wealth across the planet. - Result in population issues in LDCs and overconsumption in

- Since populations can grow exponentially, resource depletion can occur rapidly, leading to specific environmental concerns such as global warming, deforestation and decreasing biodiversity.

MDCs.Overpopulation Situation where the size of a population has overwhelmed the

ability of human and natural systems to meet their needs. World Overshoot Day Day representing usage of all the world’s resources that Earth’s

natural systems can provide and replace in a year. In 2019, it was July 29, three days earlier than 2018.

Recent rapid increase in human population over the past two centuries has raised concerns that human are beginning to overpopulate the Earth 6.7 billion (2009), 7.8 billion (2020) Environmental Issues

- Caused by overpopulation, pollution, emissions from burning fossil fuels and deforestation environmental resources being exploited for economic gain

Human Induced Global Warming

Caused by an increase in carbon dioxide and other emissions into the atmosphere.

- The planet's average surface temperature has risen about 0.9 degrees Celsius since the late 19th century

- Global average CO2 emissions per capita have increased by 1.7% since 1960

- Greenland lost an average of 286 billion tons of ice per year between 1993 and 2016

Soil Erosion As a direct result of deforestation by logging or burning trees. Removal of vegetation covering topsoil leaves it unprotected against wind and water, causing erosion. Loss of topsoil destroys ability of land to regenerate.

- Deforestation from Indonesia producing 53% of the world's palm oil leaves them responsible for 15% of annual greenhouse emissions. Has also led to 25% decrease in orang-utan species.

- Over the past 40 years, the world has lost 1.3milllion km/2 of forest

Poor Air Quality Increase in toxic emissions from factories, cars, human caused fires, etc.

- Air pollution kills 7 million people worldwide each year - Since 2000, emissions have been rising by average 3.4%

each year - Beijing’s air can be deadlier than 40 cigarettes, with 22%

from coal burning Poor Water Quality Caused by dumping of industrial waste, temperature rise and

deforestation - Soil Acidification: Since Industrial Revolution, acidity of

surface ocean waters has increased by 30%

Social Issues China’s One Child Policy

Decreased Quality of life

The risk of heavy financial fines and control of property if these laws were broken led to a reduced quality of life for people living in poverty, due to their limited access to contraception, and inability to pay Government fines.

Decreased birth rate Rapid reduction in children being born- Fertility dropped from 5.8 children per woman in 1970 to 1.5 - Policy estimated to have prevented 400 million births since

introduced Gender Imbalance Boys were seen to be more valuable than girls, leading to forced

abortions, abandonment and killing of baby girls. - Average of 1.2 men for every woman, leaving a current total

An increase of densely populated areas in China meant access to resources became limited, and were no longer able to sustain and support communities 1979 Child Policy: families were only permitted to have one child.

of 30 million more men than women Below Replacement level fertility

China is now an aging population, as middle-aged people fail to produce as many children as the generation before. Many men of marrying age have also been unable to find wives and reproduce.

Unregistered Children Estimated 25 million women and girls who are unregistered who were hidden from officials after birth.

- These people have no access to Government resources such as healthcare or education, limiting their quality of life

Economic Issues China’s One Child Policy

Aging Population Shrinkage in the workforce resulting in less taxes being paid to governments.

- Gov. expenditure has decreased, with less being spent on health and age care, leaving the elderly with limited access to essential resources.

Financial Pressures Increasing financial pressure is being placed on children to take care of their parents

- No siblings, it is their sole responsibility to pay for the care of elderly adults.

Topic 2: Cultural Integration The diffusion, adoption and adaption of mass consumer culture reflected in

media, fashion, brand images, sport, music and religion Culture Ideas customs, and social behaviour of a particular people or

society. OR the arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded collectively.

Diffusion The spread or dispersion of cultural elements between countries.

Adoption Decision to take up or follow (an idea, method, or course of action). Involves the acceptance and integration of difference cultural elements into your own.

Adaptation Make (something) suitable for a new use or purpose; modify. Involves the modification of a culture to incorporate aspects of another culture.

Globalisation Integration of the world’s economy through the mass consumption of mainly Western culture, technology and trade.

Westernisation Societies come under or adopt Western cultures in areas, affecting traditions, customs, family and love and respect for others.

- 20% of the world speaks English. - 360 million people speak English as their first language

The factors affecting cultural integration Technology, TNC’s, Global media networks, Cultural Imperialism, Actions of Governments

1. Technology: innovations and cyber crime Hacking Gaining illegal entry to electronic networks and the data contained

therein. These data may be ‘stolen’, have their copyright infringed or used illegally to gain a commercial advantaged.

Virus Creation Self-copyrighting programs that are designed to create a nuisance, disable or even destroy computer systems and data.

Slicing Accumulation of various fractions of a cent from account transactions in banks or retail stores. Fractions of a cent are normally rounded up or down but instead can be siphoned off into a criminal’s account.

Creation of false Creation of fake ID’s, forgeries and false financial transactions,

records which might involve large amounts of money.

2. TNCs: growth of TNCs and top 100 economic entities - Businesses outgrew domestic market and sought to expand overseas

o Loses their cultural heritage. o Encourages everyone to be the same.

- TNCs developed a system of corporate control that allows them to patent a product, retaining ownership and thus allowing them to control the production, marketing and distribution of their products.

3. Global media networks: Walt Disney company, influence of social media - Each year, Australian businesses spend over $9 billion on digital advertising. - Australians on average, spend more than 5 ½ hours on the internet every day. - Almost 75% of Australian households shopped online in 2018.

The Walt Disney Company - In 2018, Disney was among the largest companies in the world in terms of market

value, and ranked as the joint-fourth most reputable company in the world. - The Walt Disney Company is not only a strong and well-recognized brand, but also a

profitable one. In total, the company generated more than 59 billion U.S. dollars in revenue in 2018.

- Adaption of different cultures ethnicity of many princesses are different and capture different cultures.

4. Cultural imperialism: US cultural imperialism and the dominance of Hollywood movies

Whilst some countries actively promote the process of cultural integration by encouraging the introduction of new information- based technologies, supporting immigration programs and promoting multiculturalism, other governments fear the introduction of American culture and excessive commercialism will destroy local cultures.

- The dominance of this American culture over all others in the media is called cultural imperialism.

5. Actions of governments: censorship - In recent years, Governments have started to take control on what is issued on news

channels and into the media altering the perception of the country. - Many countries have placed censored programs on the use of media platforms and

have significantly altered what the media have been publishing.

The effects of cultural integrationHomogenised landscapes

- As globalisation continues, the landscapes and streetscapes are no longer unique.

- Icons of cultural integration are everywhere, from advertising billboards to neon signs for McDonald’s and KFC, and these

Trade barriers have been removed. This has enabled small firms to gain access to markets that were once the preserve of large corporations.

Access to computer and telecommunications technology is no longer restricted, because of cost, to large firms

Financial markets have been deregulated – governments no longer have control which has led to innovation and entrepreneurship

Global TV and online marketing campaign now promote an ever-increasing range of lifestyle products and options

Smaller firms are often better equipped and able to respond to changes in how their products are consumed, making them more flexible in a diverse market

serve to make cities more similar. - These symbols of Westernisation, or Americanisation, are the

new landmarks of a consumer generation, and are multiplying fast.

- Australian’s suburban architecture also illustrates the impact of cultural integration. Successive waves of immigration have left their mark on the suburban streetscape. Each group of immigrants brings elements of its own architectural and cultural heritage. This is often reflected in the dwelling they build.

Economic Dominance - The rise of TNC has increased global inequalities: world’s poorest countries increasingly subject to decision-making processes beyond their control.

- As the activities of the TNCs have become more global, so too have the industries that service them. These include banking, management consultancy, accounting, law, insurance and advertising.

- Globalisation is most advanced in the world’s financial markets. Large financial institutions and firms now have access to a global pool of investment capital.

- Increased level of access has contributed to a major rise in the mass consumption of goods and services.

- Much of the benefit derived from this technology has increased consumption initially occurred in the developed, rather than the developing, world.

Threats to cultural diversity and sovereignty

- Corporations spend vast amounts of money trying to standardize consumer markets and international bodies: WTO seek to regulate global economy.

- Fear that Westernisation will not only rob them of their identity, but their values, faith and languages.

o 70% of the films made come from the Hollywood film industry.

o The films promote ideas and lifestyles that match the American culture, which are impossible for most people to live by.

o Some countries feel threatened by this as it promotes a way of life that the government does not want its people to live by.

- Resurgence of right-wing political activism as a direct response to the spread of cultural ideas, customs and beliefs through the process of globalisation.

- This process has resulted in the rising influence of global media outlets and innovations in telecommunications that have allowed the diffusion of information and the adoption and adaptation of various aspects of culture.Australia's One Nation Party: international migration should be ceased and that those who live in Australia need to adapt and change to the "Australian way of life," to limit perceived risk to Australia's national security.

Compression of time and space

- Technological innovations have made it easier for us to communicate

- Breaking down of physical boundaries and boarders driven by technological innovations and advancements in telecommunications

- Phones, skype, trading online, stock markets - People opposed to globalisation dislike growing gap between

rich and poor: jobs can be shifted from high to low wage

countries (exploitation) - Some oppose it due to global influences which alienate

children from traditional cultural and heritage

Topic 3: Political Geography

Liberalism The holding of liberal views. Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of the governed and equality before the law.

Nationalism Political ideology which involves people identifying with others of a similar culture, history, religion and language. Sense of belonging to a nation.

Imperialism Conquest and political/military domination of a new territory by a foreign empire.

Capitalism Economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state.

Industrialism Social or economic system in which manufacturing industries are prevalent.

Socialism Social organization which advocates that the means of production, distribution, and exchange should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole.

Totalitarianism Prohibits opposition parties, restricts individual opposition to the state and its claims, and exercises an extremely high degree of control over public and private life.

Communism All property is owned by the community and each person contributes and receives according to their ability and needs.

Consumerism Protection or promotion of the interests of consumers

The changing role and nature of the nation-state Nation Group of people with common and distinctive racial,

national, religious, linguistic or cultural heritage.State A territory that has a well-defined boundary and is

autonomously and effectively governed by a sovereign government.

- Due to communication and technological advances states have developed more power and effective ways to govern the lives of citizens.

- The main role of the nation-state is to develop economic and social policies to improve the lives of citizens.

Characteristics of the modern nation-state - Participate in a globalised economy. - Develop relationships at a global scale in order to tackle world issues and strengthen

trade and partnerships. - The development of international regions to resolve local issues. - Are likely to be a part of an international region. These are areas that span more than

one nation. These regions have a relationship based on a shared culture. - The development of supra states. This is a political federation made up of individual

states with various degrees of political sovereignty. This has resulted in the formation of the European Union.

- The creation of superpower’s. This is a country that has power and capacity to influence the global scale.

The increasing influence of international governance, transnational corporations and non-government organisations (NGOs) as challenges to national sovereignty

- Sovereignty means having independent power to achieve desired outcomes. - Level of sovereignty depends on the political constitution of the state, the extent of the

citizens’ acceptance of the government and the influence that international organisations and treaties have over the states.

- Threats can be external ( e.g. neighbouring states) or internal (forces within states trying to gain power from governments)

- The development of supra states. This is a political federation made up of individual states with various degrees of political sovereignty. This has resulted in the formation of the European Union.

- The creation of superpower’s. This is a country that has power and capacity to influence the global scale.

Globalisation - Globalization – breakdown in the political, economic and social barriers to international trade.

- Current globalization - global markets, language, culture, communication

Transnational and global corporations

- Many firms now richer and powerful than many countries.- Becoming increasingly globalised – losing loyalty to particular

countries.- Demanding similar laws, policies, employment practices and

social welfare across many countries and put pressure on governments into a uniform pattern of social arrangements.

Non-government organisations

- Place pressure through promoting social justice, ecological sustainability, self-determination and equality.

- E.g. Green Peace, Amnesty International and World Vision.International Organisations and Treaties

- Political interaction aimed towards organisations to solve problems. (United Nations).

- After WWI, there was a move towards international agreements.

- Following WWII, many more arose e.g. WTO and United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).

- These have become powerful forces in controlling government actions.

- By joining international treaties, countries must oblige by the rules which can limit their power

Challenges to National Sovereignty - Economic and cultural globalisation, regionalism and nationalism are all forces

threatening to weaken existing states. - Global governance is becoming a major force affecting how states govern their own

territories. International Organisations

- Expanding size and power of international organisations, raises questions to the governments.

- Some argue that International Monetary fund and WTO have too much influence over the decision making of governments.

Transnational corporations

- TNCs promote the importance of the ‘global market’ etc., but this often generalises the fact that governments still exert a lot of control over TNCs.

- Governments have created the conditions for the TNCs to operate and they also attempt to control and regulate their

operations. - By having the power to withdraw, TNCs have large influence

over government because they provide money to the economy.

Non-gov. organisations

- Over 4000 NGOs lobbying governments on issues. - Many governments support NGOs supplying foreign aid

because they’re more effective. - One limitation of them is that they hold may different views

and this make it hard for them to lobby governments.

The causes of political tensions and conflict, economic instability, and migration and mobility of people.

Material and human resources

- Power to control and use resources always caused political tension.

- Natural raw materials of the earth including minerals, soil, water, plants and animals.

- Human resources are the productive capabilities of people and are affected by the nature of the economic entre prise which they work.

- Water is increasingly a source of conflict, particularly where a river flows through multiple countries.

Land use and control of natural resources

- Control of land has been a powerful cause of political tension and conflict throughout human history.

- Agricultural societies, which dominated the earth for several thousand years, rose and fell according to their ability to control large areas of territory.

- Territory provided large numbers of people to work the land as slaves and peasants, pay taxes and be conscripted into armies.

- New industrialised societies now rely on raw materials and secure access is vital.

- Provide secure access to natural resources. Nationalist Conflict - Tension between states: states redrawing boundaries,

tensions over immigration of certain ethnic groups. - Tension between ethnic groups: common in Africa, Asia and

Europe where political borders do not often reflect ethnic boundaries.

Ethnicity - Ongoing historical tensions and conflict: Northern Ireland, Yugoslavia Catalonia, Rwanda, Sudan, Burundi.

- Immigration-induced tension when new immigrants move into a territory traditionally occupied by one race: West Indian immigrants in Britain, Algerian immigrants in France.

- Various African-American movements and tensions – Black Lives Matter

Social Class - Capitalist Industrialists vs. workers who have conflict over wages and working conditions

- Lead to revolutions including in Russia, China, Cuba and Iran. Indigenous Peoples - Colonisation in the Americas, Asia, Africa, Australasia, and

Oceania from late 15th Century- In many places, indigenous people were conquered and

sometimes enslaved.- Little to no recognition of native land ownership and native

rights- Often treated as subhuman and through a combination of

violence, maltreatment, disease and starvation, their populations were decimated.

- Upsurge in indigenous rights in 20th Century, 1988 Mabo decision overruled Terra Nullius.

Economic Instability - Protests erupted in Greece in 2008-2009 due to austerity policies put in place by the EU to place stringent restrictions on government spending during financial crisis.

The consequences of these challenges on national sovereignty: paths towards resolving issues/meeting challenges

Topic 4: Biophysical Interactions The nature and functioning of the four components: the atmosphere,

hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere in a specific biophysical environment:

What is an ecosystem

- Atmospheric processes, climate components, climatic variationAtmosphere

- Abiotic - The combination of gases and particles enveloping the globe

Air Lithosphere

- Abiotic- The Earth’s outer shell. - It is the upper zone of the Earth’s mantle

An inorganic mixture of rocks, mineral matter (including soil) in the Earth’s crust

Hydrosphere - Abiotic

- The parts of the Earth which is composed of water Oceans

Biosphere - Biotic

- The living part of the planet that consist of a thin layer extending from just above the Earth’s surface to just below it

- Worldwide sum of all ecosystems - Land, air and water interact with the biosphere to support life - Evolved and adapted community of species

Food webs allow energy to flow and nutrients to cycle Tundra, deserts, Tropical rainforests, oceans

Atmosphere

What is the atmosphere?

- It is the gaseous layer surrounding earth - Mainly consists of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour - A transparent, odourless mass of air that surround the earth - Gasses are held in place due to gravitational attraction of the planet

Atmospheric processes Global Atmospheric Circulation Coriolis effect is the result of Earths rotation on weather patterns and ocean currents Differential Heating Energy strikes the outer atmosphere evenly however the curvature

of the planet’s surface, the earths 23.5 degree tilt and the atmosphere that surrounds it causes insolation to strike the Earth’s surface unevenly- This curvature means that, at higher latitudes, the radiation

from the sun is spread over a much larger surface area, while

the same amount of energy is much more concentrated near the equator.

- The radiation also travels through a greater depth of atmosphere nearer the poles, in comparison to the equator so more radiation is lost to the scattering and absorption by gases and particles in the atmosphere.

- This tilt is also the reason why Polar Regions do not receive sunlight in the winter.

- At the equator, where the sun’s rays are most concentrated air is warmed because of the higher surface temperatures and begins to rise, as it is less dense than the surrounding air.

Air Pressure - Rising air is made up of large amounts of water vapour, because evaporation over the oceans is high at the equator.

- As the air rises, it begins to cool because it is no longer heated by its contact with the warm Earth’s surface.

- As it cools, it begins to condense, resulting in the formation of large clouds over the Equator which results in high levels of rainfall at the equator.

- This rising air is known as low pressure measuring the ‘amount’ of air at the surface measured in hPa.

- Low pressure = rising air, there is less air at the surface. - High pressure = sinking air, there is more air at the surface

Hadley Cells - As the air rises, it eventually reaches the atmosphere, forcing air to spread North and South of the equator, unable to return to the equator because of rising air.

- This is how the air ‘circulates,’ with the air moving away from the equator and circulating round to higher latitudes.

- As the air moves both North and South, high above the surface, it is cooling and begins to sink.

- This sinking takes place as the process of cooling has made the air dense.

- Trade winds, the permanent east-to-west prevailing winds that flow in the Earth’s equatorial region, carry the sinking air back towards the equator.

- They circulate in opposite directions, due to the Coriolis effect and form our Hadley cells.

- As this air is sinking, it forms a band of high pressure.Ferrel Cells - Air in the Hadley cells is pulled in two directions – some back to

the equator and some northwards by winds known as westerlies. - These westerlies carry the warm air from 30 degrees up to ~60

degrees North or South. This forms the Ferrel cell. - It is at this point, this warm air meets cold polar air, moving to

lower latitudes under the influence of polar easterlies. - Where these two bodies of air meet – the warm air from 30

degrees N+S and the cold air from the poles – there is a mix, forcing the air to rise (as it is warm and thus less dense).

- This creates an area of low pressure known as the subpolar low and this is within the Polar cell.  

Summary

Effects of Differential insolation

Links between Heat Equator and Atmospheric Processes

Ocean Currents - The ocean has an interconnected current, or circulation, system powered by wind,

tides, the Earth’s rotation (Coriolis effect), the sun (solar energy), and water density differences.

- The topography and shape of ocean basins and nearby landmasses also influence ocean currents. 

- These forces and physical characteristics affect the size, shape, speed, and direction of ocean currents.

Surface Ocean Currents

- Surface ocean currents can occur on local and global scales and are typically wind-driven, resulting in both horizontal and vertical water movement.

- Horizontal surface currents that are local and typically short term include rip currents, longshore currents, and tidal currents. 

- Prevailing winds, ocean surface currents, and the associated mixing influence the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the ocean, as well as global climate.

Deep Ocean Currents

- Deep ocean currents are density-driven and differ from surface currents in scale, speed, and energy.

- Water density is affected by the temperature, salinity (saltiness), and depth of the water.

- The colder and saltier the ocean water, the denser it is.- The greater the density differences between different layers in the water

column, the greater the mixing and circulation.- Density differences in ocean water contribute to a global-scale circulation

system, also called the global conveyor belt.Global Conveyer Belt

- The global conveyor belt includes both surface and deep ocean currents that circulate the globe in a 1,000-year cycle.

- The global conveyor belt’s circulation is the result of two simultaneous processes: warm surface currents carrying less dense water away from the Equator toward the poles, and cold deep ocean currents carrying denser water away from the poles toward the Equator.

- The ocean’s global circulation system plays a key role in distributing heat energy, regulating weather and climate, and cycling vital nutrients and gases.

How do ocean currents affect weather and climate - Oceans store solar radiation and help to distribute heat around the globe.- When water molecules are heated, they exchange freely with the air in a process

called evaporation. - Ocean water is constantly evaporating, increasing the temperature and humidity of

the surrounding air to form rain and storms that are then carried by trade winds.- In fact, almost all rain that falls on land starts off in the ocean.- The tropics are particularly rainy because heat absorption, and thus ocean

evaporation, is highest in this area.

El Nino and La Nina Southern Oscillation - Periodic climatic pattern that occurs across the tropical Pacific Ocean roughly every 5

years. Pacific Ocean and the atmosphere above change from their neutral/normal state for several seasons. El Nino: Warming of the central and eastern tropical pacific La Nina: Sustained cooling of central and Eastern Tropical Pacific

El Nino Warming of the ocean surface or above-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical pacific ocean.

- Trade winds weaken, which allows warmer water to drift towards Eastern Pacific.

- This causes cooler water across the western pacific, around SE Asia and North Australia

- Due to lower water temperature, cooler water brings less evaporation (reduced rainfall), warmer temperatures and in Australia causing potential drought and fire.

La Nina Build-up of cooler-than-normal waters in the tropical Pacific, the area of the Pacific Ocean between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.

- Unusually strong, eastward-moving trade winds and ocean currents bring this cold water to the surface, a process known as upwelling

- These strong trade winds cause warmer water across the western pacific

- Due to higher water temperatures, heated water causes increased evaporation and formation of clouds, causing increased rainfall in Australia

Lithosphere

Earth Changing Processes Tectonic Forces Tectonic Forces are disturbances in the Earth’s crust that result from the Earth’s internal energy and created physical features such as mountains and volcanoes

- Plate tectonics are sections of the Earth’s crust that move about as distinct unit on the asthenosphere on which they rest

- Created large land masses separated by oceans and seas - Causes continental drift and can be lines to ecosystem changes as landmasses “drift”

into different climatic belts - Creates processes such as plate convergence, divergence and subduction and resultant

forces of uplift

Movement of Tectonic Plates

Divergent Tectonic plates separate

- At the points where tectonic plates separate new crust is created - As the plates move apart, molten fills the gap creating mid ocean

ridges - When continental plates drift apart rift valleys and block / fault

mountains are formed (e.g. African Rift Valley)- When oceanic plates drift apart the ocean floor spreads (E.G. the

Red Sea)- Further movement between tectonic plates can eventually create

oceans (E.G. the Atlantic Ocean)

Convergent Tectonic plates are moving towards each other

Colliding oceanic and continental plate: - Oceanic plate subducts beneath continental plate - At the point of subduction deep ocean trenches are created - Earthquakes are likely at the point of subduction.

E.G Andes Mountains

Colliding oceanic plates:- Older/denser oceanic plate subducts - Weakness in the Earth’s crust causes molten lava to escape to the

surface. This forms islands of volcanic mountains which are parallel to the ocean trenches formed at the subduction point.

- Earthquakes are likely at the point of subduction.E.G the Philippines and Japan

Colliding continental plates:- Unable to subduct if they are the same weight

- No Volcanism- When the plates collide the Earth’s crust folds, crinkles and

buckles to create mountain ranges.- Earthquakes occur over a broad area

E.G. Himalayan Mountain Ranges were formed due to the collusion of the Indian Continental Plate and Eurasian Continental Plate.

TransformPlates pass each other at a single vertical fault line

- The release of pressure caused by the plates sliding creates Earthquakes

- Also creates friction and cracking of the Earth’s surface at the fault line.

Landforms created by tectonics

LANDFORM EXPLANATION IMPACT ON LIHOSPHEREFault mountain Diverge

- Created from faults which causes whole rock masses to break away from each other

- On one side of the break rocks rise and on the other side of the fault line the rocks sink down

- At the point where blocks are separating the Rift Valley are created at the lower point

-

Fold mountains Converge

- Created through tectonic plates colliding - Produce folded rock layers and compression of rock layers

Dome Mountains Transform

- Formed by volcanism and due to the weakness of the tectonic plate

- At the point of the weakness, the magma rises and causes rock layers to bend

- The tectonic plate is still strong which means the magma cannot reach to the surface

- Bending of rock layers - Creating a dome shape

mountain due to the bending of rock layers

Gradational processes Tectonics cause earth’s surface to be uneven and sometimes even ‘pushed up’ while gradational processes work to carve out landforms and ‘smooth out’ the surface of the Earth

Denudation - Denudation is the “wearing away of earth’s surface” - Involves weathering and erosion

Weathering Weathering can be defined as the physical disintegration or chemical decomposition of rocks and minerals at or within the earth’s surface caused by atmospheric and biological agents

- Weathering involves the breakdown of rock material - Exposed rock material is broke up and is then detached

Erosion Erosion is the transportation of detached material to lower elevations - Water is an agent of erosion, means that it is the result in the removal of

land - Fluvial processes are associated with the movement of water in rivers and

streams which result in erosion of landforms, movement of sediment and subsequent deposition on or in close proximity to the river bed

WEATHERING

EXPLANATION

Physical - This is the breaking up of rocks and minerals into smaller parts, however, there chemical composition does not change

Chemical - Involves the breaking down or composition of rocks due to exposure of water, oxygen and carbon dioxide

- MAIN PROCESSES OF FLUVIAL EROSIONAbrasion - The erosion of the river bottom and the riverbank by

material carried by the river itselfAttrition - The rocks and pebbles being carried by the river crash

against each other, wearing them down to become smaller, rounded pebbles

Corrosion - The Chemical erosion of the rocks of the riverbank by the slightly acidic water

- This occurs in streams running through rocks such as chalk and limestone

Hydraulic Action

- The water forces air to be trapped and pressured into cracks in the rocks on the bank of the river

- This constant pressure eventually causes the rocks to crack and break apart

- This can cause enormous quantities of poorly consolidated alluvial material (sand, salt, gravel) especially during floods

Mass Movement

Downhill movement of cliff material under the influence of gravity.Landslides Rock and soil slide quickly down steep slopes

- Most destructive: can be caused by earthquakesMudflows Rapid downhill movement of mixture of water, rock and soil

- Can occur after heavy rains in normally dry area - Can be caused by earthquakes

Slump Mass of rock and soil suddenly slips down slope and moves in one big chunk- Often occurs when water soaks bottom of clay soil

Creep Cry slow downhill movement of rock and soil caused by freezing and thawing in rocks below soil - Objects in soil begin to tilt

Deposition Sediments, soil and rocks are added to a landform or land mass - Wind, ice, water, and gravity transport previously weathered surface material,

which, at the loss of enough kinetic energy in the fluid, is deposited, building up layers of sediment.

Surface/running water

Water carries the particles which are deposited. -

Ocean Waves

Shoreline deposition: Waves lose energy and slow down, causing material such as sand, rock, coral and shells to accumulate alone the shore. This forms beaches.

Offshore deposition: Sediment is deposited beyond the shoreline by currents and waves, causing sandbars, barrier spit or exposed sand ridges.

Wind Wind loses energy and slows, causing it to drop sediment. - Often occurs when wind has to move around and obstacle - Leads to the accumulation of sediment such as sand dunes

or loess Ice Glacial drift and the melting of glaciers release sediment which

was once frozen in their ice. Orographic Effect

Air masses are forced to flow over high topography. As air rises over mountains, it cools and water vapor condenses. As a result, it is common for rain to be concentrated on the windward side of mountains, and for rainfall to increase with elevation in the direction of storm tracks.

Hydrosphere

Operation of the water cycle

The “Hydrological Cycle” or water cycle,. Is a set of processes in which water moves between the spheres. Precipitation All forms of moisture, which fall from the sky.

- Rain, hail, sleet and snow Precipitation that falls onto the land surface is the natural cause of “runoff”

Runoff Movement of water across the land surface, ending up in creeks and rivers. - Runoff must occur if infiltration does not absorb all the water that reaches

the land surface from precipitation in a given area. - The lower the rate of infiltration, the higher the rate of runoff.

Infiltration The absorption of water into the ground through permeable soils. - Infiltration contributes to the underground water table.- Infiltration is useful for maintaining sub soil moisture and stream flows in

dry times when runoff has stopped.Condensation The change of the physical state of matter from the gas phase to the liquid

phase due to a cold surface coming into contact with humid air

Evaporation Type of vaporisation that occurs in the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gas phase as a direct result of solar radiation and head

Transpiration Process which moisture is carried through plants from roots to small poured on the underside of leaves, where it changes to vapour and is released to the atmosphere Essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves

Floods Occur when an overflow of water submerges land that is usually dry - Often caused by heavy rainfall, rapid snowmelt, storm surges from tropical cyclone,

tsunami in coastal areas - Increase in rainfall and lack of adequate infiltration and run off options leads to floods

Fluvial Floods (rivers)

Water level in a river, lake or stream rises and overflows onto the surrounding banks, shores and neighboring land. 

Pluvial Floods (flash floods and surface water)

Surface water floods: urban drainage system is overwhelmed and water flows out into streets and nearby structures.Flash floods :intense, high velocity torrent of water triggered by torrential rain falling within a short amount of time

Coastal Flood (storm surge)

High winds from a windstorm force water onshore

Drought

Period of time when an area or region experiences below-normal precipitation. - Lack of adequate precipitation can cause reduced soil moisture or groundwater,

diminished stream flow, crop damage, and a general water shortage Meteorological

Dry weather patterns dominate an area

Hydrological Low water supply becomes evident, especially in streams, reservoirs, and groundwater levels, usually after many months of meteorological drought.

Agricultural Crops become affectedSocioeconomic

Supply and demand of various commodities to drought

Biosphere

Biodiversity The variety of plant and animal life in the world or in a particular habitat.

Food chain A series of organisms each dependent on the next as a source of food.

Food web 1. A system of interlocking and interdependent food chains.

Biophysical interactions CASE STUDY Daintree Rain Forest

- World’s largest continuous tropical rainforest

- North East Coast of QLD, located 16 degrees south of the Equator intertropical convergence zone Biophysical Interactions of the F our Spheres

Water Cycle ATMOSPHERE: Average precipitation levels of 999.9mm in 2019, the “wet season” occurs between December and April- Atmospheric features interact with the hydrosphere, functioning to

maintain the water cycle

HYDROSPHERE: As water from precipitation becomes heated, evaporation occurs, leading to increased humidity and the formation of clouds. This causes subsequent release of precipitation back into the rainforest.

LITHOSPHERE: Evapo-transpiration relating to the lithosphere occurs, as plants draw water from the soil to support growth and later release moisture during photosynthesis.- Water is evaporated from aerial parts of plants such as leaves and stems,

contributing towards precipitation

Biodiversity - 1,200 square kilometres- 902 breeds of trees, 3000 plants - 12,000 insects, 30% of frogs and reptile species, 430 species of bird life - 80 endemic species Idiot Fruit, Tree Kangaroos

HYDROSPHERE: These elements of the biosphere rely on the continuous flow of water through the hydrosphere/water cycle to survive

Topography LITHOSPHERE: Mountain ranges comprised of metamorphic rocks, have been formed due to growing pressures within the mantle pushing on the Earth’s crust

BIOSPHERE: Mountains and upland areas consist of high altitude cloud forests, relying on moisture from lower cloud cover and precipitation from hydrosphere. - Great Dividing Range also extends into areas of the Daintree Rainforest,

supporting montane forests and vine-fern thickets.

HYDROSPHERE: Changes in elevation interact with atmospheric processes, causing the orographic effect- As air masses flow over high topography, air cools and water vapour

condenses, causing higher levels of rain to be concentrated on the windward side of mountain

Environmental Issues, Management Strategy and Impact

Issue Strategy Impact Use of land for residential development

Deforestation linked to the purchase and clearing of land zoned for development potential.

Loss of Habitat As a result of deforestation

Buy Back Programs Gov. and organisations such as Rainforest Rescue purchase property within the Daintree Region and return them back to the Daintree National Park, protecting the land from deforestation and associated threats - Organisations and

government have acquired

As land is returned to the Daintree National Park, areas are granted the highest level of land protection in Queensland - Densely-populated regions

place stress on surrounding ecosystems, due to demand for infrastructure and depletion of natural resource; ‘buy-back’ programs prevent sale of land for residential purposes and

Fragmentation Increased spatial isolation of flora and fauna due to residential land separating forest

75 properties within the Daintree Region

limit threats of deforestation and fragmentation linked to urban development

Invasive Species E.g: Feral Pigs and Pond Apple which increase soil disturbance and suppress native plant and animal species

Non-residual herbicides- Plant control has been

carried out in stages to allow natural regrowth of local plants within targeted Daintree regions.

- Non-residual herbicides are considered sustainable: deactivate quickly in the soil and have little ability to be absorbed by roots of growing plants, limiting effects of water or soil contamination.

- Foreign plants change the structure of ecosystems by suppressing native plant-life: removal will enable the restoration of local plant species

Climate Change Increasing temperatures 2.35% increase in carbon emissions predicted to cause maximum daily temperatures during January to surge from average of 32.3°C to 33.8°C by 2030.

Changing rainfall patterns As moisture in the atmosphere decreases, precipitation falls: Disrupts natural food chains, endangers vulnerable species; more frequent and intense heatwaves, leaves region susceptible to droughts and fire.

- 50,000 trees have been planted

- Bridge stone tyres have produced environmentally friendly bollards, designed to stop vehicles from damaging tree regeneration

- Aforementioned weed control process

- Trees provide a habitat and restore areas impacted by deforestation

- Trees absorb climate change and other greenhouse gases and produce oxygen; improve air quality

- Through transpiration, trees release water; contributes to formation of clouds and precipitation in W.C

- Trees capture rainfall in canopy and release into atmosphere through evapotranspiration

Trees help regulate atmospheric conditions and rainfall patterns

- Weed control prevent a dense thicket from being formed, thus assisting to maintain potential firebreaks and stop the spread of blazes.