PassingBumbleB 2013

9.1 Plant/Animal Production

(Describe physical characteristics of a soil including:- soil structure – determined by size, shape and arrangement of soil particles. Good soil structure has many aggregates. Aggregates form pores in the soil, increasing WHC and water and root penetration. Excessive clearing, cultivation and grazing can destroy soil structure. Poorly structured soils have low porosity and infiltration rates, difficult to cultivate, susceptible to erosion due to unbound particles and experience extreme temperature variation. Calcium opens up soil; magnesium pulls it together ( 7:1 ratio). Increasing OM through green manuring, mulching and crop rotations can help maintain soil structure.- texture – refers to the proportions of sand, silt and clay in soil. Linked to particle size which influences adhesion and cohesion of soil due to differences in surface area. Influences soil strength, aggregation, tillage, drainage and infiltration. Sandy soils have high water drainage and permeability; it does not hold nutrients. Loam soils have sand silt and clay in proportion; mouldable but not sticky and easiest to cultivate. Clay soils have high WHC due to sheet structure and large SA; swelling and shrinking of clay generates cracks in soil for roots to penetrate. Due to negative charge, clay particles hold onto nutrients. - porosity – amount of space around mineral grains that can be filled by water or air. These contribute to the soil’s water permeability and root growth. Large, visible pores are called macropores. Applying gypsum (calcium sulphate) opens up soil quickly.- bulk density – is the weight of the whole soil, including air and organic matter. Note: particle density is just the weight of sand silt and clay.) (Describe chemical characteristics of a soil including- soil pH – indicates the alkalinity (7-14pH) or acidity (1-6pH) of soil. Ideal ph: 6-7. Determines mineral availability and microbial activity. pH can be altered by lime, sulphur and green-manuring. As pH decreases, essential elements become unavailable and toxic elements, such as aluminium which inhibits root growth, become soluble and increase to toxic levels. Fertilisers release hydrogen ions into the soil and high rainfall tends to leach calcium from soil. Hydrogen replaces calcium and hence increases acidity. Alkaline soils are less productive than neutral soils.- ion exchange capacity – also known as cation exchange capacity (CEC). Measures the number of cation equivalents that can exchange between the soil and soil solution. In general, higher CEC = higher fertility. OM, climate, pH and form and availability of nutrients affect CEC. Soils with clay and OM have high CEC.- Soil Carbon – a part of organic matter; four types: crop residues, particulate organic carbon, humus and recalcitrant organic carbon. Each fraction decomposes at different rates and contains different quantities of nutrients. High microbial activity and fallow periods with no plant inputs can result in loss of carbon. Increased nutrients, sunlight and water promotes carbon levels. Soil carbon is measured by weighing the sample, combusting it then weighing the sample again. Measuring the weight difference and calculating the percentage can give a rough idea of soil carbon. Usual 1%-nutrient status – macronutrients: phosphorous, nitrogen and potassium; micronutrients: boron, cobalt and zinc. Most nutrients occur as ions dissolved in soil solution. However, not all nutrients are available as they are combined with minerals, organic matter and other elements. The availability of each of these nutrients can affect plant growth. Increasing roots will increase nutrients available to plant. Affected by amount of clay in soil.)

(Fertilisers – can increase N content; also acidifies soil removing nitrogen fixing bacteria) (Rain – carbonic acid; pollutes waterways, acidifies soil; reduces carbon in air and soil) (Decomposition/waste – adds carbon to soil) (Carbon in animals) (Plants – decrease atmospheric carbon) (Irrigation/flooding – promotes denitrification) (Lightning ) (Denitrifying bacteria) (Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (from legumes) – increases N in soil) (Industry – emissions increase levels) (Carbon in air) (Illustrate the nitrogen cycle and the carbon cycle:Nitrogen CycleCarbon Cycle) (faeces) (roots) (N in plants) (Death/decay) (eaten) (N in animals) (Nitrates or ammonia in soil) (N in air)

(Perform a first-hand investigation to analyse and report on the physical and chemical characteristics of soil:Soil pH – add barium sulphate to soil then universal indicator.Soil texture – place sample of soil in hand, moisten and roll into a ball and then a ribbon or sausage. Coarse texture indicates presence of sand; the success of the ball or ribbon is proportional to percentage of clay in soil.PorosityBulk Density)

(Investigate the various sources of water and appropriate management of water use on farms:Sources of water for a farm include: river (irrigation), rain, dams, bores and tanks. As Australia’s climate is hot and dry, water should be efficiently utilised. Most water is lost through evaporation (94%) or run-off (4%). Only 2% of water soaks into the ground. In regard to irrigation, there are several different methods that can be used. Each has a different level of efficiency.Pulse Irrigation: water is switched on and off periodically to encourage absorption of water into soil.Flood Irrigation: water flows slowly through paddocks. Not efficient; loss to evaporation.Furrow Irrigation: water is guided through furrows in ground. Not efficient; loss to evaporation.Sprinkler Irrigation: water distributed through lateral or central booms sprinkler system. Efficient.Trickle/Drip Irrigation: water flows through a perforated pipe which is set up above or below the ground, resulting in slow distribution of water. Very efficient but expensive.) (Describe the influence of legislation and government regulations such as licensing on the availability and use of water for agricultural purposes:In the Murray Darling Basin is home to 35-45% of Australia’s farms and 65% of Australia’s irrigated land. Agriculture consumes lots of water. Top water consuming agricultural industries include: cotton, dairy, pasture and rice. To manage our water supply, the government has issued regulations on water allocations, particularly regarding irrigation. For example: a farmer needs a licence to pump water from a river to irrigate his crops. The pump also needs to be installed with a metre, which is intermittently checked by authorities to ensure that his water allocation is not exceeded. Rice production is also regulated: rice growers are only allowed to have 1/3 of their farm growing rice and only on approved grounds. They are also given a water allocation. )

(Describe the impacts of historical land use practices in the development of Australian agricultural systems:Agriculture uses the land to produce goods that are needed by humans. The practices that were undertaken to obtain these goods have impacted on the condition of the land. Aboriginal people managed the land for 40,000 years in such a way that the resources were never exhausted. They implemented some primitive agricultural practices such as cultivation (always left the soil fallow afterwards to restore fertility) but extensively used firestick agriculture which promoted the growth of fire resistant plants and open grasslands. Aboriginal people relied on detailed knowledge of the land and developed a strong spiritual connection with it. As Australia was colonised, European farming was implemented and new species of animals and plants were introduced. Large areas of woodland were cleared and intensive cultivation and grazing took place. This especially grew in response to Australia’s entering international markets for agriculture. For example: the introduction of the Merino sheep and rust resistant wheat allowed Aus. Agriculture to boom. As pioneering agriculture failed to master the dry, eroded land of Australia, agronomic science took over with the introduction of new technologies such as irrigation, fertilisers, chemicals and synthetic hormones, to improve profitability. Consequently, these methods exploited the land and resulted in its degradation: poor fertility and soil structure, polluted water ways, environmental problems such as salinity and soil erosion. In more recent years, there has been some push towards sustainable agriculture in order to restore the productivity of the land. Organisations such as Landcare have encouraged farmers to adopt sustainable techniques such as crop rotation, utilising wind breaks and implementing farming suitable to their soil type (land classification).)

(Describe farming/agricultural practices that have affected water quality and quantity:FactorEffect on water quality and quantityFertilisersRuns off into water bodies; pollutant causes eutrophication which lowers oxygen content in waterRelease hydrogen ions in soil; this washes into rivers and lowers pH of water = reduced quality = less water available for useStockRemove grasses and plants surrounding waterways; eroded soil washes into waterways and lowers quality; also promotes run-off of chemicals = reduced quality but increased quantity due to run-offEffluent(dam where manure wastes are collected and anaerobically broken down, later used on crops/paddocks; must be diluted to prevent impact)High in soluble nutrients; washes into waterways or water table and causes algal blooms leading to eutrophication = decreased qualityChemicalsIf in waterways, release toxins making water unsafe to drink; can lead to bioaccumulation of poisonsCan promote algae growthGrassed waterwaysFilter water that passes through; prevents particulates from being suspended in water, improving water quality. Eg: CambungiProduce oxygen in waterTakes up water, minimally reducing quantity for agricultural useRiparian zonesEroded soil pollutes water – water quality reducedAlso aids leaching of chemicals into waterDamsIncreases water quantity available for useWater quality decreases due to stock use (erosion)IrrigationIncreases soil run-off into river; aids effluents, chemicals and fertilisers, reduces water qualityNote: increasing OM increases water table as water sticks more to the soil than it erodes.)

(Investigate the practices that have led to one important soil degradation problem, the outcomes of these practices on the land/water system and current recommended procedures to alleviate the problem:Salinity, particularly in the Wheat Belt and Murray Darling Basin area, is a consequent soil degradation problem from deforestation (during Australia’s agricultural expansion) and flood irrigation practices in agriculture. Without deep-rooted plants to maintain its volume, the underground water table rose over the years, bringing to the surface salts from the soil and rendering the land waterlogged or too saline for agriculture production (salt in root zone). Flood irrigation accelerated the process by increasing the load of water percolating through the soil layers to the water table. Salt left from the evaporation of the water can be washed away by rain into river systems, polluting the water system. Several practices have been developed to alleviate dryland salinity: strategic subsoil drainage of saline water to saline river systems by establishing furrows, physically pumping water from water table to evaporating ponds (very costly), changing from flood irrigation to efficient drip irrigation, planting native trees on farm (such as along borders) to reduce water table (long term). )

(Describe techniques used to manage soil fertility:FactorImpact on soil fertilityConservation tillage(Conserves soil through minimum tillage techniques. Eg: using one point ploughs which fractures soil rather than turning it over)Limits soil loss, leaving more topsoil which is the most fertileDoes not destroy soil structure; increases organic carbon (buries plant material) = humus = holds more nutrientsOrganic matter(Any material that contains carbon; breaks down into humus)Increases WHCEncourages microbes to recycle essential materials and elements, increasing fertilityHolds more nutrients = improved fertilityGreen manuring(Involves ploughing plants back into the soil during flowering stage as flowers are the most nutritious and contain protein for microbe food)Increases carbon and nutrient levels in soilIncreases organic matterCrop rotationEnsures soil is not completely depleted by plants using up the same elements in the soil year after year.Allows soil to be replenished in between rotationsDeep rooted cropsCrops can access more nutrients, increasing availability of nutrientsDeep roots bring to surface nutrients deep in soil also assists to manage salinity by reducing water tableImproves soil structure; increases OM and space for new rootsOrganic fertilisers (contain carbon)Increase carbon and nutrient levels in soilCalcium carbonate improves soil fertility, buffers pH and improves soil structureInorganic fertilisersRelease hydrogen ions, decreasing pH and hence reducing nutrient availability and microbes = decrease in OM and recycled elementsCan also increase soil nutrients to improve plant growthPasture lay(paddock that contains a non-monoculture pasture)Prevents erosion which aids nutrient leaching into waterways, depleting fertilityProduces humus; allows soil to replenish nutrient contentImproves soil structure as when plants die the roots leave porous spacesNutrient Budgeting(involves balancing nutrients taken from the soil and the amount returned)Ensures that the fertility of soil is maintained.)

(Assess the factors involved in long-term sustainability of agricultural systems including Australian land classification/capability and whole-farm planning:Class 1: highly fertile, deep soils; low erosion hazard; regular cultivation and intensive agriculture can be sustained. Tend to be near markets, producing short-shelf life goods. Eg: Liverpool plains.Class 2: soils deep to moderately deep; moderate to high productivity; suitable for regular cultivation (limit to continuous cropping) and most agriculture. Eg: rivers and coast; east of Great Dividing Range.Class 3: moderate productivity; soil factors may be limiting for some crops; cultivation only suitable in rotation with pastures; contour banks may be required to control erosion. Eg: Riverina.Class 4: suitable for grazing, not cultivation; low productivity; highly susceptible to erosion; poor soils and soil structure. Eg: Tumbarumba.Class 5: suitable for light grazing; very high erosion; very poor, unsustainable soils and soil structure. Eg: Bourke.Land capability classifications is a scheme used to determine suitable land use practices for differing landforms to promote sustainability of agricultural systems. By assisting farmers to identify suitable agricultural practices for their land, agricultural systems can be sustained and not depleted, promoting long-term sustainability.Whole farm planning involves the management of a farm as a whole, integrating its resources into the planning process. For example: in a mixed enterprise, applying manure from stock as fertiliser for crops or rotating between Lucerne and wheat to efficiently maximise water usage (wheat absorbs excess water from lucerne). Whole farm planning allows for more effective management and sustainable techniques.)

(Identify tensions between sustainability and short-term profitability in farming systems:Short-term profitability refers to farming practices, such as continuous cropping, that result in the farmer gaining maximum profit but simultaneously degrading the soils. This results in low fertility which leads to low production and increased financial costs, notably fertilisers and chemicals, to supplement poor soil structure and fertility. Sustainable practices do not degrade the land but maintain and improve the resources. Farmers tend to avoid sustainable practices due to the long-term commitment and methods that do not initially result in high profit. However, using sustainable practices, such as rotational grazing and utilising the land capability classification system, will generate a steady profit and increase overall farm profitability and thus sustainability.)

(Role of individual farmers, the community and government in reducing the effects of agriculture in conserving water, protecting waterways and managing water quality:Farmers: responsible for implementing sustainable land use practices to conserve and protect land resources. Eg: building wind breaks, utilising crop rotation, managing and avoiding practices that lead to soil erosion. Farmers must be supported to make sustainable decisions through provision of information and incentives (eg: profit).Communities: are responsible for the management of their local water catchment and related issues in their area. Landcare is a national, not-for-profit organisation that encourages and provides leadership and information for communities, farmers and corporate farms to take steps in becoming sustainable through volunteer and incentive/funded projects. For example: removing unwanted weeds from around waterways, rehabilitating degraded areas to reduce erosion and planting trees to reduce salinity by decreasing the water table.Government: the government is responsible for research and distributing reliable information to organisations such as Landcare and the Catchment Management Authority regarding sustainable practices. The CMA is an extension of the government and aims to protect the Murrumbidgee catchment area.. Provides funding and assistance to projects that manage environmental degradation problems such as salinity and erosion. Also works with and advises farmers and communities on practices to conserve and protect their soils and waterways.)

Plants

(Identify root nodules on a legume and outline their significance in the management of soil fertility:Legumes, such as peas, white clover and beans, are plants with heart-shaped leaves and root nodules. These nodules consist of rhizobium bacteria that convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates in the soil. This leads to an increase in nitrogen content in the soil which results in enhanced plant growth, particularly grasses, and accounts for legumes’ high protein levels (high protein feed for stock). Legumes can hence be used to improve soil fertility in regard to nitrogen content.) (Describe the following process’ effect on plant growth:Note: growth involves an increase in size of the plant; cell division. Development involves the change in the tissues of the plant; the stages.Photosynthesis – process that occurs in the leaves of plants with the function to convert solar energy into chemical energy stored in the bonds of glucose. Glucose is needed to produce new cells in growth. Photosynthesis is affected by: light intensity and photoperiod (cannot function without), availability of carbon dioxide and water, temperature (high temp = high water loss to transpiration – stomates close and photosynthesis may cease), wind (affects rate of transpiration), rate of transpiration (pulls up water for use), stage of plant development, canopy structure, leaf area (increased area = increased rate). Increased photosynthetic material = increase in growth. Increase in stems, flowers and ageing leaves (non-photosynthetic) = decrease in growth.Respiration – process by which glucose is broken down to release energy for the plant to use: oxygen + glucose carbon dioxide + water + energy. It provides energy for maintenance and special functions and reduces the amount of material available for growth. Respiration is affected by: availability of oxygen and glucose (hence rate of photosynthesis), rate of growth, stage of plant development, temperature (increased temp = increased rate) and availability of nutrients. Net Assimilation Rate - NAR measures the increase in dry matter in a plant in respect to the amount of photosynthesizing material (unit area of leaf) in a given period. Organic material that is not used up in respiration is used to create new plant cells (growth): for growth to occur, the rate of photosynthesis must exceed the rate of respiration. NAR is thus the measure of the growth of plants resulting from the difference between photosynthesis and respiration. Water and Nutrient Uptake – water and nutrients, such as nitrogen, magnesium, and iron are essential for chlorophyll function and the former for photosynthesis. Deficiencies will result in reduced photosynthetic (and hence organic matter production) rate. )

(Outline the phases of growth of one agricultural monocotyledon or dicotyledon used in agriculture:Wheat:Vegetative Phase - grazing can only be applied in this stage. If it is grazed during the reproductive phase, the node (and the seed above it) may be lost. It takes a few days before the next node takes over.Germination: first root emerges as seed absorbs water and swells. Two-leaf stage: The seminal root system and coleoptile (shoot first lead) develop, followed by the growth of another leaf. Tillering: crown node forms, from which the major (nodal) root system grows. The phase continues with the growth of more stems and tillers.Reproductive Phase – vernalisation occurs (2-7°C for 14-28 days); marked by change in the terminal bud (the first node on the main tiller) changing from producing leaves to inflorescence (swells). Stem ceases to grow (multiply in cells) and elongates along internodes; lots of water is required to fill the cells to support shape. Boot stage: flag leaf extends and swells as the inflorescence reaches the flag leaf; anthers become visible (anthesis). pollination and fertilisation take place.Ear emergence: ears begin to emerge above the flag leaf ligule.Flowering: kernels form, watery ripe.Milk and dough development: Plant takes all the nutrients from the soil. It then begins to die back from the tips to the centre, drawing back nutrients to fill the glooms in the seed, filling from the middle, the bottom then the top head. The flag leaf is the last to be drawn back and holds 43% of potential yield. Seeds turn from milky-dough to dough stage.Ripening: seeds harden and dry out.The wheat plant as a whole dies and dries out.)

(Perform a first-hand investigation to determine the effect of light on plant growth:)

(Identify native and introduced pasture species and describe their role in pasture production systems:Native grass species (indigenous to Aus.) are drought resistant (excellent drought feed), require minimal inputs (eg: fertilisers), adapted to surviving heat, useful in areas of low rainfall. However, they tend to less nutritious and palatable (hard, lignified stems) than introduced species. If incorrectly managed, less desirable native grass species may dominate; carries little stock due to small leaf area. Examples: Red grasses – grow on a variety of soil types; holds structure in pastures. Wallaby grass – high grazing value. Introduced species prefer highly fertile soils (require lots of input) but produce quality feed if given favourable conditions; fill spring feed gap and follow winter growth pattern. Examples: Rye grass – high pasture value. Lucerne – valuable pasture species. Cocksfoot – used to hold soil structure in grassed water way.)

(Explain the significance of a diverse pasture mix:Feed gap is the gap between the animal’s nutritional requirements and what is available for them to consume. Having a diverse pasture mix (that is, a variety of species that grow/produce foliage in different seasons) is the solution to filling the feed gap throughout the entire year. For example: native pastures’ growth is summer dominant; introduced species tend to be winter dominant, only peaking in pasture growth towards spring. This results in a winter feed gap and hence loss in productivity and increased input costs for additional feed. Sowing oats into the pasture is the solution to fill this feed gap as it grows during the winter, but not the summer. Diverse mixture = benefits pasture and animals. For example: legumes increases nitrogen in soil, improving fertility; lucerne crops are high in protein, beneficial for meat production.)

(Outline the effects of plant hormones:HormoneWhere producedEffectExample of commercial productAuxinsGerminating seeds, young leaves, meristematic tissue (buds, root tips, cambium layer), developing flowers and fruitElongation and thickening of cells of stem and roots; fruit development and dominance of terminal bud2-4-D: estercide, amicide and MCPAIndoleacetic acidApplied when crop is elongating and to stimulate reproductive phase. Used as a flower preservativeGibberellinsGerminating seeds and young stemsGrowth and cell division; flowering, stem growth and breaks seed dormancyGibberellic acid.Applied to stimulate growth and maturation of plants.CytokininsGrowing roots, developing seeds, cambial tissue (in stem)Cell division and root growthKinetin Used as a flower preservativeEthyleneYoung growing tissue, ageing leaves, ripening fruitPromotes ripening of fruit and ageing of leaves.Ethylene gasUsed to ripen cold store fruitsAbscisic Acid: The Stress Hormone This hormone is produced by a plant when it undergoes stress. Abscisic acid carries out a number of functions including: closure of stomata (by rendering guard cells flaccid and hence protection of cells from dehydration), root growth, bud development/dormancy, seed maturation/dormancy (can extend dormancy to ensure bud/seed sprouts/germinates when conditions are good), abscission, seedling growth (to help it survive. Eg: thickening of epidermal cells in cold weather), apical dominance (prevention of the growth of lateral branches/ adventitious roots to grow ‘straighter’) as well as influencing the production of other hormone accordingly. Often used to assist harvesting of fruits.Abscission is the dropping of fruit and leaves. Naturally, osmotic pressure (osmosis) and nutrients flows from one cell to another to maintain turgidifity. If one cell is lacking, it takes it from another, which results in a repeating cycle. In order for the fruit to drop off, nutrient flow needs to be stopped. Abscisic acid is secreted to make a line of cells before the stem of the fruit/leaf to go flaccid, preventing nutrient flow and resulting in the cells of the stem to go flaccid as well. The two flaccid cells separate neatly, visually seen as the dropping of the fruit/leaf.)

(Explain how plant hormones may be used to manage plant production:Hormones coordinate plant growth and development. Their action depends on concentration (bell curve). Technology and knowledge of hormones have allowed farmers to manipulate plant growth to their advantage, outside of seasonality and similar factors. While this can result in increased plant production, this method does not take into consideration sustainability (increased growth = increased need for nutrients in soil) and ethicality for consumers. Hormones can be used as:- Herbicides: the excess presence of specific hormones can stimulate the abnormal functioning of unwanted plants and its subsequent death.- In tissue culturing: bud from a parent plant can be grown on media containing hormones to cause the tissue to grow and differentiate into genetically identical plants to parent plant.- Prompt root growth on cuttings: dipping cuttings into a prepared hormone solution can result in increased root growth which leads to quicker establishment of the plant and broader ability to take up nutrients and thus support more rapid growth.- To thin fruit crops: hormone spray reduces number of fruit on tree, allowing for the remaining fruit to be larger and more marketable. Eg: ethylene – to ripen some of the fruit and cause abscises.- To ripen fruit: to prevent bruising during transport, fruits are harvested when they are not quite ripe (still hard). When at market, fruits are treated with ethylene gas to ripen them for sale.)

(Describe how light, temperature, available moisture, oxygen/carbon dioxide ratios, wind and biotic factors affect plant growth development and production:FactorEffectManagementLight+ allows for photosynthesis to occur, but only during dayGreen house (install lights)Growing plants appropriate to photoperiod (day length) of areaCanopy management through management of density and sowing rateTemperature+ allows for evaporative cooling of plant; increases transpiration which allows for mineral and water uptake from roots- high temperatures = high transpiration rate = loss of water, closure of stomates, possible cease of photosynthesis- low temperatures = damage delicate flower partsGreenhouseSowing crops at suitable times of the yearAvailable Moisture+ water carries dissolved nutrient for plant to use, supporting growth and photosynthesis (glucose production)- water log = drown plants, removes air from soil- lack of water = plant wilts, closes stomates, decrease in rate of photosynthesisDiverting excess water by using furrowsManaging irrigationDevelop good soil structure to have good water holding capacity and drainageWind+ increases transpiration rate by increasing concentration gradient = increased photosynthesis rate- disperses undesirable plant seeds- damage tall cropsInstalling wind breaksSpraying weedsUsing shorter breeds of crops)

(FactorEffectManagementOxygen/carbon dioxide ratioIncreased oxygen = increased respiration rate, decreased photosynthesis rate = less organic materials for growth but more energy for specialised functionsIncreased carbon dioxide = increased photosynthesis rate, decreased respiration rate = increased organic materials available for growth of new cellsGreenhouse (pumping in oxygen, for example)Managing canopy by spreading out plants to increase airflowSoils+ good fertility level can support rapid and quality plant growth- low fertility levels will limit growth and quality of product as not enough nutrients are available to support cell division+ good soil structure has lots of pores for plant to breathe, good water holding capacity, space for root growth = support growth of plantCation exchange capacity of soil will influence what elements are available for plant to use for growthUsing sustainable techniques such as rotational grazing to maintain good soil structureMaintaining/building organic matterAdding fertilisers (but not in excess to avoid acidity of soil)Biotic factorsWeeds. Eg: Paterson’s curse, Scotch Thistle- compete with plants for water, soil nutrients, light = decreased/limited plant growth- contaminate product = decreased quality- harbour diseasesSpraying weedsPests. Eg: mouse, weevil- damage plant and contaminate product, reducing yield and quality and quantityPesticidesIntegrated pest managementGrazers+ can be used to increase root growth = increased access to nutrients and water in soil = increased growth- can reduce yields and cause setbacks in growth (such as by grazing flowers and removing potential yield)Manage grazing to affect plant positively such as by implementing strategies such as rotational grazing and only grazing when suitable for plantsMicrobes and invertebrates+ fix nitrogen for plant to use, break down organic matter, convert nutrients to aqueous form for plants to take up- some cause root diseases, inhibiting plant’s access to nutrients = decreased growth and quality of productManage soil structure, acidity and organic matter to create an environment that attracts beneficial microbesDiseases- Inhibit plant growth and development- can damage or kill plant = reduced yieldChemical control of diseasesManaging weeds and canopy to prevent spread of disease)

(Investigate how farmers manage plant competition through plant density and weed control strategies:Planting seeds too closely together will result in a high plant density. As there are many plants in one area, competition for nutrients, sunlight and water is increased, particularly is the plants next to each other influence each other’s microclimate (eg: by shading the other). To reduce competition and thus maximise plant production it is important for the farmer to plant the seeds adequately spaced apart. This additionally ensures that there is sufficient airflow between the plants which will help transpiration = uptake of nutrients from soil and avoids interference with microclimates. Note that planting the seeds too far apart will not maximise production (bell curve).Weed control strategies include:- chemical control: applying a selective herbicide that will only kill the specific weeds is preferable. Effective but is expensive, may kill beneficial plants, contaminate the environment and must be used in conjunction with other methods to avoid building up resistance.- biological control: involves using natural predators and pathogens to control the weed. It is beneficial in that it is selective, has minimal resistance, self-perpetuates and does not contaminate the environment. However, it is not widely available for every problem, does not eradicate the organism (only maintains at a manageable level) and is time and labour expensive.- grazing: stock animals will graze the desirable plants, resulting in the growth of larger root systems (plant dies back roots to grow new leaves, plant grows back new roots through the old pathways that are even bigger). This gives the desirable plants a competitive advantage over the weeds and reduces space for weeds to establish.) (Describe sources of competition in plant communities:Competition is a type of plant interference that may adversely affect the quality and quantity of the crop product. Plant competitors may compete for water, sunlight (through climate modification such as by shading another plant) and nutrients in the soil. Some competitors may have allellopathy, releasing chemicals to kill competitor plants.WeedsMay harbour diseases, contaminate product, attract insects and pests, release toxic chemicals and increase production costs in control methods. Weed seeds may be carried by wind, animals or machinery.Undesirable plantsAny plant that is not the desired crop. Seeds may be carried over by wind from a nearby crop field or by shared machinery.Desirable plantsThe farmer may plant the seeds too closely together resulting in a high plant density. The consequence of high plant density is plant competition.)

(Plant:- poor nutrition = susceptible to RLEM- high plant density = higher degree of spread of RLEM- RLEM = feeds on cell cytoplasm = damages plant and reduces production outputRLEM:- high population no. = attack plant- resistance to chemicals = unaffected by chemical treatment = continued feeding on plant Environment:- autumn/spring weather = favourable for RLEM growth = increased populations.- winter/summer weather = unfavourable for RLEM growth = decreased populations) (Investigate the complex interaction between the problem organism, the host and the environment for one plant disease: Each of the following components always affects the outcome of the other:) (Perform a first-hand investigation to determine the effects of planting density on plant growth and/or yield:Materials:- nine pots of identical shape, size and colour- potting mix- wheat seeds- green house- water- permanent markerMethods:- fill the nine pots with an equal amount of potting mix and split the pots into groups of three: A, B and C.- In each group label one pot ‘10’, another ’50’ and the last ‘100’.- For the three pots labelled ‘10’, count out ten wheat seeds for each pot and sow.- For the three pots labelled ‘50’, count out 50 wheat seeds for each pot and sow.- For the three pots labelled ‘100’, count out one hundred wheat seeds for each pot and sow.- Place all pots into the green house in the same area.- Everyday give each of the plants the same amount of water and measure and record each pot’s leaf index weekly.Result: the pots with 10 and 100 wheat seeds didn’t have very high leaf indexes; the pots with the 50 wheat seeds had the highest leaf index.Conclusion: very low or very high planting density hinders and reduces plant growth and yield.)

(Define integrated pest management(IPM)Outline IPM’s ability to reduce the problems of pesticides and chemical resistance in target organisms:Integrated pest management (IPM) is the technique of using multiple management tools, including social, cultural, chemical and biological methods, to manage pests in the least ecologically disruptive way and within economically acceptable levels. As IPM uses multiple management tools, the need for chemicals is reduced, minimising opportunities for the build-up of chemical resistance in pest populations and thus reducing pesticide and chemical resistance in the target organisms. For example: IPM includes preventative measures that prevent pest problems from developing such as supplying proper nutrition via fertiliser or soil management (OM) to crops. This will result in the optimal health of the crop, reducing likelihood of pests being attracted to the crop and damaging it and therefore reduce the need for chemical control to eliminate pest.) (Research using secondary sources an integrated pest management program for a plant production systemEvaluate an IPM program, naming the target organism and the plant hostTarget Organism: Red-legged Earth MitePlant Host: cloverCultural control:- grazing management or mowing = results in roots putting sugars in leaves to raise sugar levels in cells and sweetness = less likely to attract RLEM. RLEM only feeds on plant cells with low sugar in the cells (eg: result of fast growth or poor nutrition)Evaluation: does not require additional costs and is effective as a level of prevention; it does not remove the mite but makes it less palatable to the RLEM; not immediately effective.Biological control:- lady beetle larvae – eats RLEM and thus reduces RLEM populationsEvaluation: The biological method can only be manipulated through indirect means (ie: ensuring favourable environmental conditions for lady beetles), is not specific to RLEM and mat take many years to be effective. However, it is environmentally friendly.Chemical control:- spraying with an insecticide such as Le-mat – kills insect directly or systemically (makes plant toxic to RLEM). Evaluation: Chemical control is immediate, fast, has a known outcome, kills most mites and is effective until resistance builds up. It is costly, increased use = increased resistance risk and may kill beneficial insects and predators of RLEM.Evaluation: IPM uses a variety of techniques that increases sustainability of pest management and reduces the build-up of resistance to chemicals by supplementing and thus reducing chemical use with other methods. The biological control and cultural control are not immediately effective, which may be uneconomical for some situations where the clover crop production is in immediate danger to RLEM, and the biological control is not specific. However, utilising these two methods makes the IPM program more sustainable and effective in the long-term and reduces impact on the environment. )

(Outline plant breeding systems and their genetic basis:Explain how plant breeding is used to develop new plant varieties to improve product quality, yield and environmental adaptation:Selective BreedingInvolves the selection and breeding of plants with desirable characteristics. Increases the chances offspring to possess desirable characteristics, such as rust and drought resistance, by narrowing genetic variation- eliminates undesirable characteristics from population - continual selective breeding = new varieties with environmental adaptation or improved yieldsCross BreedingProduction of a new plant from two different parents. Offspring possesses a combination of the parent plants’ genes.- achieves hybrid vigour = offspring possess desirable traits from two different plant varieties = a new variety with desirable characteristicsHybrid BreedingProduction of a new plant from parents that have different genotypes and usually do not pollinate each other. Results in offspring with combination of genetic material from different plant species.- offspring possess desirable characteristics from both parents due to combination of genetic material. Chromosome coupling and embryo culture is used to overcome the sterility barrier = a new variety of plants with improved yields, product quality and environmental adaptation. Eg: triticaleGenetic EngineeringInvolves the manipulation of the plant’s genetic material (which determines the characteristics of the plant) to enhance or produce desirable characteristics and eliminate undesirable characteristics. This is done through exposure to radiation or chemical substances, reconstituting plants from single cells or by transferring genes from one species to another which all result in the alteration of genetic material.Genetic engineering has been quite successful and has resulted in higher yielding crops, drought and disease resistant plants and production of natural insecticides. Eg: Bt cotton = cotton inserted with gene to produce natural pesticide = insect resistance) (Explain how farmers can manage plant production systems to overcome environmental constraints:The environment is the surroundings in which the plant lives and largely determines the productivity of the plant production system. The farmer can plan and manage the system in a way to minimise or overcome environmental constraints:- Rainfall – insufficient rainfall = lower germination rate, slower growth, reduced yield or death of plant. Excessive rainfall = flooding, destruction, dislodging of crops and mouldy grain. Farmers can overcome this constraint by planting crops suitable to the growing season of their area or utilising irrigation.- Temperature – plays a role in stimulating germination, the growth and development of the plant and evapotranspiration rate. High temp = excessive evapotranspiration, damage delicate flowers and reduce yields. Low temp = frost which damages delicate flowers, reduces yields and germination rate and may cause death of plant. Farmers can plant crops that are suitable to their climate zone and at appropriate times of the year so that the crop’s development coincides with optimal temperatures or use greenhouses.- Wind – plays a role in pollinating plants but also increases evapotranspiration rates, erosion, incidence of weeds, pests and diseases and strong winds may damage tall plants. Farmers can manage wind by being mindful of plant density (close enough to break wind but far enough to allow for optimal convection), establishing windbreaks and choosing short plant varieties.)

(Interpret an agricultural pesticide label and relate it to safe practice and correct usage:It is important to read and follow instructions on pesticide labels to avoid harm to the farmer, the environment and other people. For example:- using protective equipment such as gloves or face masks- being mindful of use near waterways- storage of chemicals eg: cool dry place out of reach of children- flammability- exposure to sun- disposal eg: pressure rinse and dispose rinsate and containers in appropriate disposal pits- withholding periods for consumer health safety) (Describe the relationship between the ruminant and rumen microbes:Microbes in the rumen are anaerobic and include bacteria, protozoa (such as the ciliates) and rumen fungi. Their main function is to break down cellulose (by releasing the enzyme cellulase) in the animal’s diet so that the animal can access nutrients from the plant material. This mainly takes place in the rumen where plant material is fermented by the microbes. The microbes also serve as a source of protein for the animal as they are killed and digested when passing into the abomasum (microbial protein). Microbes in the ruminant digestive system are necessary for animal production as without rumen microbes, ruminant animals would not be able to access nutrients and necessary substances from plant material to carry out life processes and generate products.)Animals

(Compare the similarities and differences in the physiology of ruminant and monogastric digestion:RuminantMonogastricFood is broken down by physical chewing, acid of stomach and microbial fermentationFood broken down by physical chewing and acid in stomachOesophagus leads to the rumenOesophagus leads to the stomachMulti-chamber stomach: food initially enters the rumen where it is broken down by microbes. It is then passed into the reticulum and regurgitated as a bolus, chewed and the acidity reduced by neutralisation with saliva, then returns to the rumen. The food is then transferred to the omasum where the water is absorbed and then to the abomasum – the true stomach – where the microbes are killed by acid to become microbial protein before entering the intestinesSingle-chamber stomachWater removal occurs in omasumWater removal occurs in large intestineRuminants able to digest fibreFibre only used to aid removal of waste) (Design and explain a ration to meet the nutritional requirements of a selected animal for a particular stage of production:Animal/StageRationExplanationCalf60% hay31% grain8% malafos1% limeHay is easier to digest than silage and provides fibre for the animal which aids in digestion. Grain provides protein and energy for the developing animal. Malafos is an energy source (phosphorous + molasses) and provides some trace nutrients. Lime buffers pH of the stomach.Puberty40% hay50% grain8% malafos1% lime1% gran-amHigher energy content as during puberty the animal is growing at a more rapid rate. Gran-am is sulphate of ammonia and is a source of nitrogen which assists in the production of protein and microbial protein; necessary to supplement rapid growth.Mature10% silage75% grain8% malafos1% lime0.5% gran-am5% protein0.5% bicarbsodaMature animals can digest silage. High energy content to promote development of intramuscular fat. Protein content to supplement some growth.) (Construct a diagram to illustrate the energy losses associated with digestion and metabolism in animals:Gross energy (GE) = total amount of energy in feedstuff given to animal.Digestible energy (DE) = energy that is taken in by the animal and not lost as waste. Metabolisable energy (ME)= energy that is available for the animal to use to fuel functions.Net energy (NE) = energy that is not lost to metabolism to fuel other functions (eg: body temp, sound, lactation, urine/faeces) and can be used for growth (eg: wool, hide, meat); energy for maintenance and production.GEMinus faecal EDEMinus urinary EMEMinus heat ENEFood EnergyAbsorbed EnergyAvailable EnergyEnergy for maintenance and production) (Use nutritional data to determine the suitability of animal feeds in terms of energy and protein requirements for particular production stages for one monogastric and one ruminant:Roughages – such as hay, silage and pasture have relatively high fibre content which can be digested by ruminants to supply energy. Younger pastures and green forage crops are considered more succulent with a high percentage of water (up to 80%) and less fibre content = less efficient in providing energy.Concentrates – such as wheat, barley, oats and triticale have a high protein and energy content, suitable for meeting energy and protein needs for rapidly growing stock or for stock to put on more muscle.Protein animal products – such as meat meals and buttermilk have a high digestibility and protein content. Protein supplements are often fed to dairy cows to increase protein percentage in milk. )

(Compare the proportions of bone, muscle and fat at various stages of development in an animal and relate these to consumer needs:Around birth, the proportion of bone is high with fat and muscle very low in proportion. At puberty, the animal experiences rapid growth and development and the proportion of bone decreases with increased proportion of muscle. Once the animal reaches maturity, fat cover increases, resulting in an increase in proportion of fat with slight decrease in proportion of muscle and bone. These components are proportioned this way according to what is necessary for survival. As bones and muscle are more important to ensure survival, they are developed first with the organs. Once the animal has reached maturity, and its bones, muscles and reproductive organs have been developed, energy can now be devoted to fat stores = higher proportion of fat.Consumers often desire animals for their meat so slaughter of the animal occurs just after puberty when the animal has a high proportion of muscle. The domestic market desires meat with lean meat so slaughter takes place prior to the animal reaching maturity when it begins to put on a lot of fat cover. Export markets, such as the Japanese beef market, desire meat with high intramuscular fat so slaughter takes place after maturity when the animal has been given time to put on fat.)

(Evaluate management techniques available to farmers to manipulate growth and development:Hormone Growth Promotants (HGPs): HGP is a steroid sourced from testosterone to make animal grow faster and put on more muscle. Applied as a pellet injected into the ear to slowly release hormone into animal.Advantages:-Animals grow faster and put on more muscleDisadvantages:-Muscle growth on female cattle occurs around the front of the animal like the males, rather than naturally around the rump-When selling cattle, the use of HGP has to be declared-There are health concerns regarding food safetyEvaluation:- impressive and immediate control over the growth and development of animals but the consumer health concerns may outweigh the benefits and result in loss of profit from the stock as consumers prefer safer alternatives.Feed additives: such as providing protein or energy supplementsAdvantages:-Provides additional energy and protein for growth and development of animal.Disadvantages:-May be expensive to purchase and wasteful in some instances. For example: providing extra energy to adolescent stock = increased fat cover rather than intramuscular fat which can be undesirableEvaluation:-advantageous when applied appropriately.Genetics: involves selecting animal breeds with faster growth and development rate. Can be obtained by purchasing stock of a particular breed or selectively breeding/hybridising already owned stock.Advantages:-Results in a population of animals with fast growth and development rate as well as large muscle production.Disadvantages:-Using the latter method does not produce immediate results and is labour intensive- May be financially intensive- Hybrid animals are often infertileEvaluation:- does not require the use of chemicals or hormones which are often accompanied by health concerns (unless genetic engineering is used) = safer alternative to manipulate growth and development. However, the results are not immediate; this is a long-term strategy.)

(Identify factors that limit the fertility of farm animals:Genetics – some breeds (eg: Border-Leicester) are genetically predisposed to have high or low fertility rates or possess hereditary faults that inadvertently affect this. For example: in rams, genetics determines their serving capability, scrotal size, semen quality and libido. Selective breeding and culling can assist a farmer to increase the fertility of his/her farm animals.Environment – climate and season affects level of fertility in animals. Decreasing day length stimulates ovulation in many breeds of sheep, ensuring lambing in spring when there is abundant feed. Climatic extremes can stress the animal or impact their health, reducing fertility rate. For example: high temperature increases the incidences of miscarriages in sheep.Pests and diseases – these adversely affect the health of farm animals. Animals in poor health have low fertility rates. It is important for the farmer to apply management strategies to prevent pests and diseases from impacting his/her stock. Management – farmers are able to maximise the fertility of farm animals through management techniques. For example: drenching and vaccinating against disease and parasites, providing animals with adequate food, water and shelter, planning operations such as crutching and shearing well before mating, not using animals that are too young or too old. Poor management can lead to poor animal health and therefore lower fertility.Nutrition – supplying animals with proper nutrition ensures that they are in good health. Healthy stock are more fertile as they are capable of reproduction without hindering their own health. Flushing is a common technique where prior to joining female animals are given ample supply of food to increase their body weight and ovulation rate = increased fertility. Some feedstuffs, such as some varieties of subterranean clover, contain oestrogenic chemicals which reduce fertility rates.) (Describe how hormones regulate reproduction and behaviour in animals:Explain the interaction between hormones in an animal’s oestrus cycle:The pituitary gland is the control centre for hormones: it either directly sends out hormones itself or sends hormones to stimulate other glands to produce a specific hormone. In this respect, the pituitary gland is in control of the functions of the animal including reproduction and behaviour through the following hormones:(M) Testosterone - the male sex hormone that maintains male reproductive system and stimulates male sexual behaviours and sperm production.(F) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) – produced by the pituitary gland to stimulate a follicle to develop in the ovary, beginning the reproductive cycle in, for example, ewes (21 days).(F) Lutenising Hormone (LH) – produced by the pituitary gland and causes the follicle to burst to release the egg, initiating ovulation.(F) Prostaglandin – induces the degeneration of the corpus luteum. (F) Oestrogen – produced by the ovaries to stop FSH production after the follicle develops. It controls the heat period and development of uterus. In sheep, there will be multiple oestrogen spikes for multiple ovulations for twins or triplets.(F) Progesterone – produced by the corpus luteum to override oestrogen and the other hormones. Stops the oestrous cycle and prepares the body for pregnancy. If pregnancy occurs, progesterone is maintained and the reproductive organs are prepared for the developing offspring. If pregnancy does not occur, progesterone levels decrease, stimulating the pituitary gland to release FSH and begin another cycle.Each hormone controls the stage of reproduction, thus regulating it in animals. Particularly in an oestrus cycle, the hormones work together to allow the animal to move through the cycle. LH is produced after FSH in order for the follicle to develop; O is produced to stop FSH once the follicle is developed and stimulates the heat period; P overrides all of the hormones once pregnancy occurs in order to maintain it. A drop in P stimulates FSH production to begin the oestrus cycle once again.) (Evaluate management techniques available to farmers to manipulate reproduction in farm animals:Artificial InseminationInvolves the collection of sperm from a male donor and injecting it into the female’s vagina using a straw or pipette, allowing for fertilisation to occur without the joining of the animals. Advantages: males with desirable characteristics can fertilise more females (increase in desirable attributes in offspring), sperm can be stored and used years after donor has died, records are available of the male’s pedigree and genetic makeup, females can be fertilised at the farmer’s convenience, sperm can be transported = valuable donors from across countries can be used. Disadvantages: skilled technicians required for insemination, labour, time and financially expensive and monitoring of animals required to coincide insemination with heat period. Worthwhile if male donor is valuable in genetics or intensive opoerations.Multiple OvulationInvolves the manipulation of hormones to increase ovulations and thus increase the number of offspring from one animal. Beneficial particularly if the animal’s genetics are valuable; very high return. However, this method is labour intensive (requires constant monitoring of animal for changes eg: heat at ovulation), expensive and not suitable for large groups (too labour intensive). It is thus only suitable for intensive enterprises (eg: dairy cattle) and stud operators where a high value is placed on the offspring’s genetics.FlushingManagement technique where the female animals are given ample supply of food and good nutrition to increase body weight, ovulation rate and lambing/calving percentage. This has the effect of increased fertility and thereby allows farmers to stimulate reproduction in their farm animals. Advantages: does not require special expertise or technology. Disadvantage: may be costly as a large amount of food needs to be provided. Suitable technique for reproductive management on commercial farms.Embryo TransferInvolves the removal of an ovum from its mother and its implantation into another female (recipient). Advantages: allows for single mother with valuable genetics to have multiple offspring where not naturally possible (eg: cows rarely have twins if at all), large number of offspring can be produced from a valuable mother in a short time, ova can be frozen and used after mother has died, ova can be transported, large genetic pool for selection, records of dam’s pedigree are available. Disadvantages: time, labour and financially expensive, skilled operators required, pregnancy is not ensured (25% donors produce no pregnancies and pregnancy rate is less than 50%). Suitable only for intensive enterprises where value is heavily placed on genetics.Oestrus SynchronisationInvolves the insertion of a coil with progesterone gel into the vagina of the animal to trick it into thinking that it is pregnant, ceasing the activity of all other hormones involved in the oestrus cycle. Once the plug is removed, FSH is stimulated and the oestrus cycle begins. This allows for the operator to synchronise the oestrus cycles for multiple animals so that they all begin the cycle simultaneously. Advantages: narrows lambing/calving period, increased chance of fertilisation when using AI, increased efficiency in operations: marking lambs/calves, weaning, type of feed for which stage. Disadvantages: costly, time intensive, training required for operators and there is risk of damage to the animal. Suitable only for small operations as the higher returns make this expensive option economically viable. Eg: studs, not commercial operations.) (Discuss the use of breeding systems in animal production systems:Breeding systems are used to obtain or maintain populations of animals with desirable characteristics.Line BreedingA form of inbreeding/pure breeding where one dam or sire is mated over successive generations, usually grandfather over granddaughter. Advantages: genes of a valuable animal can be sued over several generations, narrowed genetic pool; purity of genetics maintained, offspring will have similar characteristics and results are predictable. Disadvantage: line breeding may result in the appearance of recessive undesirable traits or genetic deformities due to narrowed genetic pool.Cross BreedingIs the mating of two different breeds, producing hybrid vigour in offspring, where the offspring are superior to the parents. For example: Hereford X angus = Black Baldy with combination of desirable characteristics from both breeds eg: increased marbling, larger frame, faster growth. Disadvantage: sometimes undesirable characteristics are obtained in combination instead of desirable ones.) (Discuss factors that should be considered when carrying out a particular husbandry practice to reduce the negative welfare impacts to the animal:Appropriate use of equipment – equipment such as clippers, shears, races and crushes must be used properly and for their designed purpose to ensure that the animal’s health is not compromised. For example: maintaining clippers and using with correct technique to ensure that the animal is not cut.Skill of the operator – operators must be taught correct techniques in regard to using equipment and managing animals (such as in the approach). Correctly using equipment minimises/eliminates chances of damaging the animal. Proper management reduces stress placed on the animal and improves efficiency of production. Eg: not approaching from flight zone.Timing of the animal practice – management practices such as weaning and shearing must be appropriately timed. Weaning an animal too early will place stress on the animal that may impact its physical health eg: not eating. Shearing in winter will be inappropriate as it leaves sheep vulnerable to weather extremes = sickness. When performing operations in succession, perform the most stressful last. Management of animals after completion of practice – operators must be considerate of animal’s wellbeing particularly after stressful practices such as mulesing to avoid placing additional unnecessary stress on the animal and/or allowing them appropriate time to recover. Eg: limiting use of dogs, moving slowly.) (Outline the role of objective measurement and heritability on the breeding programs of farms:Both heritability and EBV charts are forms of objective measurements that assist a farmer develop a breeding program. These ensure that the breeding plans are economically viable and produce animals with desirable traits.Heritability measures how strongly a characteristic is passed on from one generation to the next, expressed on a scale from 0 to 100. Heritability is used to determine whether it is worth using reproductive methods to obtain specific characteristics or whether the breeding program is economically viable for an enterprise. For example: carrying out AI for a characteristic with 5% heritability is only worthwhile for intensive enterprises. BREEDPLAN is the national performance recording scheme that provides estimated breeding values for characteristics such as fertility, milk production and weight.Estimated breeding value (EBV) is a form of objective measurement that gives the value of a cross-bred/breed/offspring’s characteristics compared to the average animal. EBV = 0 for the breed average. A positive EBV = superior characteristic to the breed average such as more marbling. A negative EBV = inferior characteristic to the breed average such as a leaner carcass. EBVs can be used to objectively assess and compare stud animals and breeds for use in breeding plans to ensure that animals with the most desirable characteristics are obtained. )

(Discuss one ethical issue relevant to an animal production system:Investigate animal welfare legislation for a specific farm animal and discuss the implications of the legislation for the relevant production system:Mulesing involves the removal of the skin around the breech area of sheep. When healed, no wool grows around that area leaving it clean and thus preventing the attraction of blowflies which cause flystrike. The process is of ethical debate as it is performed raw with no anaesthetic. It leaves the flesh bleeding and exposed to infection and may impact on mothering. These factors characterise mulesing as an act that adversely impact the health and wellbeing of the sheep. However, this method is the most cost-effective and easiest strategy to preventing flystrike in sheep (other methods such as using pegs that clip the skin like rings are economically ineffective), which is a costly disease to manage that greatly impacts the health of the sheep. In the long term, it benefits their health. Legal guidelines have been set to lift the ethical issues surrounding mulesing. Mulesing can only be performed on animals up to 12 months old, ideally between 4-6 weeks, and only on merinos (they are the most vulnerable to flystrike due to thick coats and undulating skin). Mulesing performed on animals any older than 12 months must be performed by a vet with anaesthetic. These guidelines may be inconvenient for some farmers that mules animals at older than 12 months (vets are expensive). Farmers who do not own Merino sheep have to use alternate methods such as using pegs that are ineffective and economically wasteful (pegs often fall off).) (Investigate the complex interaction between the problem organism, the host and the environment for one animal disease:Research an IPM program for an animal production system:Evaluate an IPM program, naming the target organism and the animal host:Target organism: Blowfly (green)Animal host: SheepCultural controls: mulesing, shearing and crutching to prevent dregs and maintain cleanliness of wool to prevent attraction of blowflies = decreased incidence of flystrike. Cost effective and easy to carry out; no special equipment required. However, does not destroy population but effectively prevents disease from occurring.Biological controls: introducing sterile male flies to reduce reproduction rate and thus population numbers to reduce incidence of flystrike or introducing a predator. May be more expensive, not as easy to obtain and does not work immediately. The predator may not be blowfly specific and target other insects that are not related to the disease. Does not completely destroy population but maintains it at a lowered level.Chemical controls: dipping or backlining. Effective with immediate results. May be expensive but convenient to carry out. Does not destroy population but prevents disease from occurring.) (Sheep: sickness, dregs, wet and smelly wool will attract blowflies = flystrike; mulesing will prevent attraction of blowfliesBlowfly: increase in population numbers = increase in disease; resistance to chemicals = increase in populationEnvironment: a hot, humid, warm and moist environment encourages blowfly reproduction = increased population = increased disease)

(Illustrate how knowledge and understanding of animal’s physical and behavioural characteristics can assist in the management of a particular animal species:Interactions with cattle must consider animal behaviour and physical characteristics. In doing so, the farmer can use these to manage the animal and ensure optimal health. For example: a farmer can move cattle in a particular direction by planning their approach to work with the animal’s fight/flight response. Approaching from the angle aligned with the rump or shoulders means that you walk into their flight zone. From this angle the cow can only see you with one eye and thus regards you as a threat and will run in the opposite direction. The farmer can thus approach the cattle from say the left rump to move them forward right. Standing in front of the cattle in their awareness zone means that the animal can watch you with both eyes. This can cause the animal to be aware of you and consequently back off. Approaching the animal from the sides means that you enter its retarded zone. In this area, the animal does not know where to move or to run too as they cannot see you very well. They will thus become very agitated. However, while they are in a race, a farmer can walk backwards into the retarded zone and mimic their movement. This will cause them to move forwards as they perceive you as a threat but because you are not facing them, they will ‘escape’ past you.)

(Outline the role of:Control – having a control allows for the results to be compared to a standard; allows for the assessment of the impact of the change in variables.Randomisation – eliminates bias to promote accuracy in results. For example: dividing a plot into multiple sections and randomly allocating which crop is planted in/density of seeds to eliminate chance of say one variable being trialled on soil that has higher nutrients than the soil the other variables are conducted on.Replication – repetition increases the accuracy of results. In larger sample sizes outliers can be identified and an average collected to produce an accurate result. Trials should be replicated at least 3 times.Standardisation of conditions – entails that all other variables – except for the one that is being tested for – are kept uniform including the environment (as much as possible). This ensures that the trial is fairly conducted and that no variables are given an undesired advantage, which leads to inaccurate results. For example: using the same potting mix, allocating the same amount of water, placing pots in the same place, using the same paddock/paddocks of similar conditions.)Experimental Analysis and Research in Plant/Animal Systems

(Analyse and interpret agricultural data by calculating:Mean – the average of all the scores; may be distorted by extreme numbers. A measure of variability (standard deviation) – sample standard deviation measures the degree of variance around the mean. It is equal to the square root of sample variance. For all distributions, approximately 68% lay within one SD either side of the mean; 95% lie within two SDs of the mean and 99.7% lie within three SDs on either side of the mean. For example: the average height is 170cm and the SD is 8cm, then 68% of the population are in the range 170 8cm; 95% are in the range 170 16cm and 99.7% 170 24cm in height.Sample variance: also measures the degree of spread around the mean (unlike SD, its units are not the same as the original variates). Each score is subtracted from the mean and then squared to counteract the positive and negative signs on either side of the normal curve. The greater the variance the less accurate is the mean in making assumptions about the whole populations.Sample variance for an individual score = (score – mean)2Total sample variance (S2) = For example:VariableScoreMeanScore - mean(score-mean)2Sample SDA5 = 55-5 = 00 = 0B88-5 = 39 = 3C33-5 = -24 = 2D99-5 = 416 = 4E77-5 = 24 = 2Total33Total variance in sample = 6.6Total SD in sample = 2.6)

(A test of significance (standard error) – )

9.2 Beef Product Study

(Outline the importance of farms in the wider agribusiness sector of the Australian economy:Farms make up the origins of the agribusiness sector; the beginning of the business chain. It is through farms that raw products, such as cattle, are provided for, allowing for the processing of final consumer products, for example: buttons, tennis racket strings and meat for consumption. Farming employs roughly 370,000 people across Australia; agriculture contributes $43 billion to the Australian economy. This is largely possible through farms.)

(Describe a variety of farm business structures:Family Farm – Where the enterprise is completely controlled by a family. The roles and responsibilities of each family member are established over many generations, to form an efficient business structure. This system can become compromised due to degradation of family relationships as a result of differences in aspirations/opinions within the family. This is the dominant type of farm business structure in Australia.Corporate Farm – Where the farm is owned by a group of shareholders. The resident farm manager is not necessarily involved in the decisions of the property and the workforce is built up of employees of the corporation. Corporate farms represent 19% of total beef production. Contract Farm – Involves one or more contracts between different farms and firms in the production chain. For example: a farmer and a processor may form a contract where the farmer agrees to supply a particular product, such as cattle, at a specified time for an agreed price. Community Supported Agriculture Enterprise – Where production risks are spread between the consumer and the farmer by having the consumers pay up front for their produce. Mainly used by commercial fruit and vegetable farms near cities or large regional centres. This business structure encourages the consumer to communicate with the farmer and understand the processes carried out on the farm. )

(Assess farm production systems based on measurements of quality and quantity:The quality and quantity of the product is in direct correlation with the farm production system. Thus, the farmer can assess his production system – be it set stocking, rotational grazing or feedlot –by assessing the performance of his cattle. This can be done on the farm, by determining the fat score, condition score and live weight of the cattle, or through feedback from the abattoir, such as the colour and pH of the meat and fat, degree of marbling and the dressed weight. For example: a farmer with a feedlot farm production system determined that his cattle had a high fat score and live weight. Generally this indicates that the cattle are suited towards the heavy domestic market or the Japanese market. )

(Use techniques to analyse the financial situation of a farm enterprise:Net farm income = total income - total costs. This does not account for loans, debt, labour and management costs but does provide an indication of profit. The number should be positive, indicating a gain in net farm income. Negative numbers indicate financial loss.Return to capital (%) = operating profit/ total assets X 100. It provides an indication of the financial efficiency of farm assets. It does not take into account personal factors such as taxation, living expenses. A figure between 5% and 10% is ideal, indicating that the use of current assets is used in a profitable way.Gross margin = income – variable costs. Gross margins allow for the evaluation and comparison of the profitability of different enterprises as it does not include the fixed costs that are associated with all enterprises; just the costs associated with each unique enterprise. For example: salt licks or grain for cattle farms; pellets for chicken enterprise. Gross margins are usually calculated as $/ha.) (Outline the financial pressures that may impact on farmers:Irregular nature of incomeDuring the process of making the product, there are many uncontrollable and unpredictable factors, such as rainfall and change in market preferences. These factors contribute to variable financial gain from the product from year to year, resulting in an irregular income that is a cause of concern for the farmer.High expenditure on inputsThere are a variety of inputs farmers can purchase to enhance the quality of their product. For example: salt licks, grain supplementation and drenches. These can become quite costly and consequently taint the benefit of quality products in the face of reduced financial gain. The farmer needs to choose inputs that would benefit him/her the most financially.Dynamic nature of marketsDue to supply and demand, the market is always changing; consumer tastes and preferences are not stable and neither is the value of the Australian dollar, which is important to consider for export markets. This results in the changing value of the farmer’s product. Farmers need to keep up to date with the changing market in order to maintain financial gain.Interest ratesInterest on money owed by the farmer from purchasing equipment or inputs may increase over time. This will result in increasing debt, placing more pressure on making financial gains.Risk managementThere is always an element of risk in the outcome of the product due to factors such as drought, disease, government interference and changing consumer preferences. Higher risks means higher chance of loss of income. Farmers will be less obliged to run a high risk enterprise in preference of a safer, more financially stable option. )

(Outline government influence on the production and marketing of the product:The government often influences the production and marketing of beef through legislation, regulations and financial incentives. For example: the government had established an animal welfare policy that was breached in Indonesia. As a result, all exports were banned and the cattle that were originally to be sold to export markets were diverted to domestic markets, the increased supply causing a decrease in the price of beef. The government can also encourage production of beef in exceptional circumstances, such as during drought, by providing primary producer incentives, which means that farmers do not have to pay GST on inputs. ) (Describe recent technologies and their impact on agricultural production and/or marketing:Recent technologies have allowed for increased efficiency in agricultural production as well as enhanced competitiveness in marketing. The National Livestock Identification Scheme involves the placement of a digitally recognised ear tag onto each cow that provides information on the cow’s previous ownership, whereabouts and live weight gain. This record is particularly important in the tracking of the cattle’s passage through the supply chain to determine if there was exposure to diseases such as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE, mad cow disease), thus protecting consumer confidence in the quality of beef. Advancements in genetic engineering strategies, such as embryo transfer, gives farmers more control over the characteristics of their cattle to better meet the specifications of their target markets. The development of Auctions Plus – on online auctioning system – has led to increased competition between buyers (resulting in increased return for the farmer) and removes additional costs and stress associated with transporting the animals to sale locations.) (Outline the importance of ongoing research related to agricultural industries:Research is a part of the feedback system in agriculture and is necessary for the improvement of processes within the agriculture production system, particularly in regard to sustainability and profitability. For example: research has led to the mapping of the entire genome of cows, allowing for the genetic modification of cattle through management techniques, such as embryo transfer, to obtain desirable characteristics, such as a tendency to marble or put on more muscle, and enhance the farmer’s market competitiveness. Research is also a necessary component in the continual evaluation of products from the farm, including beef, to ensure that it is safe and healthy for consumer use. )

(Discuss strategies available to farmers to market farm productsMarketing is the process by which the farmer moves the products from the farm to the consumer. There are a number of strategies that can be utilised:Vertical integrationwhere a single owner controls multiple stages of the marketing chain. For a beef enterprise, this may mean the farmer acquiring control over, in addition to his/her farm, the mode of transport for his/her cattle, the abattoir and the export company through which he/she is to sell his/her cattle. This allows for the farmer not only to reap the most gain from his/her enterprise but to also gain knowledge on how to better improve his/her product to tailor it to consumer needs. For example: by obtaining a place on the board of the export company, the farmer will be able to learn of the qualities in meat his/her target market looks for.Contract sellinginvolves an agreement between the buyer and the farmer for the farmer to provide a set quantity and quality of a product at a predetermined date. Farmers benefit by having a pre-established market and financial gain; buyers benefit by having a guaranteed supply of the product they require. However, there is always the risk of the buyer taking advantage over the farmer as they are in control of the agreement.Direct marketingthe farmer sells the product directly to the target consumer. Eg: the abattoir or the consumer themselves. Builds relationship between the farmer and the consumer and allows for the farmer to target a specific niche in the market. Removes extra costs and labour associated with intermediate processes (such as wholesalers) increasing profit.Cooperativeswhere different people specialised in different agricultural sectors, for example: a farmer, a grower and a rancher, work together to produce a product to their mutual benefit. It benefits the farmer in maintaining access to competitive input sources and provides opportunity for value adding the product, enhancing income.Marketing boardsinvolves cooperation between producers and government officials. Through the board, producers are able to seek assistance from the government to coordinate the marketing of the product. For example: Meat and Livestock Australia.)

(ConsumptionEating/Cooking(Consumer)) (RetailSelling/Processing(Retail)) (ProcessingCutting/Value-Add(Processor)) (ProductionRaising animal(Farmer)) (SlaughterHolding/Killing/Cleaning(Slaughter House)) (Exporter) (Export YardPre-feeding/Protocoled) (Export Country) (Feedlot) (Selling(Saleyards/Contract)) (Determine the marketing chain for the product:)

(Explain various marketing options for the productMarketing OptionBenefitsDisadvantagesFavoured bySaleyardsCattle are auctioned at a saleyardIncreased competitionSimple for the producerBuyer assumes all responsibility of the cattle after purchaseAll stock types and sizes can be soldHigh costs due to transport, yard fees, weighing fees Income is not known until sale dayNo feedback on carcase specifications or market requirementsStress on cattle from handling and transport may reduce animal performance or meat qualityAverage farmer with mixed production systemsPaddock SalesBuyer comes to the farmer and observes cattle in paddock before purchasing the cattle there on the farmReduced cost (buyer pays for transport; no agent fees)No need for relocation of animals = less stressRelationship with buyer can be established to understand requirementsReduced competitionInefficient for farmers with small stock numbersNegotiation with buyer may be difficultNo cover if the buyer does not follow through with dealScales used to weight cattle must be registered and reliable.Farmers with large stock numbersOver-the-hook salesCattle sold to the abattoirReduced stress and bruisingFeedback on carcase quality can be givenPremium paid for quality stockRelationship between producer and buyer can be establishedNo competitionNegotiation with buyer may be difficultPayment is not guaranteedPenalties for stock not meeting requirementsFarmers that have a feedlot production systemAuctions PlusCattle sold by online auctioning systemIncreased competition with nationwide viewingA reserve price can be setReduced costs (no transport fee to sale location)Convenient for the buyer and the farmerNot suitable for selling small lotsCosts for assessment and listingMustering required for assessment and deliveryPlanning is requiredFarmer needs access to internet serviceLarge-scale or geographically isolated farmersContract SellingFarmer produces and sells cattle to contractor at a predetermined price, date, quality and quantityGuaranteed incomeAllows for confident planning of production systemFarmers can be given precise requirements for cattleFarmer needs to have a high degree of control over the production systemFarmers that have a feedlot production system)

(Evaluate the management strategies used to assess market specifications:A farmer can use a variety of methods to assess his cattle and evaluate if they are meeting the market specifications. Condition scoring is used to gain an understanding of the type of carcase (for example: heavy or lean). Fat scoring gives an estimate of the amount of fat on the animal (particularly important for Japanese export markets which require high degree of marbling in the meat). Weighing the cattle to measure the live weight is a good indicator of the quantity of the product (meat) and whether or not they meet quantity specifications (eg: Japanese market requires cattle weighing between 600-700kg). As all of these methods provide an indicator of separate market specifications, it is important that the farmer uses all of the methods in combination when assessing his cattle. Using any method on its own will not be enough to grasp a good indication of whether or not the cattle are meeting market specifications.) (Analyse market specifications for the product:Each target group in the beef market has an individual set of preferences in beef carcase which can be visually represented as pictured right. Generally, the Asian export market requires heavier carcases with high fat scores (above 4) while the domestic market prefers smaller carcases with a fat score of 3. The degree to which the farmer’s product meets the specifications of his target group will determine the success of his profit. The farmer needs to adjust the method or process he/she uses to produce a product that suits his/her targeted market. For example: the Japanese export market prefers cattle with live weights above 500kg and a fat score of 4-5. This entails that the cattle aimed at this market must be grain fed for a long period of time (120 -350 days) to promote development of intramuscular fat (marbling) and are slaughtered at a live weight between 600 and 700kg. ) (Assess the quantity and quality of the product:Quantity of beef can be assessed by:- live weight – weight of cattle before slaughter- carcase weight – weight of cattle after slaughter and is carcase is dressedQuality of beef can be assessed by:- Fat score – manual scoring involves feeling along the ribs- Condition/muscle score – manual scoring involves feeling along either side of the spine after the ribs- pH – measured at abattoirs using a pH meter.- meat and fat colour – fat should ideally be white and meat pink in colour- degree of marbling – high marbling = high intramuscular fatBy using these techniques, farmers can determine throughout the process whether or not they are meeting their market’s specifications, and if not whether they can switch focus to a different market or alter their processes to meet the market specifications.)

(Construct a flow chart of steps involved in processing the raw agricultural commodity into its various forms:Eg: Cow tennis racket stringsEg2: Cow skins for sausages and leather)

(Evaluate ways in which the product can be value added:For example:- treating hide to become leather- processing meat into pre-made meal packs- adding seasoning, marinade- dicing meat, thin slicing the meat into convenient portionsValue adding aims to attract consumers through the nature of convenience. Making the product more convenient has the effect of improving product appeal, for an increased price, and thereby increasing sales. Beef meat can be processed into pre-made meal packs, with pre-added seasoning or marinade, to appeal to consumers living busy lifestyles who want to prepare a meal with minimal effort. Dicing the meat or slicing it into convenient portions also attracts consumers as it can make it easier to cook. Value adding increases the worth of the product and is thus effective in increasing the return to the farmer.)

(Describe factors affecting the supply of and demand for the product and interpret supply and demand information for a product:The factors that affect supply are both farmer and consumer driven; demand is mainly consumer driven. There is a relationship between these two: increase demand = decreased supply and vice versa.ResultingDemand is affected by:- price of the product – consumers are less inclined to purchase highly priced products = low demand- tastes and preferences of the consumer – in the Japanese market there is a high demand for heavy carcases with extensive marbling, rather than leaner, less marbled carcases.- income of the consumer – determines how much or if they can purchase the product- perception of the product – in the Korean market around 2001 consumers perceived Australian beef as low quality and thus did not have a high demand for Australian beef. Supply is affected by:- cost of inputs to the farmer – costly inputs means that less farmers will favour production of the product and thus provide low supply of it. Affects how many producers are supplying the market.- seasonality of production – beef enterprisers aim to sell their cattle towards the end of spring, where there is most feed = good finishing.- climatic effects – drought will decrease production of the product = lowered supply- government restrictions or incentives – for example: primary producer incentive- level of technology available – for example: genetic engineering strategies can improve farmer’s control over producing cattle that fit a particular market = increase in supply.- technical efficiency of the producer) (Outline strategies for advertising and promotion of the product:Domestic MarketingUsually it is unfeasible for farmers to market, advertise and promote their product by themselves, so larger organisations such as Meat and Livestock Australia carry this out. The most common method for marketing is by campaign. These are often season oriented and involve advertising through television commercials, in store posters, pack stickers, magazines, social websites such as Facebook, interactive technology applications such as through iPhone apps and providing a consumer-focused website that provides a variety of recipes. All advertising carries a united theme and message that encourages consumers to buy the product. For example: MLA�