Expansion of Egypt’s boundaries

 Expansion of Egypt’s boundaries, including:

o –  development and role of the army

o –  relations with Nubia, Syria–Palestine, Mitanni

o –  establishment of ‘empire’: military campaigns in Nubia, Syria–Palestine

o –  image of the ‘warrior pharaoh’

o –  administration of the ‘empire’: Nubia and Syria–Palestine

o –  nature of Egyptian imperialism

o –  maintenance of the ‘empire’: Amenhotep II, Thutmose IV

Development and Role of the Army The development of a permanent professional army

- In the earlier periods of Egyptian history, each nome (province) had its own militia. This was conscripted from able-bodied men who served seasonally and then returned to their homes, In times of national emergency, these local militia were organised under a commander chosen to meet the emergency and were provided with weapons from the royal armoury.

- During the time of the war of liberation against the Hyksos, the Egyptians used the Nubian medjay troops as mercenaries – became indispensable to the Egyptians in the following centuries.

- The campaigns against the western Asiatics and the need to leave garrisons to control conquered territory led to the development of a permanent professional army by the time of Thutmose III. This was based on a continuous levying and training program. At this time the army was composed of a nucleus of native Egyptians organised into two divisions – the division of Amun from Thebes and the division of Re from Heliopolis.

- As the early patriotic fervour waned continued service away from home was not seen as desirable, the Egyptian forces were strengthened more and more with captives and mercenaries, such as:

The Medjay and Nehsiu from the south The Shasu from the east The Merwesh from the west The Sherden of the sea peoples

The Fighting Forces and Military BureaucracyAt the head of the armed forces was the pharaoh who frequently led the army in person, however he frequently delegated this position to the crown prince.

The Egyptian military organisation included- The fighting force with its hierarchy of field officers - The military administration with highly placed officers in charge of recruits, supplies, communications,

accounts, records and other operations

The Role of the NavyThe navy largely operated as a means of transporting soldiers and equipment in the campaigns of the early New Kingdom. It also featured in the logistical strategy of Thutmose III, where it was used to transport men and equipment to the coastal ports of Syria I preparation for the campaign against the Mitanni.

The army on campaign

Evidence suggests that after a pharaoh decided to send an army abroad, he consulted with his war council of senior officers concerning a plan of action, however was no obliged to follow their advice. The first task:

- To call up the troops and issue them with a weapon – a solemn affair supervised by the pharaoh. Scribes scrupulously recorded the names of each men and their issued equipment.

Detailed written accounts (Thutmose III) and the pictorial representations (Ramesses II) provide evidence of soldiers on the march, in camp, and storming a fortified town, as well as in the midst of battle.Throughout the campaign, soldiers and officers were provided with rations of grain, bread, beef and vegetables. Celebrations for the success of a pharaoh began as the army re-entered Egypt, beginning with prisoners being ceremonially put to death by priests.

The army during peace timeSome troops were left behind to garrison foreign cities and states. Of those who returned home, some, particularly the mercenaries, were quartered in the capitals and residence-cities throughout Egypt. Others were settled as military colonists on farms which their families could inherit. These troops were rapidly mobilised when the need arose. Peasants who had been drafted returned home.

Promotion and rewardsThere were always opportunities for men of initiative, courage and loyalty to be provided within the Egyptian army.An ordinary solder in the infantry might aim to advance to the position of standard bearer and then further to become commander of the arches. On retirement, successful field officers often continued to hold important positions within the bureaucracy.

Ahmose, son of Ebana, started his military career as a young marie during the reign of King Ahmose I. After his marriage, he was promoted to the king’s northern fleet because of his bravery. His services to the king during the first attack on the Hyksos capital of Avaris, earned Ahmose another promotion to a ship called Shining-in-Memphis. During the reign of Amenhotep I, he said with the king to Nubia where he fought at the head of his army. He was rewarded with a position called warrior of the ruler. Survived to serve Thutmose I as a crew commander in Nubia and leader of the troops in the campaign against the Mitanni. “I have been rewarded seven times with gold and in the sight of the whole land, with male and female slaves as well.”

Egypt’s Expansion and its effects on New Kingdom Society - The eighteenth dynasty, particularly from the time of Thutmose I to Amenhotep III, was marked by successful

military campaigns abroad and prosperity and stability at home. - The Egyptian armies, led by a number of warrior-kings, brought Syria, Palestine and Nubia under Egyptian

influence and control. As a result, great wealth poured into Egypt in the form of booty, tribute and increased trade.

- It was Thutmose III who made Egypt, for a time, the greatest power in the ancient world, however, it was Amenhotep III who reaped the material wealth and diplomatic benefits from the campaigns and conquests of his predecessors, ruling at the height of Egypt’s magnificence.

Although the territories brought under Egyptian control are referred to as an empire (a modern concept), some scholars such as Gardiner doubt whether the vast area under Egyptian influence could ever have been called an empire. During the period of the so-called empire, the Egyptians

- Devised a variety of ways for maintaining a hold over their foreign conquests - Dealt with the pressure on their northern provinces from two other dominant powers in the region – the

Mitanni and the Hittites - Made extensive political and commercial contacts with other states in the Near East, east Africa and the

Aegean region.

[SS] Wilson – maintains that the period between Thutmose III and Amenhotep III marked a transitional stage in Egyptian society and its culture. At this point, Wilson believes that the simple agricultural and introverted society of

the Nile Valley changed forever – “Under the shock of empire, changes became so rapid that the old sanctions of life could no longer hold society within its distinct integrity” The Major Effects of Empire on Egyptian Society

Development of a permanent professional army and the growth of the heroic warrior king tradition The ascendancy of Amun as an imperial god – wealth and influence of its priesthood and additions made to

Amun’s cult temple at Karnak Foreign influences – foreigners in the army and bureaucracy, impact on population structure, religion and

culture Influx of incredible wealth in the form of booty, tribute and trade and its effects on the lifestyle of the upper

classes and demands for skilled craftsmen.

The growth and organisation of the Egyptian empire- At the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty, the need to drive out the Hyksos and the Kushites from Lower

Nubia led the Egyptians to create buffer zones in southern Palestine and the Second Cataract region – the first steps to further conquests.

- As they expanded further into Palestine and Syria, they came into contact with other powerful forces to the north and east such as the Mitanni and the Hittites. Threats from these sources, as well as the periodic rebellions in Egyptians Palestinian and Nubian territories, meant that the Egyptian army always had to be prepared for rapid military action.

- Egypt’s expansion was based on more than just a need for security – [SS] Alfred suggests that for some pharaohs, ‘the taste for warfare and the re-emptive strike provoked by the Hyksos wars, had developed into an appetite for imperial adventures’

Evidence to suggest that some of the early 18th dynasty pharaohs carried out a policy of deliberate expansion. Amenhotep I ‘ascended the river to Kush, in order to extend the borders of Egypt’ while Thutmose I ‘made the boundaries of Egypt as far as that which the sun encircles’ and ‘made Egypt the superior of every land.’

- Two further references to a policy of expansion are found in the annals of Thutmose III at Karnak – “on the 25th day his majesty was in Tharu on the first victorious expedition to extend the boundaries of Egypt with might” & “departure from this place in might…in power, and in triumph, to overthrow the wretched enemy, to extend the boundaries of Egypt, according to the command of his father Amun-Re.”

- The erection of victory stelae on the Euphrates in the north by Thutmose I and III and at Napata in the south by Thutmose III, marked the pharaohs’ extensions of Egypt’s borders to their furthest limits. Thutmose III also complied a catalogue of towns and people subjugated in his Palestinian and Nubian campaigns and had them recorded on the walls at Karnak.

The image of the warrior king developed – the prestige and power of later rulers were dependant on maintaining this image of a successful imagery leader. This show of strength was needed, whether the pharaoh was a true warrior-king or not.

The economic motives for gaining and maintaining control of areas beyond Egypt’s borders were significant. - The lands of Wawat and Kush and the coastal area of Phoenicia were sources of products highly valued by the

Egyptians. - Nubia was not only rich in gold but was also the connection between Egypt and tropical Africa, the source of

ivory, ebony, leopard skins, incense, cattle and slaves. - The pharaohs believed that the vital trade in gold and exotic products could only be maintained if the whole of

Nubia and all connecting desert routes were controlled by Egypt. - As the pharaohs political and commercial relationships with the powerful kingdoms of western Asia

expanded, gold became an even more valuable commodity. It played an important part in the pharaohs’ diplomatic negotiations with their brother kings.

- The Egyptians had been interested in the resources of southern Syria for some time. Byblos was the source of cedar so values by the Egyptians. Thutmose III recorded that he ‘had many ships of cedar built on the mountains of God’s land near the Lady of Byblos’

- Prosperous cities of northern Syria dominated the vital trade routes leading to Asia minor and the great empires on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

- The wealth that flowed in to Egypt enabled the kings to enhance their status by generous endowments to the gods, rewards to officials and massive building programs.

Four factors which motivated the Egyptians of the New Kingdom to conquer and maintain control of Nubia and Palestine/Syria were the need to:

Maintain a sense of security Gain access to valuable resources Enhance the warrior image of the pharaohs Preserve the interests of the ruling classes

The Organisation of the empire Nubian territories – Nubia (Wawat and Kush) was brought under permanent Egyptian control by the time of Thutmose I. The early kings carried on the policy of the Middle Kingdom kings by repairing and constructing a number of Nubian fortress towns along the Nile. The Egyptians also implemented a policy of taking hostages. The sons of chiefs were carried off to Egypt and brought up at the court of the pharaoh. This policy served two purposes:

It kept rebellious chiefs in check It provided future Egyptianized officials and rulers for the conquered territories.

- Some of these former hostages became administrators, scribes and deputies to the viceroy while others, who succeeded their fathers and chiefs, administered the Nubian communities and liaised with the Egyptian officials.

- The administration of the Nubian province under an Egyptian viceroy of Kush was generally sound and as a result, the country developed, and its people eventually became completely Egyptianized.

- They were faced with periodic disruptions – regular patrols and occasional military campaigns - Sometimes the Nubian people had to be reminded of the Egyptian king. Amenhotep II had returned from a

campaign in Asia with the bodies of seven princes – “he hanged six of these fallen ones on the face of the wall at Thebes, and the hands as well”

Palestine and SyriaPalestine and Syria were composed of numerous independent states, each with his own princely ruler. The area was politically disunited as the princes bickered with and intrigued against one another. However, whenever they joined together, they could be formidable opponents.

The King as WarriorOne of the responsibilities of the god-king was to defend the land against physical threats and confront evil or chaotic forces. The tradition of the pharaoh as the smasher of heads continued during the New Kingdom/ The towering king was shown striding forward, grasping the hair of captives with one hand and holding the scimitar to beat out the enemy’s brains – Thutmose III.

Most pharaohs of the New Kingdom were war leaders. Some were true warrior-kings who extended the boundaries of Egypt north and south. Others directed or participated in campaigns only in the first few years of their reigns. However, this was enough to maintain Egyptian power aboard and reinforce the tradition of the warrior-king who had divine support and approval. Almost all New Kingdom pharaohs took an interest I the recruiting and arming of their troops, whether they personally led them or not. The image was enhanced by

- The kings association with Montu - The blue war crown (khepresh) to the royal regalia

- The scimitar - Decoration which featured Negroes and Asiatics on the base of the king’s throne or footstool.

Thutmose III“A king is he, might of arm, the excellent fortress of his armies, the iron wall of his people…his equal does not exist, Montu, on the battlefield.”Amenhotep II“His majesty became terrible like the strength of Seth in his hour. They panicked when they saw his majesty alone among them.”Amenhotep III“lord of the sword, mighty in dragging them alongside his chariot, annihilating the heir to the wretched Kush, taking their princes prisoner.”

Relations with Nubia, Syria–Palestine, MitanniOrganisation of ‘empire’Nubia Aim:

Promotion of warrior pharaoh image Subjugate rebellions

→ Defensive → Create buffer zone

Trade – protect (economic)→ Lucrative trade routes

Resources – gold, ebony, ivory, precious stones etc. Organisation: “Empire”

Viceroy of Kush – Egyptian government format in Nubia→ Paid taxes – subject state

Syria-Palestine (Levant)Aim:

Promotion of warrior pharaoh image Defensive – buffer zone Economic – trade and resources

→ Cedar and incense Problem: S-P was large + separate provinces + principates

→ Foreign policy – diplomatic Organisation: “Sphere of influence”

Vassal Princes → Tribute → Small garrisons → Oaths of loyalty – hostages (princes)

Diplomatic correspondence – letters & gifts Diplomatic marriage

Military Campaigns in NubiaEgyptian policy in Nubia in the New KingdomDuring the New Kingdom, the province of Nubia extended southwards from Aswan to the district of Napata. Once the 18th dynasty was established, Egyptian policy towards Nubia was dictated by both political and economic necessity. Politically, it was designed to protect Egypt’s southern border and economically it was designed to guarantee safe access to the resources of the region. It was not long before these aims were expressed in imperial language and deeds – the conquest of Nubia soon became the order of the day.

Campaigns of Ahmose, Amenhotep I and Thutmose IMilitary conquest of Nubia took some years to accomplish. Lower Nubia was more quickly subdued than Upper Nubia. The first campaigns were conducted by Kamose and Ahmose, which resulted in the recapture of Buhen. Amenhotep I and Thutmose I continued to campaign in the south, leaving records of their victories at sites of Sai and Tombos. Thutmose I built a fort at Tombos to mark the new southern boundary of Egyptian’s control.

Other methods of control Pharaohs of this early period employed a number of other methods to consolidate their control

- Strengthening of existing forts- Establishment of Egyptian colonies clustered around temple-towns - The setting up of a system of imperial administration headed by the Viceroy of Kush

Final Conquest under Thutmose II and his successors Kush continued to rebel and was finally pacified between the reigns of Thutmose II and III. The Aswan inscription of Thutmose II records a major campaign to quash an uprising between the third and fourth cataracts. Ruthless punishment was meted out to the rebels.

It seems likely that the major work of pacification had been accomplished by Thutmose III’s predecessors and that Thutmose III’s contribution was a consolidation of Egyptian control.

Ahmose “his majesty made a great slaughter among them…his majesty journeyed north, his heart rejoicing in valor and victory. He had conquered southerners, northerners”Thutmose I“His majesty shot, and his first arrow pierced the chest of that foe. Then those enemies turned to flee, helpless before his Uraeus. A slaughter was made among them; their dependents were carried off as living captives”- Ahmose Pennekhbet “He hath overthrown the chief of the Nubians…there is not a single survivor amongst them…the Nubian Trologdytes [that is, ugly, sub-human creatures] fall by the sword…” – Biography of Ahmose Pennekhbet Thutmose II“then his majesty despatched a numerous army into Nubia…this army of his majesty overthrew those of barbarians; they did not let anyone live among their males.” – Aswan Inscription of Thutmose IIHatshepsut “I followed the good god, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt…I saw when he overthrew the Nubian bowmen, and when their chiefs were brought to him as living captives. I saw when he razed Nubia, I being in his majesty’s following…” – Inscription of Tiy “I saw the collection of booty by this mighty ruler from the vile Kush, who are deemed cowards, the female sovereign, given life, prosperity and health forever.” – Stela of Djehuty Thutmose III“ …among the negroes, given from chiefs and living captives…for divine offerings of Amun, when Kush the wretched, was overthrown; together with the tribute of all countries, which his majesty gave to the temple of Amun as yearly dues, for the sake of the life, prosperity, and health of king Thutmose III” – Tomb Biography of Ineni

Pharaoh Location of Battle/s

Relevant Details Evidence Significance

Ahmose – Buhen Defeat of Nubian bowmenRecapture of fort at Second Cataract

Biography of Ahmose son of Ebana

Southern frontier protected Buhen secured as launch pad for future expansion

Amenhotep I - began the process of reconquering

Kush Smote the Nubian bowmenCaptured living prisonersLarge numbers of captives were transported to Egypt and anyone

Ahmose son of Ebana + Amhose Pennekhbet

To enlarge the borders of Egypt (expansion) – first mention of a deliberate expansionist policy

Nubia who tried to escape was executed. Rebuilding forts that protected Egyptians living and working in Nubia to make sure flow of gold and tropical products The commander of Buhan, appointed by King Ahmose was made king’s son, overseer of southern lands

Thutmose I NubiaBeyond the third Cataract to the island of Argo

Nubian tribesmen took the opportunity of a new king on the throne to rebel Devoted whole second year to crushing rebellion in the highlands and supressing the raiding in the desert region.Led his troops to the island of Argo to extend control of Nubia as far as the fourth cataractOrdered construction of a fortress in the island of Tombos

Made another expedition to Nubia where he ordered a canal built during the 12th dynasty to be cleared to make travel upstream from Egypt to Nubia easier – helped integrate Nubia into the Egyptian empire

Established Viceroy of Kush

Ahmose son of EbanaTombos Stela of Thutmose I

To repel intruders/crush rebellionWarrior pharaoh/ maintenance of ma’at

Thutmose II NubiaBetween 3rd and 4th Cataracts

Kush had begun to rebel - major campaign to quash an uprising – “his majesty was furious like a panther when he heard this. Said his majesty ‘I swear as Re loves me, as my father, lord of gods, Amun, lord of Thebes, favours me, I will not let live anyone among their males”

Aswan inscription of Thutmose II

Put down rebellion once again

Hatshepsut War in Nubia early in Hatshepsut’s reignOverthrowing of Nubian BowmenLiving captives

Inscription of Tiy from Hatshepsut’s temple at Sehel at Elephantine – indicates that Hatshepsut led the campaign herself

Thutmose III 115 Nubian towns/districts

Living captives to fill the storehouse of Amun-Re – divine offerings for Amun

Two expeditions late in his reign set the boundary of the Egyptian empire in the south at Napata. Year 47 of reign – built a temple

Inscription from 6th Pylon of Thutmose IIITomb Biography of Ineni

at Gabel Barkal recording his Asiatic campaigns

Amenhotep IIThutmose IV Planned revolt against Egypt – the

army of Thutmose IV placed fear in every rebel

Establishment of ‘empire’: Military Campaigns in Syria-Palestine

Egypt’s relations with its Asian neighbours in Syria-Palestine before the New kingdom were dominated by trading interests turquoise, gold and copper from Sinai, silver from Anatolia and Cedar from Byblos.

Egypt’s policy in Syria-Palestine during the New Kingdom- From Ahmose’s expulsion of the Hyksos, the issue of border protection became an important priority - New forts were constructed on the eastern border to create a buffer zone between Egypt and its neighbours- Survival and consolidation of the New Dynasty also relied on maintaining the wealth that came from trade

with the north

- The political situation was more complex than that of Nubia at this time- Beyond the Sinai lay the settled and developed city-states of Palestine, including the important towns such as

Megiddo and prosperous trading ports such as Byblos. - Control of Kadesh was key to the control of Syria a well-fortified town that was strategically and

economically the most important gateway linking the ports of the Phoenician coast with Syria and the kingdoms beyond

- Syria-Palestine during the New Kingdom consisted of what Redford calls a ‘welter of jockeying states’ - Competition and conflict between the powerful kingdoms of the north and the smaller towns of Syria-

Palestine – who all fought for territory, resources and access to trade- The Mitanni wished to expand into Syria at the same time that the Egyptians began to establish their own

sphere of influence in the region - The smaller, vulnerable towns were tied to the more powerful states by a complex network of alliances and

treaties

Ahmose “Then Sharuhen was besieged for three years. His majesty despoiled it and I brought spoil from it: two women and a hand. Then the gold of valor was given me, and my captives were given to me as slaves”

Thutmose I“After this (Nubian campaign) his majesty proceeded to Retjenu to vent his wrath throughout the lands. When his majesty reached Naharin…he found that foe marshelling troops. Then his majesty made a great slaughter of them.” – Biography of Ahmose son of Ebana

Thutmose IIICampaign 6: Year 30 – capture of Kadesh “Again, I beheld Thutmose III bravery. He captured the city of Kadesh…I brought off two men…as living prisoners; I set them before the king, the Lord of the Two Lands, Thutmose III, living forever.” – Biography of Amenemhab Year 33 – Conquest of Naharin. Year 35: Revolt of NaharinYear 42: Reconquest of Kadesh

3 main stages of Egyptian policyStage 1: From Ahmose to Hatshepsut: Border Protection

- The long periods of time Ahmose spent laying siege to Avaris and Sharuhen may help to explain why, from Amenhotep I to Hatshepsut, there are few references to assaults on cities in Syria-Palestine in the context of foreign warfare [Redford]

- However, Thutmose I’s activity in Syria-Palestine is regarded as having laid the foundations for a major change in Egypt’s relations with that region first pharaoh to fight a battle against the Mitanni at the Euphrates River. This campaign appears to have been more in the nature of a raid, rather than a planned strategy of conquest. [Betsy Bryan]– suggests the reason why Thutmose I did not make a more permanent impression in Syria-Palestine may have been because he ‘encountered enemies and a military technology beyond the capability of Egypt’s armies.

- No evidence for Asiatic campaigns during the reign of Hatshepsut makes conventional claims such as ‘her arrow is among the northerners…the Montiu of Asia are in my grip’

- Possible that her co-regent Thutmose III conducted a campaign late in the joint reign to capture the town of Gaza, on the border of Egypt and Palestine

Stage 2: Thutmose III: Creation of the Empire- Thutmose III pursued the most active and successful policy of expanding Egypt’s borders – The Napoleon of

Ancient Egypt [Breasted] - In the first 20 years of his independent reign, he conducted seventeen campaigns into Syria-Palestine. The

records of these campaigns were preserved in a range of sources, including the Annals and a number of victory or dedication stelae. [Redford] – argues that the annals were composed 20 years after the battle of Megiddo

- Worth noting about Thutmose III’s campaigns - command of military strategy, tactics and logistics- If Thutmose III made much of his great success at Megiddo, it was only the first step in a long military career

whose broad aim was to secure Egyptian dominance in Palestine and beyond. The most significant of these developments was the growing power of the Mitanni whose expansionist policy southwards coincided with Egypt’s own northern expansion. Syria and Palestine became the battleground for supremacy.

The Megiddo Campaign of Thutmose III1. The Egyptian army marches north from Thebes, passing through Sharuhen and Gaza in southern Palestine en

route to Megiddo. Arrived in town of Yehem and learn that a coalition of enemy forces is preparing to attack Egypt – “…that wretched foe of Kadesh has come and entered into Megiddo…He has gathered together a force of all the princes of all the foreign lands.”

2. Thutmose III ordered a consultation with the valiant army who advise not to take the difficult Aruna road. 3. Thutmose III ignores the advice of his army – “I shall proceed on this Aruna Road…Or the enemy will say

“Has his majesty gone on another road because he is afraid of us?” His officers decide to follow. 4. His choice of the Aruna road proved to be a clever tactical decision because his army was able to ‘come out of

the pass, without meeting a single enemy.’ The enemy had expected the Egyptians to arrive at Megiddo by either the southern road or northern road and had been forced to divide and deploy their forces accordingly. The Egyptians pitched camp to prepare for battle the next day.

5. Thutmose III led his army into battle early the next morning. It would seem from the account of the battle that the enemy offered only token resistance, so they were heavily outnumbered or had not been able to regroup in time to meet the Egyptian advance. “Then his majesty overwhelmed them at the head of his army and then they say this, they fled headlong to Megiddo in fear, abandoning their horses and their chariots of gold and silver.”

6. At this point, the army of Thutmose showed an unfortunate lack of discipline. Instead of following up their advantage lack of discipline. Instead of following up their advantage by attacking the feeling enemy and capturing the city they stopped to collect the abandoned belongings of the enemy from the battlefield. Because of their greed, Thutmose was forced to lay siege on the city.

7. The siege of Megiddo – Thutmose III said to the army: ‘Every chief of every country that has revolted is inside this city: the capture of Megiddo is the capture of a thousand cities. So they measured the city and surrounded it with an enclose wall of timber.’ Thutmose gave the command ‘Do not let anyone come out, unless they are coming out to surrender’

8. The surrender of Megiddo – According to an inscription set up at the temple he built at Gebel Barkal in Nubia, the siege of Megiddo is supposed to have lasted 7 months. [Redford] – argues that this is a fabrication as “it is inconceivable that anything beyond a few weeks would have been required.” [Goedicke] – argues that the siege lasted 1 month and 7 days

9. Thutmose’s reaction to the surrender was restrained. Instead of killing the rebellious princes he:- Administered an oath of loyalty by which his opponents promised not to rebel against Egypt in the future - Gave those within Megiddo permission to return to their cities. As he had their chariots, he sent them away on

donkeys. [Wilson] – ‘by his restraint, pharaoh laid the cornerstone of empire for a century’

The results of the Megiddo campaignThutmose III introduced a policy of taking hostages from the defeated princes to ensure loyalty. Sons and brothers were taken to Egypt and educated as Egyptians, hoping they would eventually rule as ‘friends of Egypt’ in their own cities. This proved to be one of the most effective aspects of Thutmose’s administration of the empire. “Behold the children of the chiefs and their brothers were brought up to be in the strongholds of Egypt. Now, whoever died among these chiefs, his majesty would cause his son to attend in his place” – [Breasted]

Stage 3: Amenhotep II and Thutmose IV: Maintenance of the empire - The most significant development in this stage is in the change in Egyptian foreign policy from warfare to

diplomacy, characterised by treaty and foreign marriage. - The foreign policy of the first 10 years of the reign of Amenhotep II was concerned with consolidating the

achievements of his father Thutmose III. This was achieved through military campaigns to supress rebellion in the north and the wholesale deportation of rebellious populations – e.g. the town of Gezer in Palestine. The seven ringleaders of the Takhsy rebellion were put to death and their bodies hung from temple walls at Thebes and Napata.

- As the reign progressed, a newer and greater threat arose in the north – The Hittites. - The Mitanni found themselves caught between two foes – the Hittites in the west and the Egyptians in the

south. Negotiations for an alliance between Egypt and Mitanni were begun late in the reign of Amenhotep II and evidence suggests that a treaty between Egypt and Mitanni was signed in his reign – no further military campaigns in Syria-Palestine after year 9 of his thirty-year reign/

- The alliance of the Mitanni was renewed and cemented during the reign of Thutmose IV with the marriage of the king to the daughter of king Artatama of Mitanni. This treaty brought to an end the years of military campaigning in Syria-Palestine and was followed by sixty-five years of peace between the two powers.

Pharaoh Location of Battle/s

Relevant Details Evidence Significance

Ahmose Sharuhen Three-year siege against remnants of Hyksos army

Biography of Ahmose son of Ebana

North-eastern frontier protected southern Palestine, forms buffer zone between Egypt and Retjenu

Amenhotep IThutmose I(expansionist)

Naharin Marched through Syria accepting the subjugation and tribute of the local princes. Continued to march north to the Euphrates river and crossed it into the territory of the Mitanni

Commemorative stela on the banks of the Euphrates to record his great victory“His southern boundary is as far as the frontier of this land [Nubia], his northern a far as that inverted water [Euphrates River].

Though he made no attempt to bring the area thoroughly under control by organising a unified administration, but his Syrian campaigns show him to be military leader of exceptional ability

Thutmose IIHatshepsut Thutmose III 17 campaigns in

Western Asia over 20 years. Palestine and Syria became the battlefield for supremacy as Thutmose III’s aim to expand northward clashed with the Mitannis

(continued campaigns show that Egypt did not have control)

‘unquestionably the greatest military leader of Ancient Egypt’ – Breasted

-Annals, inscribed on a red granite chamber at Karnak forms the ‘most complete account of the military achievements of any Egyptian king’ -Stela erected at Napata in Nubia near the fourth cataract details his victory at Megiddo and other conquests in Syria -Tomb biographies of officials such as Amenemhab

Motivated by need to- Regain Palestine

and southern Syria and punish rebellious princes

- Desire to expand Egyptian borders

Ambition to emulate the exploits of his famous grandfather Thutmose I

Amenhotep IIThutmose IV

Image of the Warrior PharaohThe mighty ‘warrior pharaoh’ is one of the most enduring images of Ancient Egypt and dates to the beginnings of Egyptian civilisation around 30000BC. In earlier times, the king, a distant and mysterious being, was held in godlike awe by his subjects. By New Kingdom times he was a more earthly, vulnerable figure who fought alongside his troops in battle. The militarism of the New Kingdom gave birth to a new heroic age. Depicted:

Leading his soliders into battle and returning in victory Attacking the enemy while riding in his chariot Wearing war regalia Depicted larger than life, holding enemies with one hand while he clubs their brains out with a mace - Karnak In the guise of a sphinx, trampling his enemies underfoot Offering the spoils of war to the god Amun

Another aspect of the warrior pharaoh image that developed over time was the pharaoh as elite athlete and sportsman, a perfect physical specimen. Both Thutmose I and Thutmose III took time out while in campaign to indulge their taste for big game hunting which included lions, elephants and rhinoceros. Thutmose IV recorded his hunting expeditions in the desert around Giza on his Dream Stela. Thutmose III and Amenhotep II both had themselves depicted in stelae and reliefs driving their chariots at breakneck speed while firing arrows through copper targets.

The Armant Stela of Thutmose III was set up as a record of the mighty deeds of the king in which both his military and his sporting achievements might be preserved – emphasises/proves his right to rule[Redford] – a ‘compilation of the deeds of valor and might which this perfect god performed…every successful act of physical prowess’ “If he ever spent a moment of relaxation, hunting in a foreign country, the size of his catch would be greater than the bag of his entire army…he cut down 120 elephants in the land of Syria on his return from Naharin, when he had

crossed the Euphrates, destroyed the towns on both its banks, consumed with fire for ever…he got a rhinoceros by shooting, in the southland of Nubia”

One of the responsibilities of the god-king in upholding ma’at was to defend the people against physical threats, and evil or chaotic forces. The militarism of the 18th dynasty produced a more heroic age of the pharaoh, many of whom were true warrior kings like Thutmose I, Thutmose III and Amenhotep II who led their troops in war.

Associated with Montu, the winged war god of Thebes Described as superhuman, in the midst of battle Shown wearing the khepresh, a blue war crown of the pharaoh, part of the royal regalia. Worn also when a

pharaoh wanted to emphasise his warlike powers and military feats Depicted with the scimitar (a sword like weapon) False beard – masculinity, authority, royalty – pharaonic prerequisite Shown ‘smiting the enemy’ and with the Nubians and Asiatic (middle eastern) people symbolically under

their feet Recorded as heroic and a great athlete. No one could equal the king’s athletic prowess with the bow and

inscriptions claimed that they hunted large numbers of elephants, captured herds of wild bulls and killed lions Hunting is a symbolic image of the restoration of ma’at – controlling the chaos of the wild

Sphinx image – half man, half lion – power, strength, leadership Bull/ox tail – virility fertility, masculinity, strength Vulture + cobra on headdress rep. of dualistic world – good vs evil, life vs death. Image of royalty

Thutmose III - “A king is he, might of arm, the excellent fortress of his armies, the iron wall of his people…his equal does not exist, Montu, on the battlefield.”

Imperialistic policy supports warrior pharaoh image

Administration of the ‘empire’: Nubia and Syria–Palestine

Motivations for EmpireKemp: ideology not economics Postgate: ideological and economic and other factors Helck: Incentive to establishment of empire is political and military with material gain of lesser importance. Even sees wars against Nubia as a military necessity early on (later motivated by desire to control gold mines)

Egypt’s aim in creating an empire in Nubia and Syria-Palestine were both political and economic. Having secured its southern and northern borders, the next imperative was to exploit the resources and opportunities for trade offered by these regions. The era of military conquest had fostered a demand for the exotic goods of the north and the south. It had also stimulated the growth of new social elites in the military, the religious and the imperial administration.

Differences between Egyptian aims and methods of administration of the empire in Nubia and Syria Palestine- Nubia was regarded as a region suitable for colonisation with Syria-Palestine was not- Egypt had a long history of relations with Nubia based on conquest during the middle kingdom – egypts

earlier relations with S-P were based on trade, not conquest- Administrative structures could be more easily imposed on Nubia; Syria-Palestine, however, had a more

complex political organisation of independent city-states

NubiaNubia had a history of Egyptian conquest and construction of forts in the Middle Kingdom. It was more suitable for colonisation and a unified administrative structure.

In addition to regular military campaigns, the Egyptians employed a number of other methods of control

Strengthening of existing forts Establishment of Egyptian colonies clustered around temple towns Creation of imperial administration headed by the Viceroy of Nubia Policy of taking the sons of Nubian chiefs

Evidence of Egypt’s more direct and permanent control of Nubia can be seen in the changing pattern of building works under early conquerors (e.g. Ahmose and Amenhotep I) building focused on fortification works. By the reign of Thutmose II, fortification became less important and temple building was undertaken on an increasingly grandiose scale.

The Annals of Thutmose III – records the annual collections of revenue makes a clear distinction between the taxes of Nubia and the tribute received from the princes of Palestine and Syria. Suggests that Egypt regarded Nubia as a colonial possession and an extension of its own economic system, whereas the chiefs of Syria-Palestine, as vassals, were regarded as exercising authority over their own towns.

Debate among scholars about the nature and development of Nubian political and social structures and the relationship between Nubia and Egypt during the New Kingdom. [David O’Connor] – suggests that Egyptian colonisation of Nubia was not as oppressive as has usually been represented.

Syria-PalestineThe area of Palestine-Syria had a more complex political organisation of independent city-states that were linked in power blocs and alliances. To organise a unified administration would have required more military and administrative resources than the Egyptians had available. First steps in the development of administration in Syria-Palestine were taken by Thutmose III in the aftermath of his military conquests. Redford has identified four key features that characterised the administration administered by Thutmose III

Demolition and deportation – to maintain Palestine as a buffer zone to protect Egypt from invasion from the north demolishing fortified centres that had resisted Egypt

Confiscation – The wheat producing plains of Northern Palestine were taken over by the crown and the estate of Amun; but elsewhere towns and cities retained possession of their own lands. Harbours on the Phoenicia were provided with storehouses and perhaps a shrine

Political arrangements – securing the loyalty and cooperation of vassals by - Administration of an oath of loyalty - Taking as hostages, the sons and daughters of vassal rulers and powerful local families Permanent presence – During the reign of Thutmose III, the administration of Syria-Palestine was very

rudimentary. The Egyptian army marched forth on such a regular basis that ‘resident governors’ were unnecessary. The stationing of permanent troops did not occur until late in the reign – at Gaza in the south and Ullaza on the north Phoenician coast. Role at Ullaza – guard the stores in the harbours, supervise the cutting and transporting of timber and keep the local area under surveillance.

Nature of Egyptian imperialism

Debate re: Egyptian imperialism and significance of Thutmose III’s campaignsLevel and regularity of CampaigningDever: “Egyptian pharaohs of the early 18th dynasty…pursued the Asiastics back to their original homeland in Palestine. There in successive campaigns…systematically destroyed the heavily defended Middle Bronze II-III Palestinian City-states.”Wilson: “There is evidence that the Egyptians were not content to drive the Hyksos out of Egypt but felt compelled to pursue them with vindictive fury for more than a century” VS.Redford: “In terms of hostile incursions of a military nature, the Pharaohs of the time rarely indulged themselves – allusions to dominion over Asia are few, banal and conventional.”

Main features of imperialism

‘The policy of extending the rule or authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies’

Permanent military occupation of conquered territories

Control and administration

Economic exploitation of the resources

Imposition of culture on the subject populations

This model is appropriate to describe the relationship between Egypt and Nubia, however it does not satisfactorily describe the relationship between Egypt and its northern neighbours. The fact that Thutmose III campaigned almost annually during the first 20 years of his reign – often suppressing rebellious towns – indicates that Egyptian control was limited.

The term ‘sphere of influence’ would better describe Egypt’s relationship with Syria. Here Egypt relied on oaths of allegiance and the taking of hostages, rather than military occupation, to ensure the payment of tribute.

There is considerable debate among scholars about the situation in Palestine, which was closer to Egypt.

One view holds that Palestine was a virtual colony established in the aftermath of the Hyksos expulsion.

Another, based on archaeological evidence, refutes this theory. The physical evidence, including artefacts and other remains, from eastern Egyptian sites is distinctly different from that found in the nearest Palestinian towns across the Sinai desert. If Egypt did colonise Palestine, one would expect some substantial evidence of cultural interaction.

The ideology and language of imperialismClear that the Egyptians considered themselves superior to non-Egyptians and were xenophobic – ‘the vile kush,’ ‘the wretched kush.’

Same kind of language used to describe the people of Syria-Palestine – ‘miserable Asiatics.’ Though, this language of aggressive imperialism (‘that foe of Naharin’), evident in the inscriptions of Thutmose III, changed to the more neutral language of diplomacy, ‘the Asiatics’ when the peace treaty between Egypt and the Mitanni.

The negative stereotyped portrayals of Egypt’s neighbours were not always consistent with reality -[Shaw] – the population of many Egyptian towns consisted of both Nubians and Asiatics living in apparent harmony with native Egyptians. Second, the policy of Egyptianisation of Nubians and Asiatics through hostage taking and education of youth is hardly consistent with an attitude of fear and hatred.

Imperialism or divine kingship?One scholar has suggested another reason why it would be misleading to see an explicit policy of Egyptian imperialism in royal inscriptions and reliefs of the New Kingdom. [Kemp] suggests that such material provides evidence for an understanding of the nature of divine kingship rather than foreign policy.

Economic and socio-political aspects of Egyptian imperialism

Useful to examine both the nature of Egyptian activities in Nubia and Syria-Palestine and the importance of the military in Egyptian society during this period.

One of the main interests in conquest was economic – based on a desire to protect and increase Egypt’s trading activities and to exploit mineral and other resources

→ The importance of Nubian gold, especially, may help to explain why the policy of colonisation was so thoroughly developed in this region. In Syria-Palestine, there can be little doubt that the booty gained from conquest and the regular collection of tribute from these conquered towns was a primary interest of Thutmose III and his successors

Imperial policy also had an important political dimension, for a successful foreign policy reflected and reinforced the power of the pharaoh and guaranteed the security of Egypt’s borders. It was enthusiastically supported and sustained by important sections of New Kingdom society and especially by the military

→ The careers of prominent solders are well documented and indicate how successful military careers guaranteed not only fame and glory, which provided an avenue for advancement in the civil and imperial administration e.g. Usersatet – began his career as a member of the elite chariot corps, became viceroy of Nubia during the reign of Amenhotep II. The military became so influential in Egyptian society that by the end of the 18th Dynasty, Horemheb, who had been general in the army, became pharaoh.

[Shaw] - ‘The overall image of Egyptian ‘imperialism’ is multifaceted, the economic and political pragmatism of the pharaohs often being cloaked in the hyperbole of royal rhetoric and piety.’

Maintenance of the ‘empire’: Amenhotep II, Thutmose IV

Amenhotep II

Amenhotep II, the son of Thutmose III, led a number of campaigns into Asia to consolidate his father’s conquests. During these campaigns, he impressed his opponents with his fearless and ruthless exploits.

Memphis Stela the powerful kingdoms to the north and east are believed to have recognised Egyptian influence in Syria, sending gifts and prayers for peace. For the last 20 years of his reign there appear to have been no records of further military action.

Changes in the north with the rise to power of the Hittites of Khatte, which presented possible threat to the Mitanni of Naharun, who would have been caught between the powers of Khatte and Egypt they started negotiations for an alliance with Egypt. It is possible that such a treaty was signed towards the end of Amenhotep’s reign.

Memphis Stela – powerful kingdoms from the north and east recognised Egyptian influence in Syria, sending gifts and prayers for peave

Thutmose IV

Thutmose IV was required to supress a few minor revolts in Syria, however, he continued to consolidate his predecessors’ work, and diplomacy replaced force

His reign was a turning point in terms of the empire renegotiated the alliance with the Mitannian king, Artatama, and cemented it with the marriage to his daughter who entered Thutmose IV’s harem – ended years of hostility and the marriage alliance was a pattern followed in the succeeding generations.

For nearly half a century, there was peace and prosperity in Egypt and its empire