© 2011 pearson prentice hall, salkind. - spectrum.troy.eduspectrum.troy.edu/drsmall/class...

© 2011 Pearson Prentice Hall, Salkind.

Nonexperimental Research: Qualitative Methods


� Explain the difference between qualitative and quantitative research.

� Discuss the different types of research sources that are regularly used in qualitative research.

� List the advantages and disadvantages of the case study method.

� List four ways ethnographies differ from case studies.


� List six steps involved in historical research.

� Discuss primary and secondary sources.� Given an historical data source, identify whether the source is primary or secondary.

� Explain why authenticity and accuracy are important to historical research.

� Discuss internal and external criticisms of historical research.


�Conducting Qualitative Research

� Research Sources

�Case Studies

� Ethnographies

�Historical Research

�Qualitative Research Tools


�Qualitative research

◦ Uses descriptions rather than numerical measurements of behavior

◦ Asks different kinds of questions


�Documents are often saved to provide a record for later use

◦ Public documents are usually readily available

◦ Availability of internal documents may be restricted


� Provide descriptive data about an organization

� Can be a “gold mine” of useful information


� Physical traces that are usually not purposely left behind

�Can provide insight into behavior that cannot be observed directly


� Researchers actually watch the behavior of interest

�Usually unobtrusive—the researcher does not interfere with or participate in the behavior


�Observers are members of the group being observed

�Observers can become biased—maintaining objectivity is essential


� Focus groups are formed to address specific issues

� A focus group has four main functions:

◦ Gather information

◦ Generate insight

◦ Understand how a group’s members reach decisions

◦ Encourage interaction


� Study one (or a few) persons, institutions, or events

�Are designed to gather as much detail about a subject as possible


� Limited focus allows detailed examination of subject

� Use several different techniques to gather data

� Best way to gather detailed information about subject

� Can suggest directions for future research


� Time-consuming

� Subject to biases in observing and recording data

� Lack breadth

� Cannot demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships

� Limited generalizability


�A good way to study a culture

� Provide rich detail about their subject


� The holistic perspective is more concerned with the “big picture”

◦ Looks at the entire group’s behavior rather than at individual behaviors

� Frequently uses participant observation

� Ethnographers avoid proposing hypotheses

◦ Researchers begin with only enough information to “fit in”


� “Those who forget the past are condemned to repeat it!”(George Santayana, 1905)

�Historical research is also called historiography


� Define a topic

� Form a hypothesis

� Decide on useful and appropriate sources

� Determine how to evaluate evidence

� Integrate and synthesize data

� Interpret results with reference to the original hypothesis


� Primary sources

◦ Originate with the people or animals actually involved in the historical event

◦ Are direct results of the historical event


� Secondary sources

◦ Are at least “once removed” from the historical event

◦ Result from “after-the-fact” reports of an historical event


�Authenticity or external criticism asks whether data originated as described

◦ Did the person who signed a document actually write it?

◦ Was an artifact found where it was left, or was it “planted” or moved?


�Authenticity or internal criticism asks whether the source of the data was objective and trustworthy

◦ Do archival documents “fairly” represent what actually happened?

◦ Do surviving artifacts adequately reflect an entire culture or only a small part of it?


�Generalizability is limited

�Data are not observed by trained observers, and so may be questioned

� Time-consuming

� Evaluated by different criteria than quantitative research


�Help manage large, qualitative data sets

� Enable plain text analysis

� Link between documents

� Search documents

�Code and analyze data


� Explain the difference between qualitative and quantitative research?

� Discuss the different types of research sources that are regularly used in qualitative research?

� List the advantages and disadvantages of the case study method?

� List four ways ethnographies differ from case studies?


� List six steps involved in historical research?

� Discuss primary and secondary sources?

� Given an historical data source, identify whether the source is primary or secondary?

� Explain why authenticity and accuracy are important to historical research?

� Discuss internal and external criticisms of historical research?