1.introduction to development administration
TRANSCRIPT
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11 INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
Development Administration comprises two different words Development and
Administration
Development encompass of two important processes that is change and
progress Such as growth change advancement expansion progress
improvement etc (these are some activities occur in development)
It is a simple analogy with expressions such as agricultural development educational
development social welfare development and other development as well
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Administration well recognized as a mechanism or a tool that generates affairs of state
Administration of development needs to be distinguished from the development of
administration It consists of two different interrelated aspects of development administration
Administration helps in arranging human and resources accordingly and therefore in this
context it is a mechanism that helps generate the development efforts in a state The
administration of development shows that is a responsible in running all matters regarding to
development
However much of the literature definition regarding to development relates it to
economic growth the increased production of capital and consumer goods
The essential idea of development lies in the increased ability of human societies to
shape their physical human and cultural environments It is also similar to a process of
modernization Modernization is generally a process of improving the capability of a
nationrsquos institutions and value system to meet increasing and different demands
Generally administration often described as the development implementation and study of
government policy An administration linked to pursuing the public good by enhancing civil
society and social justice Though an administration has historically referred to government
management it increasingly encompasses non-governmental organizations that are not
acting out of self-interest In this sense administration acts as an agent responsible to
develop a state Development administration thus considered a practical solution to help
governments of developing countries towards modernization
111 Importance Of Development Administration To
Developing Countries
1 ECONOMY
In aspect of the economy the importance of development administration
to developing countries is more on the objective to improve standard
of living of people It means the government wants to increase the
quality of life of the citizen by try to enhance their motivation to generate
the income of the country It is important to produce the best product
and maximum profit for developing country as the developing country
can maximize the per capita income
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During the pre-colonial our country provided or sold raw materials to
other countries because there was no expertise in producing our own
manufacturing products Later after development administration our
country had tried to introduce or had produced our own manufacturing
local products using our own materials such as rubber to produce
shoes palm oil to produce cooking oil etc
2 POLITICS
Before development administration the local people depended to British
in their administration but later after development administration the
local people had tremendous participation in politics precisely the
administration of the state and the policy making as well
Thus development administration had generated more participation
of new generation to involve in politics It is important because this
new generation is the citizen creates new ideas and new policies to
develop the people and the country This is the most important element
as it creates or shapes the administrator of the country by choosing their
own representatives that will create policies for them
New Economic Policy by Tun Razak our ex-Prime Minister for instance
had successfully changed the life of the local people Tun Dr Mahathir
Mohamad and his Look East Policy that had generated our country to
be developing such as Korea and Japan Korea and Japan are among
the Asian countries as an example of countries that had been
successful in developing their country without help from foreign or super
power states
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3 SOCIAL
In terms of social we can divide the term social in the three main
division such as education health and facilities
In terms of education the development administration is very important
because it increases the facilities opportunities and education
level among the citizen However due to the efforts made under the
development administration the government had able to create a
positive mindset to the citizen with the existence of more universities
and private colleges It is due to encourage and increase the education
level of citizens through the existence of these institutions Government
also provide scholarships and loans to students to continue their study
in our country or overseas This benefit will increase the motivation of
the student and it is important because students are the new generation
of administrator
After development all races had equal chances to get education The
government built more schools and higher learning education
institutions in order to help citizens to get comfortable and best learning
education Since 2008 about 14 private universities 16 university
colleges and 20 public universities in Malaysia were established
(wwwmohegovmy)
Aftermath the 1969 racial crisis drastic action by the government was to
help the Bumiputra in education In order to provide greater education
opportunity to inculcate the Malaysian national identity and foster loyalty
to the country the national language Bahasa Malaysia used as a
medium of learning and teaching in education institutions The English
primary and secondary schools gradually converted to Malay LanguageNational School beginning with the primary schools in 1970 Later
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) established drastically to
resolve the problem entrance opportunity for Bumiputra due to their lack
of English proficiency that was required as entrance requirement in
Universiti Malaya (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
In terms of health development administration in developing country
had increased the level of health among citizen Recently after
independence (within ten years) Malaysia did not have hospitals or
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clinics in the rural areas Some of these facilities just existed in the
urban areas As a result it increased the rates of death because of
small diseases such as dengue malaria and mother giving birth to
babies and babies whom did not get enough immunization In the first
decade after independent the government relies that the doctor and
nurses is really needed to manage a lot of cases in the hospital For
example Perlis as the smallest state of the Federation with a population
about 150000 at that time then had only 3 doctors in the state general
hospital and 2 in private practice in 1967 (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
After development administration the government managed to increase
the element of health because the government knows the importance of
health that generate the best generation to come or in the future Thus
citizen must get enough facilities in terms of health as it creates
stabilization in our country In present day rural areas provided with
abundance of health facilities and treatment from experienced doctors
and nurses It will help the people in that area to get the early treatment
before they will be sent to the nearest hospital if cannot be treated by
rural doctors and nurses These clinics also have a responsibility to give
enough immunization to the children especially babies
Moreover the government also tries to reduce the burden of the citizen
by giving benefit to certain people because as we know the cost of the
health treatment is expensive For example government servants and
student had given discounted low prices for treatment and medicines
This effort is to make sure that this group of people gets enough
treatment if they are sick The establishment of 1 Malaysia clinics by the
present Prime Minister (Datuk Seri Najib) added to the convenience of the people
In the matter of facilities there also have significance of the developing
administration in our developing country such as to and had increased
the number of facilities in our country For example before the
development administration there were not enough public transport
services This situation gave difficulties to the citizen to travel Public
transports at that time were only trishaw bicycles and there were less of car usage
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After the development administration the government provides more
facilities in terms of transportation A convenient and conducive public
transportation provided in urban areas and in rural areas as well
Besides then reducing the congestion of the urban traffic it also helps
the people to move from one place to another in a faster and convenient
way Thus government had increased the level of transportation
through the Light Railway Transit (LRT) and Keretapi Tanah Melayu
(KTM) These transportation gives the comfortable to the people to
travel in short and faster duration of time
4 CULTURE
After we look at the social aspect we also can look at the significance of development administration in developing our country through the
cultural aspect In terms of culture development administration gives
people or organizational new culture When new development were
brought to organization majority of people in that organization will have
difficulties in accepting new development due to lacking of expertise in
new technologies and factors of resistance towards change However
some workers were willing to accept development as they think every
development have their own benefits and will reduce burden and
expenses Actually it is a challenge to them towards new changes due
to less understanding and unfamiliar with the new system introduced
An organizational culture precisely the government organizations
efforts to improve and develop the civil service initiated since
independence All these efforts directed at increasing output as well as
providing more efficient speedy and effective delivery of service
providing also to reduce the work burden of the public servants andreduced governmentrsquos expenses as well Due to this various policies
programs and activities introduced in the public administration of
Malaysia especially after Tun Mahathir Mohammad took office in 1981
Amongst were the introduction of policies program and strategies such
as the Civil Service Core Principles introduced in 1979 Civil Service
Codes of Ethics in 1980 Enforcement of name tags in 1981 The Look
East Policy in 1982 Clean Efficient and Trustworthy Concept in 1982
The Punch Clock System in 1982 and Leadership by Example and
Enculturation Of Islamic Values in 1983
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112 The Relationship Between Development Administration
And Public Administration
Edward Weidner (1964) suggests the development administration as one with
a special purpose inclusive of political economic and social development thatbecomes as a sub-field of public administration This is because it will guide a
developing nation towards the achievement of its development goals As a
sub-field of public administration it is action oriented and places
administration at the hub of nation building
According to Dwight Waldo public administration described as a management
of people and material to achieve government objective According him also
public administration acts as an art and science of management that related
to state matters Besides that Public Administration is all about the
management of scarce resources to accomplish the goals of public policy
(Williams 1980)
Public Administration found in all branches of government within the
legislative executive and the judiciary as well It the use of managerial
political and legal theories which involves processes to fulfil legislative
executive and judicial government mandates Public administration covers a
wide area of study but focuses on citizenship and the state These two areas
are then sub-divide into other minor areas such as management
organization political economy environment and development
Development administration considered as a field of study or a sub-area
under public administration (Nicholson and Connerly 1989) Development
administration emerged as a field of study result of research observations
and implementation carried out by scholars of public administration who are
interested in the progress that took place in the developing nations It is partial
of public administration that is precisely to handle matters regarding to
development As the outcome of emphasis it expected to be efficient in
running development programs and projects
The Public Administration and management systems in many developing
countries however are still unprepared for changes not to mention about
quality productivity effectiveness and efficiency (Bryant and White 1992) It
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is more appropriate to use the term development administration and not mere
public administration in the developing countries because the underpinning
issues in those nations are different from those in the developed world
Therefore a special kind of administrative institution needed and he called it
as development administration
Public Administration is concerned with the uses of managerial
methodological techniques that lead to the most efficient result It is a
management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purpose of
the state (Rosenbloom 1993)
It is the science of how a country to be ruled
It is a governmentrsquos central instrument for dealing with general social
problems
It is the management of resources to achieve governmentrsquos goals and
objectives
Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies
A policy typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcomes Policies normally guide every action It provides a
framework for every aim to achieve certain objectives There are three
branches of government that are responsible to generate and implement
policies which is executive legislative and judiciary Nevertheless major
parts of administration carried out by the executive branch The duty of
executive branch is to design and implement the policies rule and regulation
While the power of legislative branch is to debate and enact rules of the
society in the form of laws and judiciary branch function in safeguard the
fundamental rights and liberties of societies These three branches play animportant role to ensure all the policy making and implementation did properly
to give benefit to state and people itself For the example before make a
policy government have to make an investigation and analysis of the
advantage and disadvantages of the policy making in order to ensure the
effectiveness when the policy are implemented
Edward Weidner therefore stated that development administration as a sub-
field of public administration is to form administrative machinery to theobjective of government It divides into two which is process and area of
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study By process development administration means the process through
which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as
political economic and social progress or country development as a whole
Besides that Fred W Riggs as mentioned above had stated views that
development administration as administration according to dynamic social
situations Accordingly administrative machinery must be adapted to the
existing and new task The essential ideas of development lie in the increased
ability of human societies to shape their physical human and cultural
environments It is also similar to a process of improving the capably of a
nations institution and value system to meet increasing and different
demands
113 Classical And Contemporary Definitions Of Development
Administration
According to Fred Riggs (1970) definition of development administration is
about the administration of development programs using prescribed
governmental methods to implement policies which due for development
objectives and to elevate administrative capabilities As we all know in all
developing countries government had plan and provide a lot of development
program to lessen poverty of the country upgrade or enhance output and
productivity help to improve and develop the way of living of the people
especially in education and economic sector
Besides that according to Fred Riggs also development administration as the
administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies
chosen by the government to fulfil or achieve its development objectives and
to upgrade the capacity of administration Government also must ensure that
all the mission and program will give benefit to all level of society and not only
to the country itself
Furthermore in the developing nations it is essential or necessary for the
government to create policies and implement them by desirable quality and
good value of projects and programs complete with specific objectives and
goals All the programs and plans arranged or structured by the government
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must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not
useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people) More
than that the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people
However the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot
give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to
administer it in a proper efficient and cost effective way This is because
government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be
restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can
follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives
Furthermore as we all know all government programs have used a lot of
allotment of countryrsquos wealth Especially in the developing nation government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost
project It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed
country A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road
services for instance The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have
houses money and opportunity to go to school or to get education and alsoan opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day
However road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to
enhance economic opportunities Activities of the country and directly will
provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also
for the graduate enhance and improve in income of the people and also not
to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all
citizen
In other word we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or
incentive in a variety way and method However all this only can happen if the
300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way All the
plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the
instituted of bureaucracy Besides that what is more important is that we
need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play
their role effectively
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Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
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14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
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for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
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Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
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include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
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countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
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Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
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environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
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11 INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
Development Administration comprises two different words Development and
Administration
Development encompass of two important processes that is change and
progress Such as growth change advancement expansion progress
improvement etc (these are some activities occur in development)
It is a simple analogy with expressions such as agricultural development educational
development social welfare development and other development as well
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4 |
Administration well recognized as a mechanism or a tool that generates affairs of state
Administration of development needs to be distinguished from the development of
administration It consists of two different interrelated aspects of development administration
Administration helps in arranging human and resources accordingly and therefore in this
context it is a mechanism that helps generate the development efforts in a state The
administration of development shows that is a responsible in running all matters regarding to
development
However much of the literature definition regarding to development relates it to
economic growth the increased production of capital and consumer goods
The essential idea of development lies in the increased ability of human societies to
shape their physical human and cultural environments It is also similar to a process of
modernization Modernization is generally a process of improving the capability of a
nationrsquos institutions and value system to meet increasing and different demands
Generally administration often described as the development implementation and study of
government policy An administration linked to pursuing the public good by enhancing civil
society and social justice Though an administration has historically referred to government
management it increasingly encompasses non-governmental organizations that are not
acting out of self-interest In this sense administration acts as an agent responsible to
develop a state Development administration thus considered a practical solution to help
governments of developing countries towards modernization
111 Importance Of Development Administration To
Developing Countries
1 ECONOMY
In aspect of the economy the importance of development administration
to developing countries is more on the objective to improve standard
of living of people It means the government wants to increase the
quality of life of the citizen by try to enhance their motivation to generate
the income of the country It is important to produce the best product
and maximum profit for developing country as the developing country
can maximize the per capita income
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During the pre-colonial our country provided or sold raw materials to
other countries because there was no expertise in producing our own
manufacturing products Later after development administration our
country had tried to introduce or had produced our own manufacturing
local products using our own materials such as rubber to produce
shoes palm oil to produce cooking oil etc
2 POLITICS
Before development administration the local people depended to British
in their administration but later after development administration the
local people had tremendous participation in politics precisely the
administration of the state and the policy making as well
Thus development administration had generated more participation
of new generation to involve in politics It is important because this
new generation is the citizen creates new ideas and new policies to
develop the people and the country This is the most important element
as it creates or shapes the administrator of the country by choosing their
own representatives that will create policies for them
New Economic Policy by Tun Razak our ex-Prime Minister for instance
had successfully changed the life of the local people Tun Dr Mahathir
Mohamad and his Look East Policy that had generated our country to
be developing such as Korea and Japan Korea and Japan are among
the Asian countries as an example of countries that had been
successful in developing their country without help from foreign or super
power states
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3 SOCIAL
In terms of social we can divide the term social in the three main
division such as education health and facilities
In terms of education the development administration is very important
because it increases the facilities opportunities and education
level among the citizen However due to the efforts made under the
development administration the government had able to create a
positive mindset to the citizen with the existence of more universities
and private colleges It is due to encourage and increase the education
level of citizens through the existence of these institutions Government
also provide scholarships and loans to students to continue their study
in our country or overseas This benefit will increase the motivation of
the student and it is important because students are the new generation
of administrator
After development all races had equal chances to get education The
government built more schools and higher learning education
institutions in order to help citizens to get comfortable and best learning
education Since 2008 about 14 private universities 16 university
colleges and 20 public universities in Malaysia were established
(wwwmohegovmy)
Aftermath the 1969 racial crisis drastic action by the government was to
help the Bumiputra in education In order to provide greater education
opportunity to inculcate the Malaysian national identity and foster loyalty
to the country the national language Bahasa Malaysia used as a
medium of learning and teaching in education institutions The English
primary and secondary schools gradually converted to Malay LanguageNational School beginning with the primary schools in 1970 Later
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) established drastically to
resolve the problem entrance opportunity for Bumiputra due to their lack
of English proficiency that was required as entrance requirement in
Universiti Malaya (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
In terms of health development administration in developing country
had increased the level of health among citizen Recently after
independence (within ten years) Malaysia did not have hospitals or
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clinics in the rural areas Some of these facilities just existed in the
urban areas As a result it increased the rates of death because of
small diseases such as dengue malaria and mother giving birth to
babies and babies whom did not get enough immunization In the first
decade after independent the government relies that the doctor and
nurses is really needed to manage a lot of cases in the hospital For
example Perlis as the smallest state of the Federation with a population
about 150000 at that time then had only 3 doctors in the state general
hospital and 2 in private practice in 1967 (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
After development administration the government managed to increase
the element of health because the government knows the importance of
health that generate the best generation to come or in the future Thus
citizen must get enough facilities in terms of health as it creates
stabilization in our country In present day rural areas provided with
abundance of health facilities and treatment from experienced doctors
and nurses It will help the people in that area to get the early treatment
before they will be sent to the nearest hospital if cannot be treated by
rural doctors and nurses These clinics also have a responsibility to give
enough immunization to the children especially babies
Moreover the government also tries to reduce the burden of the citizen
by giving benefit to certain people because as we know the cost of the
health treatment is expensive For example government servants and
student had given discounted low prices for treatment and medicines
This effort is to make sure that this group of people gets enough
treatment if they are sick The establishment of 1 Malaysia clinics by the
present Prime Minister (Datuk Seri Najib) added to the convenience of the people
In the matter of facilities there also have significance of the developing
administration in our developing country such as to and had increased
the number of facilities in our country For example before the
development administration there were not enough public transport
services This situation gave difficulties to the citizen to travel Public
transports at that time were only trishaw bicycles and there were less of car usage
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After the development administration the government provides more
facilities in terms of transportation A convenient and conducive public
transportation provided in urban areas and in rural areas as well
Besides then reducing the congestion of the urban traffic it also helps
the people to move from one place to another in a faster and convenient
way Thus government had increased the level of transportation
through the Light Railway Transit (LRT) and Keretapi Tanah Melayu
(KTM) These transportation gives the comfortable to the people to
travel in short and faster duration of time
4 CULTURE
After we look at the social aspect we also can look at the significance of development administration in developing our country through the
cultural aspect In terms of culture development administration gives
people or organizational new culture When new development were
brought to organization majority of people in that organization will have
difficulties in accepting new development due to lacking of expertise in
new technologies and factors of resistance towards change However
some workers were willing to accept development as they think every
development have their own benefits and will reduce burden and
expenses Actually it is a challenge to them towards new changes due
to less understanding and unfamiliar with the new system introduced
An organizational culture precisely the government organizations
efforts to improve and develop the civil service initiated since
independence All these efforts directed at increasing output as well as
providing more efficient speedy and effective delivery of service
providing also to reduce the work burden of the public servants andreduced governmentrsquos expenses as well Due to this various policies
programs and activities introduced in the public administration of
Malaysia especially after Tun Mahathir Mohammad took office in 1981
Amongst were the introduction of policies program and strategies such
as the Civil Service Core Principles introduced in 1979 Civil Service
Codes of Ethics in 1980 Enforcement of name tags in 1981 The Look
East Policy in 1982 Clean Efficient and Trustworthy Concept in 1982
The Punch Clock System in 1982 and Leadership by Example and
Enculturation Of Islamic Values in 1983
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112 The Relationship Between Development Administration
And Public Administration
Edward Weidner (1964) suggests the development administration as one with
a special purpose inclusive of political economic and social development thatbecomes as a sub-field of public administration This is because it will guide a
developing nation towards the achievement of its development goals As a
sub-field of public administration it is action oriented and places
administration at the hub of nation building
According to Dwight Waldo public administration described as a management
of people and material to achieve government objective According him also
public administration acts as an art and science of management that related
to state matters Besides that Public Administration is all about the
management of scarce resources to accomplish the goals of public policy
(Williams 1980)
Public Administration found in all branches of government within the
legislative executive and the judiciary as well It the use of managerial
political and legal theories which involves processes to fulfil legislative
executive and judicial government mandates Public administration covers a
wide area of study but focuses on citizenship and the state These two areas
are then sub-divide into other minor areas such as management
organization political economy environment and development
Development administration considered as a field of study or a sub-area
under public administration (Nicholson and Connerly 1989) Development
administration emerged as a field of study result of research observations
and implementation carried out by scholars of public administration who are
interested in the progress that took place in the developing nations It is partial
of public administration that is precisely to handle matters regarding to
development As the outcome of emphasis it expected to be efficient in
running development programs and projects
The Public Administration and management systems in many developing
countries however are still unprepared for changes not to mention about
quality productivity effectiveness and efficiency (Bryant and White 1992) It
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is more appropriate to use the term development administration and not mere
public administration in the developing countries because the underpinning
issues in those nations are different from those in the developed world
Therefore a special kind of administrative institution needed and he called it
as development administration
Public Administration is concerned with the uses of managerial
methodological techniques that lead to the most efficient result It is a
management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purpose of
the state (Rosenbloom 1993)
It is the science of how a country to be ruled
It is a governmentrsquos central instrument for dealing with general social
problems
It is the management of resources to achieve governmentrsquos goals and
objectives
Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies
A policy typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcomes Policies normally guide every action It provides a
framework for every aim to achieve certain objectives There are three
branches of government that are responsible to generate and implement
policies which is executive legislative and judiciary Nevertheless major
parts of administration carried out by the executive branch The duty of
executive branch is to design and implement the policies rule and regulation
While the power of legislative branch is to debate and enact rules of the
society in the form of laws and judiciary branch function in safeguard the
fundamental rights and liberties of societies These three branches play animportant role to ensure all the policy making and implementation did properly
to give benefit to state and people itself For the example before make a
policy government have to make an investigation and analysis of the
advantage and disadvantages of the policy making in order to ensure the
effectiveness when the policy are implemented
Edward Weidner therefore stated that development administration as a sub-
field of public administration is to form administrative machinery to theobjective of government It divides into two which is process and area of
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study By process development administration means the process through
which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as
political economic and social progress or country development as a whole
Besides that Fred W Riggs as mentioned above had stated views that
development administration as administration according to dynamic social
situations Accordingly administrative machinery must be adapted to the
existing and new task The essential ideas of development lie in the increased
ability of human societies to shape their physical human and cultural
environments It is also similar to a process of improving the capably of a
nations institution and value system to meet increasing and different
demands
113 Classical And Contemporary Definitions Of Development
Administration
According to Fred Riggs (1970) definition of development administration is
about the administration of development programs using prescribed
governmental methods to implement policies which due for development
objectives and to elevate administrative capabilities As we all know in all
developing countries government had plan and provide a lot of development
program to lessen poverty of the country upgrade or enhance output and
productivity help to improve and develop the way of living of the people
especially in education and economic sector
Besides that according to Fred Riggs also development administration as the
administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies
chosen by the government to fulfil or achieve its development objectives and
to upgrade the capacity of administration Government also must ensure that
all the mission and program will give benefit to all level of society and not only
to the country itself
Furthermore in the developing nations it is essential or necessary for the
government to create policies and implement them by desirable quality and
good value of projects and programs complete with specific objectives and
goals All the programs and plans arranged or structured by the government
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must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not
useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people) More
than that the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people
However the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot
give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to
administer it in a proper efficient and cost effective way This is because
government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be
restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can
follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives
Furthermore as we all know all government programs have used a lot of
allotment of countryrsquos wealth Especially in the developing nation government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost
project It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed
country A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road
services for instance The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have
houses money and opportunity to go to school or to get education and alsoan opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day
However road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to
enhance economic opportunities Activities of the country and directly will
provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also
for the graduate enhance and improve in income of the people and also not
to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all
citizen
In other word we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or
incentive in a variety way and method However all this only can happen if the
300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way All the
plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the
instituted of bureaucracy Besides that what is more important is that we
need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play
their role effectively
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Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
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14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
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for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
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Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
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include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
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countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
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Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
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environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
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11 INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION
Development Administration comprises two different words Development and
Administration
Development encompass of two important processes that is change and
progress Such as growth change advancement expansion progress
improvement etc (these are some activities occur in development)
It is a simple analogy with expressions such as agricultural development educational
development social welfare development and other development as well
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Administration well recognized as a mechanism or a tool that generates affairs of state
Administration of development needs to be distinguished from the development of
administration It consists of two different interrelated aspects of development administration
Administration helps in arranging human and resources accordingly and therefore in this
context it is a mechanism that helps generate the development efforts in a state The
administration of development shows that is a responsible in running all matters regarding to
development
However much of the literature definition regarding to development relates it to
economic growth the increased production of capital and consumer goods
The essential idea of development lies in the increased ability of human societies to
shape their physical human and cultural environments It is also similar to a process of
modernization Modernization is generally a process of improving the capability of a
nationrsquos institutions and value system to meet increasing and different demands
Generally administration often described as the development implementation and study of
government policy An administration linked to pursuing the public good by enhancing civil
society and social justice Though an administration has historically referred to government
management it increasingly encompasses non-governmental organizations that are not
acting out of self-interest In this sense administration acts as an agent responsible to
develop a state Development administration thus considered a practical solution to help
governments of developing countries towards modernization
111 Importance Of Development Administration To
Developing Countries
1 ECONOMY
In aspect of the economy the importance of development administration
to developing countries is more on the objective to improve standard
of living of people It means the government wants to increase the
quality of life of the citizen by try to enhance their motivation to generate
the income of the country It is important to produce the best product
and maximum profit for developing country as the developing country
can maximize the per capita income
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During the pre-colonial our country provided or sold raw materials to
other countries because there was no expertise in producing our own
manufacturing products Later after development administration our
country had tried to introduce or had produced our own manufacturing
local products using our own materials such as rubber to produce
shoes palm oil to produce cooking oil etc
2 POLITICS
Before development administration the local people depended to British
in their administration but later after development administration the
local people had tremendous participation in politics precisely the
administration of the state and the policy making as well
Thus development administration had generated more participation
of new generation to involve in politics It is important because this
new generation is the citizen creates new ideas and new policies to
develop the people and the country This is the most important element
as it creates or shapes the administrator of the country by choosing their
own representatives that will create policies for them
New Economic Policy by Tun Razak our ex-Prime Minister for instance
had successfully changed the life of the local people Tun Dr Mahathir
Mohamad and his Look East Policy that had generated our country to
be developing such as Korea and Japan Korea and Japan are among
the Asian countries as an example of countries that had been
successful in developing their country without help from foreign or super
power states
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3 SOCIAL
In terms of social we can divide the term social in the three main
division such as education health and facilities
In terms of education the development administration is very important
because it increases the facilities opportunities and education
level among the citizen However due to the efforts made under the
development administration the government had able to create a
positive mindset to the citizen with the existence of more universities
and private colleges It is due to encourage and increase the education
level of citizens through the existence of these institutions Government
also provide scholarships and loans to students to continue their study
in our country or overseas This benefit will increase the motivation of
the student and it is important because students are the new generation
of administrator
After development all races had equal chances to get education The
government built more schools and higher learning education
institutions in order to help citizens to get comfortable and best learning
education Since 2008 about 14 private universities 16 university
colleges and 20 public universities in Malaysia were established
(wwwmohegovmy)
Aftermath the 1969 racial crisis drastic action by the government was to
help the Bumiputra in education In order to provide greater education
opportunity to inculcate the Malaysian national identity and foster loyalty
to the country the national language Bahasa Malaysia used as a
medium of learning and teaching in education institutions The English
primary and secondary schools gradually converted to Malay LanguageNational School beginning with the primary schools in 1970 Later
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) established drastically to
resolve the problem entrance opportunity for Bumiputra due to their lack
of English proficiency that was required as entrance requirement in
Universiti Malaya (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
In terms of health development administration in developing country
had increased the level of health among citizen Recently after
independence (within ten years) Malaysia did not have hospitals or
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clinics in the rural areas Some of these facilities just existed in the
urban areas As a result it increased the rates of death because of
small diseases such as dengue malaria and mother giving birth to
babies and babies whom did not get enough immunization In the first
decade after independent the government relies that the doctor and
nurses is really needed to manage a lot of cases in the hospital For
example Perlis as the smallest state of the Federation with a population
about 150000 at that time then had only 3 doctors in the state general
hospital and 2 in private practice in 1967 (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
After development administration the government managed to increase
the element of health because the government knows the importance of
health that generate the best generation to come or in the future Thus
citizen must get enough facilities in terms of health as it creates
stabilization in our country In present day rural areas provided with
abundance of health facilities and treatment from experienced doctors
and nurses It will help the people in that area to get the early treatment
before they will be sent to the nearest hospital if cannot be treated by
rural doctors and nurses These clinics also have a responsibility to give
enough immunization to the children especially babies
Moreover the government also tries to reduce the burden of the citizen
by giving benefit to certain people because as we know the cost of the
health treatment is expensive For example government servants and
student had given discounted low prices for treatment and medicines
This effort is to make sure that this group of people gets enough
treatment if they are sick The establishment of 1 Malaysia clinics by the
present Prime Minister (Datuk Seri Najib) added to the convenience of the people
In the matter of facilities there also have significance of the developing
administration in our developing country such as to and had increased
the number of facilities in our country For example before the
development administration there were not enough public transport
services This situation gave difficulties to the citizen to travel Public
transports at that time were only trishaw bicycles and there were less of car usage
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After the development administration the government provides more
facilities in terms of transportation A convenient and conducive public
transportation provided in urban areas and in rural areas as well
Besides then reducing the congestion of the urban traffic it also helps
the people to move from one place to another in a faster and convenient
way Thus government had increased the level of transportation
through the Light Railway Transit (LRT) and Keretapi Tanah Melayu
(KTM) These transportation gives the comfortable to the people to
travel in short and faster duration of time
4 CULTURE
After we look at the social aspect we also can look at the significance of development administration in developing our country through the
cultural aspect In terms of culture development administration gives
people or organizational new culture When new development were
brought to organization majority of people in that organization will have
difficulties in accepting new development due to lacking of expertise in
new technologies and factors of resistance towards change However
some workers were willing to accept development as they think every
development have their own benefits and will reduce burden and
expenses Actually it is a challenge to them towards new changes due
to less understanding and unfamiliar with the new system introduced
An organizational culture precisely the government organizations
efforts to improve and develop the civil service initiated since
independence All these efforts directed at increasing output as well as
providing more efficient speedy and effective delivery of service
providing also to reduce the work burden of the public servants andreduced governmentrsquos expenses as well Due to this various policies
programs and activities introduced in the public administration of
Malaysia especially after Tun Mahathir Mohammad took office in 1981
Amongst were the introduction of policies program and strategies such
as the Civil Service Core Principles introduced in 1979 Civil Service
Codes of Ethics in 1980 Enforcement of name tags in 1981 The Look
East Policy in 1982 Clean Efficient and Trustworthy Concept in 1982
The Punch Clock System in 1982 and Leadership by Example and
Enculturation Of Islamic Values in 1983
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112 The Relationship Between Development Administration
And Public Administration
Edward Weidner (1964) suggests the development administration as one with
a special purpose inclusive of political economic and social development thatbecomes as a sub-field of public administration This is because it will guide a
developing nation towards the achievement of its development goals As a
sub-field of public administration it is action oriented and places
administration at the hub of nation building
According to Dwight Waldo public administration described as a management
of people and material to achieve government objective According him also
public administration acts as an art and science of management that related
to state matters Besides that Public Administration is all about the
management of scarce resources to accomplish the goals of public policy
(Williams 1980)
Public Administration found in all branches of government within the
legislative executive and the judiciary as well It the use of managerial
political and legal theories which involves processes to fulfil legislative
executive and judicial government mandates Public administration covers a
wide area of study but focuses on citizenship and the state These two areas
are then sub-divide into other minor areas such as management
organization political economy environment and development
Development administration considered as a field of study or a sub-area
under public administration (Nicholson and Connerly 1989) Development
administration emerged as a field of study result of research observations
and implementation carried out by scholars of public administration who are
interested in the progress that took place in the developing nations It is partial
of public administration that is precisely to handle matters regarding to
development As the outcome of emphasis it expected to be efficient in
running development programs and projects
The Public Administration and management systems in many developing
countries however are still unprepared for changes not to mention about
quality productivity effectiveness and efficiency (Bryant and White 1992) It
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is more appropriate to use the term development administration and not mere
public administration in the developing countries because the underpinning
issues in those nations are different from those in the developed world
Therefore a special kind of administrative institution needed and he called it
as development administration
Public Administration is concerned with the uses of managerial
methodological techniques that lead to the most efficient result It is a
management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purpose of
the state (Rosenbloom 1993)
It is the science of how a country to be ruled
It is a governmentrsquos central instrument for dealing with general social
problems
It is the management of resources to achieve governmentrsquos goals and
objectives
Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies
A policy typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcomes Policies normally guide every action It provides a
framework for every aim to achieve certain objectives There are three
branches of government that are responsible to generate and implement
policies which is executive legislative and judiciary Nevertheless major
parts of administration carried out by the executive branch The duty of
executive branch is to design and implement the policies rule and regulation
While the power of legislative branch is to debate and enact rules of the
society in the form of laws and judiciary branch function in safeguard the
fundamental rights and liberties of societies These three branches play animportant role to ensure all the policy making and implementation did properly
to give benefit to state and people itself For the example before make a
policy government have to make an investigation and analysis of the
advantage and disadvantages of the policy making in order to ensure the
effectiveness when the policy are implemented
Edward Weidner therefore stated that development administration as a sub-
field of public administration is to form administrative machinery to theobjective of government It divides into two which is process and area of
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study By process development administration means the process through
which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as
political economic and social progress or country development as a whole
Besides that Fred W Riggs as mentioned above had stated views that
development administration as administration according to dynamic social
situations Accordingly administrative machinery must be adapted to the
existing and new task The essential ideas of development lie in the increased
ability of human societies to shape their physical human and cultural
environments It is also similar to a process of improving the capably of a
nations institution and value system to meet increasing and different
demands
113 Classical And Contemporary Definitions Of Development
Administration
According to Fred Riggs (1970) definition of development administration is
about the administration of development programs using prescribed
governmental methods to implement policies which due for development
objectives and to elevate administrative capabilities As we all know in all
developing countries government had plan and provide a lot of development
program to lessen poverty of the country upgrade or enhance output and
productivity help to improve and develop the way of living of the people
especially in education and economic sector
Besides that according to Fred Riggs also development administration as the
administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies
chosen by the government to fulfil or achieve its development objectives and
to upgrade the capacity of administration Government also must ensure that
all the mission and program will give benefit to all level of society and not only
to the country itself
Furthermore in the developing nations it is essential or necessary for the
government to create policies and implement them by desirable quality and
good value of projects and programs complete with specific objectives and
goals All the programs and plans arranged or structured by the government
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must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not
useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people) More
than that the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people
However the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot
give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to
administer it in a proper efficient and cost effective way This is because
government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be
restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can
follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives
Furthermore as we all know all government programs have used a lot of
allotment of countryrsquos wealth Especially in the developing nation government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost
project It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed
country A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road
services for instance The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have
houses money and opportunity to go to school or to get education and alsoan opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day
However road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to
enhance economic opportunities Activities of the country and directly will
provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also
for the graduate enhance and improve in income of the people and also not
to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all
citizen
In other word we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or
incentive in a variety way and method However all this only can happen if the
300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way All the
plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the
instituted of bureaucracy Besides that what is more important is that we
need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play
their role effectively
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Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
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14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
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for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
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Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
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include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
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countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
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Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
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environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
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Administration well recognized as a mechanism or a tool that generates affairs of state
Administration of development needs to be distinguished from the development of
administration It consists of two different interrelated aspects of development administration
Administration helps in arranging human and resources accordingly and therefore in this
context it is a mechanism that helps generate the development efforts in a state The
administration of development shows that is a responsible in running all matters regarding to
development
However much of the literature definition regarding to development relates it to
economic growth the increased production of capital and consumer goods
The essential idea of development lies in the increased ability of human societies to
shape their physical human and cultural environments It is also similar to a process of
modernization Modernization is generally a process of improving the capability of a
nationrsquos institutions and value system to meet increasing and different demands
Generally administration often described as the development implementation and study of
government policy An administration linked to pursuing the public good by enhancing civil
society and social justice Though an administration has historically referred to government
management it increasingly encompasses non-governmental organizations that are not
acting out of self-interest In this sense administration acts as an agent responsible to
develop a state Development administration thus considered a practical solution to help
governments of developing countries towards modernization
111 Importance Of Development Administration To
Developing Countries
1 ECONOMY
In aspect of the economy the importance of development administration
to developing countries is more on the objective to improve standard
of living of people It means the government wants to increase the
quality of life of the citizen by try to enhance their motivation to generate
the income of the country It is important to produce the best product
and maximum profit for developing country as the developing country
can maximize the per capita income
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During the pre-colonial our country provided or sold raw materials to
other countries because there was no expertise in producing our own
manufacturing products Later after development administration our
country had tried to introduce or had produced our own manufacturing
local products using our own materials such as rubber to produce
shoes palm oil to produce cooking oil etc
2 POLITICS
Before development administration the local people depended to British
in their administration but later after development administration the
local people had tremendous participation in politics precisely the
administration of the state and the policy making as well
Thus development administration had generated more participation
of new generation to involve in politics It is important because this
new generation is the citizen creates new ideas and new policies to
develop the people and the country This is the most important element
as it creates or shapes the administrator of the country by choosing their
own representatives that will create policies for them
New Economic Policy by Tun Razak our ex-Prime Minister for instance
had successfully changed the life of the local people Tun Dr Mahathir
Mohamad and his Look East Policy that had generated our country to
be developing such as Korea and Japan Korea and Japan are among
the Asian countries as an example of countries that had been
successful in developing their country without help from foreign or super
power states
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3 SOCIAL
In terms of social we can divide the term social in the three main
division such as education health and facilities
In terms of education the development administration is very important
because it increases the facilities opportunities and education
level among the citizen However due to the efforts made under the
development administration the government had able to create a
positive mindset to the citizen with the existence of more universities
and private colleges It is due to encourage and increase the education
level of citizens through the existence of these institutions Government
also provide scholarships and loans to students to continue their study
in our country or overseas This benefit will increase the motivation of
the student and it is important because students are the new generation
of administrator
After development all races had equal chances to get education The
government built more schools and higher learning education
institutions in order to help citizens to get comfortable and best learning
education Since 2008 about 14 private universities 16 university
colleges and 20 public universities in Malaysia were established
(wwwmohegovmy)
Aftermath the 1969 racial crisis drastic action by the government was to
help the Bumiputra in education In order to provide greater education
opportunity to inculcate the Malaysian national identity and foster loyalty
to the country the national language Bahasa Malaysia used as a
medium of learning and teaching in education institutions The English
primary and secondary schools gradually converted to Malay LanguageNational School beginning with the primary schools in 1970 Later
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) established drastically to
resolve the problem entrance opportunity for Bumiputra due to their lack
of English proficiency that was required as entrance requirement in
Universiti Malaya (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
In terms of health development administration in developing country
had increased the level of health among citizen Recently after
independence (within ten years) Malaysia did not have hospitals or
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clinics in the rural areas Some of these facilities just existed in the
urban areas As a result it increased the rates of death because of
small diseases such as dengue malaria and mother giving birth to
babies and babies whom did not get enough immunization In the first
decade after independent the government relies that the doctor and
nurses is really needed to manage a lot of cases in the hospital For
example Perlis as the smallest state of the Federation with a population
about 150000 at that time then had only 3 doctors in the state general
hospital and 2 in private practice in 1967 (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
After development administration the government managed to increase
the element of health because the government knows the importance of
health that generate the best generation to come or in the future Thus
citizen must get enough facilities in terms of health as it creates
stabilization in our country In present day rural areas provided with
abundance of health facilities and treatment from experienced doctors
and nurses It will help the people in that area to get the early treatment
before they will be sent to the nearest hospital if cannot be treated by
rural doctors and nurses These clinics also have a responsibility to give
enough immunization to the children especially babies
Moreover the government also tries to reduce the burden of the citizen
by giving benefit to certain people because as we know the cost of the
health treatment is expensive For example government servants and
student had given discounted low prices for treatment and medicines
This effort is to make sure that this group of people gets enough
treatment if they are sick The establishment of 1 Malaysia clinics by the
present Prime Minister (Datuk Seri Najib) added to the convenience of the people
In the matter of facilities there also have significance of the developing
administration in our developing country such as to and had increased
the number of facilities in our country For example before the
development administration there were not enough public transport
services This situation gave difficulties to the citizen to travel Public
transports at that time were only trishaw bicycles and there were less of car usage
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After the development administration the government provides more
facilities in terms of transportation A convenient and conducive public
transportation provided in urban areas and in rural areas as well
Besides then reducing the congestion of the urban traffic it also helps
the people to move from one place to another in a faster and convenient
way Thus government had increased the level of transportation
through the Light Railway Transit (LRT) and Keretapi Tanah Melayu
(KTM) These transportation gives the comfortable to the people to
travel in short and faster duration of time
4 CULTURE
After we look at the social aspect we also can look at the significance of development administration in developing our country through the
cultural aspect In terms of culture development administration gives
people or organizational new culture When new development were
brought to organization majority of people in that organization will have
difficulties in accepting new development due to lacking of expertise in
new technologies and factors of resistance towards change However
some workers were willing to accept development as they think every
development have their own benefits and will reduce burden and
expenses Actually it is a challenge to them towards new changes due
to less understanding and unfamiliar with the new system introduced
An organizational culture precisely the government organizations
efforts to improve and develop the civil service initiated since
independence All these efforts directed at increasing output as well as
providing more efficient speedy and effective delivery of service
providing also to reduce the work burden of the public servants andreduced governmentrsquos expenses as well Due to this various policies
programs and activities introduced in the public administration of
Malaysia especially after Tun Mahathir Mohammad took office in 1981
Amongst were the introduction of policies program and strategies such
as the Civil Service Core Principles introduced in 1979 Civil Service
Codes of Ethics in 1980 Enforcement of name tags in 1981 The Look
East Policy in 1982 Clean Efficient and Trustworthy Concept in 1982
The Punch Clock System in 1982 and Leadership by Example and
Enculturation Of Islamic Values in 1983
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112 The Relationship Between Development Administration
And Public Administration
Edward Weidner (1964) suggests the development administration as one with
a special purpose inclusive of political economic and social development thatbecomes as a sub-field of public administration This is because it will guide a
developing nation towards the achievement of its development goals As a
sub-field of public administration it is action oriented and places
administration at the hub of nation building
According to Dwight Waldo public administration described as a management
of people and material to achieve government objective According him also
public administration acts as an art and science of management that related
to state matters Besides that Public Administration is all about the
management of scarce resources to accomplish the goals of public policy
(Williams 1980)
Public Administration found in all branches of government within the
legislative executive and the judiciary as well It the use of managerial
political and legal theories which involves processes to fulfil legislative
executive and judicial government mandates Public administration covers a
wide area of study but focuses on citizenship and the state These two areas
are then sub-divide into other minor areas such as management
organization political economy environment and development
Development administration considered as a field of study or a sub-area
under public administration (Nicholson and Connerly 1989) Development
administration emerged as a field of study result of research observations
and implementation carried out by scholars of public administration who are
interested in the progress that took place in the developing nations It is partial
of public administration that is precisely to handle matters regarding to
development As the outcome of emphasis it expected to be efficient in
running development programs and projects
The Public Administration and management systems in many developing
countries however are still unprepared for changes not to mention about
quality productivity effectiveness and efficiency (Bryant and White 1992) It
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is more appropriate to use the term development administration and not mere
public administration in the developing countries because the underpinning
issues in those nations are different from those in the developed world
Therefore a special kind of administrative institution needed and he called it
as development administration
Public Administration is concerned with the uses of managerial
methodological techniques that lead to the most efficient result It is a
management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purpose of
the state (Rosenbloom 1993)
It is the science of how a country to be ruled
It is a governmentrsquos central instrument for dealing with general social
problems
It is the management of resources to achieve governmentrsquos goals and
objectives
Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies
A policy typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcomes Policies normally guide every action It provides a
framework for every aim to achieve certain objectives There are three
branches of government that are responsible to generate and implement
policies which is executive legislative and judiciary Nevertheless major
parts of administration carried out by the executive branch The duty of
executive branch is to design and implement the policies rule and regulation
While the power of legislative branch is to debate and enact rules of the
society in the form of laws and judiciary branch function in safeguard the
fundamental rights and liberties of societies These three branches play animportant role to ensure all the policy making and implementation did properly
to give benefit to state and people itself For the example before make a
policy government have to make an investigation and analysis of the
advantage and disadvantages of the policy making in order to ensure the
effectiveness when the policy are implemented
Edward Weidner therefore stated that development administration as a sub-
field of public administration is to form administrative machinery to theobjective of government It divides into two which is process and area of
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study By process development administration means the process through
which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as
political economic and social progress or country development as a whole
Besides that Fred W Riggs as mentioned above had stated views that
development administration as administration according to dynamic social
situations Accordingly administrative machinery must be adapted to the
existing and new task The essential ideas of development lie in the increased
ability of human societies to shape their physical human and cultural
environments It is also similar to a process of improving the capably of a
nations institution and value system to meet increasing and different
demands
113 Classical And Contemporary Definitions Of Development
Administration
According to Fred Riggs (1970) definition of development administration is
about the administration of development programs using prescribed
governmental methods to implement policies which due for development
objectives and to elevate administrative capabilities As we all know in all
developing countries government had plan and provide a lot of development
program to lessen poverty of the country upgrade or enhance output and
productivity help to improve and develop the way of living of the people
especially in education and economic sector
Besides that according to Fred Riggs also development administration as the
administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies
chosen by the government to fulfil or achieve its development objectives and
to upgrade the capacity of administration Government also must ensure that
all the mission and program will give benefit to all level of society and not only
to the country itself
Furthermore in the developing nations it is essential or necessary for the
government to create policies and implement them by desirable quality and
good value of projects and programs complete with specific objectives and
goals All the programs and plans arranged or structured by the government
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must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not
useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people) More
than that the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people
However the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot
give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to
administer it in a proper efficient and cost effective way This is because
government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be
restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can
follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives
Furthermore as we all know all government programs have used a lot of
allotment of countryrsquos wealth Especially in the developing nation government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost
project It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed
country A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road
services for instance The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have
houses money and opportunity to go to school or to get education and alsoan opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day
However road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to
enhance economic opportunities Activities of the country and directly will
provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also
for the graduate enhance and improve in income of the people and also not
to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all
citizen
In other word we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or
incentive in a variety way and method However all this only can happen if the
300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way All the
plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the
instituted of bureaucracy Besides that what is more important is that we
need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play
their role effectively
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Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
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14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
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for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
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Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
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include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
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countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
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Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
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environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
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| 5
During the pre-colonial our country provided or sold raw materials to
other countries because there was no expertise in producing our own
manufacturing products Later after development administration our
country had tried to introduce or had produced our own manufacturing
local products using our own materials such as rubber to produce
shoes palm oil to produce cooking oil etc
2 POLITICS
Before development administration the local people depended to British
in their administration but later after development administration the
local people had tremendous participation in politics precisely the
administration of the state and the policy making as well
Thus development administration had generated more participation
of new generation to involve in politics It is important because this
new generation is the citizen creates new ideas and new policies to
develop the people and the country This is the most important element
as it creates or shapes the administrator of the country by choosing their
own representatives that will create policies for them
New Economic Policy by Tun Razak our ex-Prime Minister for instance
had successfully changed the life of the local people Tun Dr Mahathir
Mohamad and his Look East Policy that had generated our country to
be developing such as Korea and Japan Korea and Japan are among
the Asian countries as an example of countries that had been
successful in developing their country without help from foreign or super
power states
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3 SOCIAL
In terms of social we can divide the term social in the three main
division such as education health and facilities
In terms of education the development administration is very important
because it increases the facilities opportunities and education
level among the citizen However due to the efforts made under the
development administration the government had able to create a
positive mindset to the citizen with the existence of more universities
and private colleges It is due to encourage and increase the education
level of citizens through the existence of these institutions Government
also provide scholarships and loans to students to continue their study
in our country or overseas This benefit will increase the motivation of
the student and it is important because students are the new generation
of administrator
After development all races had equal chances to get education The
government built more schools and higher learning education
institutions in order to help citizens to get comfortable and best learning
education Since 2008 about 14 private universities 16 university
colleges and 20 public universities in Malaysia were established
(wwwmohegovmy)
Aftermath the 1969 racial crisis drastic action by the government was to
help the Bumiputra in education In order to provide greater education
opportunity to inculcate the Malaysian national identity and foster loyalty
to the country the national language Bahasa Malaysia used as a
medium of learning and teaching in education institutions The English
primary and secondary schools gradually converted to Malay LanguageNational School beginning with the primary schools in 1970 Later
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) established drastically to
resolve the problem entrance opportunity for Bumiputra due to their lack
of English proficiency that was required as entrance requirement in
Universiti Malaya (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
In terms of health development administration in developing country
had increased the level of health among citizen Recently after
independence (within ten years) Malaysia did not have hospitals or
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| 7
clinics in the rural areas Some of these facilities just existed in the
urban areas As a result it increased the rates of death because of
small diseases such as dengue malaria and mother giving birth to
babies and babies whom did not get enough immunization In the first
decade after independent the government relies that the doctor and
nurses is really needed to manage a lot of cases in the hospital For
example Perlis as the smallest state of the Federation with a population
about 150000 at that time then had only 3 doctors in the state general
hospital and 2 in private practice in 1967 (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
After development administration the government managed to increase
the element of health because the government knows the importance of
health that generate the best generation to come or in the future Thus
citizen must get enough facilities in terms of health as it creates
stabilization in our country In present day rural areas provided with
abundance of health facilities and treatment from experienced doctors
and nurses It will help the people in that area to get the early treatment
before they will be sent to the nearest hospital if cannot be treated by
rural doctors and nurses These clinics also have a responsibility to give
enough immunization to the children especially babies
Moreover the government also tries to reduce the burden of the citizen
by giving benefit to certain people because as we know the cost of the
health treatment is expensive For example government servants and
student had given discounted low prices for treatment and medicines
This effort is to make sure that this group of people gets enough
treatment if they are sick The establishment of 1 Malaysia clinics by the
present Prime Minister (Datuk Seri Najib) added to the convenience of the people
In the matter of facilities there also have significance of the developing
administration in our developing country such as to and had increased
the number of facilities in our country For example before the
development administration there were not enough public transport
services This situation gave difficulties to the citizen to travel Public
transports at that time were only trishaw bicycles and there were less of car usage
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8 |
After the development administration the government provides more
facilities in terms of transportation A convenient and conducive public
transportation provided in urban areas and in rural areas as well
Besides then reducing the congestion of the urban traffic it also helps
the people to move from one place to another in a faster and convenient
way Thus government had increased the level of transportation
through the Light Railway Transit (LRT) and Keretapi Tanah Melayu
(KTM) These transportation gives the comfortable to the people to
travel in short and faster duration of time
4 CULTURE
After we look at the social aspect we also can look at the significance of development administration in developing our country through the
cultural aspect In terms of culture development administration gives
people or organizational new culture When new development were
brought to organization majority of people in that organization will have
difficulties in accepting new development due to lacking of expertise in
new technologies and factors of resistance towards change However
some workers were willing to accept development as they think every
development have their own benefits and will reduce burden and
expenses Actually it is a challenge to them towards new changes due
to less understanding and unfamiliar with the new system introduced
An organizational culture precisely the government organizations
efforts to improve and develop the civil service initiated since
independence All these efforts directed at increasing output as well as
providing more efficient speedy and effective delivery of service
providing also to reduce the work burden of the public servants andreduced governmentrsquos expenses as well Due to this various policies
programs and activities introduced in the public administration of
Malaysia especially after Tun Mahathir Mohammad took office in 1981
Amongst were the introduction of policies program and strategies such
as the Civil Service Core Principles introduced in 1979 Civil Service
Codes of Ethics in 1980 Enforcement of name tags in 1981 The Look
East Policy in 1982 Clean Efficient and Trustworthy Concept in 1982
The Punch Clock System in 1982 and Leadership by Example and
Enculturation Of Islamic Values in 1983
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| 9
112 The Relationship Between Development Administration
And Public Administration
Edward Weidner (1964) suggests the development administration as one with
a special purpose inclusive of political economic and social development thatbecomes as a sub-field of public administration This is because it will guide a
developing nation towards the achievement of its development goals As a
sub-field of public administration it is action oriented and places
administration at the hub of nation building
According to Dwight Waldo public administration described as a management
of people and material to achieve government objective According him also
public administration acts as an art and science of management that related
to state matters Besides that Public Administration is all about the
management of scarce resources to accomplish the goals of public policy
(Williams 1980)
Public Administration found in all branches of government within the
legislative executive and the judiciary as well It the use of managerial
political and legal theories which involves processes to fulfil legislative
executive and judicial government mandates Public administration covers a
wide area of study but focuses on citizenship and the state These two areas
are then sub-divide into other minor areas such as management
organization political economy environment and development
Development administration considered as a field of study or a sub-area
under public administration (Nicholson and Connerly 1989) Development
administration emerged as a field of study result of research observations
and implementation carried out by scholars of public administration who are
interested in the progress that took place in the developing nations It is partial
of public administration that is precisely to handle matters regarding to
development As the outcome of emphasis it expected to be efficient in
running development programs and projects
The Public Administration and management systems in many developing
countries however are still unprepared for changes not to mention about
quality productivity effectiveness and efficiency (Bryant and White 1992) It
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is more appropriate to use the term development administration and not mere
public administration in the developing countries because the underpinning
issues in those nations are different from those in the developed world
Therefore a special kind of administrative institution needed and he called it
as development administration
Public Administration is concerned with the uses of managerial
methodological techniques that lead to the most efficient result It is a
management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purpose of
the state (Rosenbloom 1993)
It is the science of how a country to be ruled
It is a governmentrsquos central instrument for dealing with general social
problems
It is the management of resources to achieve governmentrsquos goals and
objectives
Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies
A policy typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcomes Policies normally guide every action It provides a
framework for every aim to achieve certain objectives There are three
branches of government that are responsible to generate and implement
policies which is executive legislative and judiciary Nevertheless major
parts of administration carried out by the executive branch The duty of
executive branch is to design and implement the policies rule and regulation
While the power of legislative branch is to debate and enact rules of the
society in the form of laws and judiciary branch function in safeguard the
fundamental rights and liberties of societies These three branches play animportant role to ensure all the policy making and implementation did properly
to give benefit to state and people itself For the example before make a
policy government have to make an investigation and analysis of the
advantage and disadvantages of the policy making in order to ensure the
effectiveness when the policy are implemented
Edward Weidner therefore stated that development administration as a sub-
field of public administration is to form administrative machinery to theobjective of government It divides into two which is process and area of
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study By process development administration means the process through
which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as
political economic and social progress or country development as a whole
Besides that Fred W Riggs as mentioned above had stated views that
development administration as administration according to dynamic social
situations Accordingly administrative machinery must be adapted to the
existing and new task The essential ideas of development lie in the increased
ability of human societies to shape their physical human and cultural
environments It is also similar to a process of improving the capably of a
nations institution and value system to meet increasing and different
demands
113 Classical And Contemporary Definitions Of Development
Administration
According to Fred Riggs (1970) definition of development administration is
about the administration of development programs using prescribed
governmental methods to implement policies which due for development
objectives and to elevate administrative capabilities As we all know in all
developing countries government had plan and provide a lot of development
program to lessen poverty of the country upgrade or enhance output and
productivity help to improve and develop the way of living of the people
especially in education and economic sector
Besides that according to Fred Riggs also development administration as the
administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies
chosen by the government to fulfil or achieve its development objectives and
to upgrade the capacity of administration Government also must ensure that
all the mission and program will give benefit to all level of society and not only
to the country itself
Furthermore in the developing nations it is essential or necessary for the
government to create policies and implement them by desirable quality and
good value of projects and programs complete with specific objectives and
goals All the programs and plans arranged or structured by the government
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must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not
useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people) More
than that the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people
However the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot
give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to
administer it in a proper efficient and cost effective way This is because
government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be
restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can
follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives
Furthermore as we all know all government programs have used a lot of
allotment of countryrsquos wealth Especially in the developing nation government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost
project It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed
country A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road
services for instance The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have
houses money and opportunity to go to school or to get education and alsoan opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day
However road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to
enhance economic opportunities Activities of the country and directly will
provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also
for the graduate enhance and improve in income of the people and also not
to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all
citizen
In other word we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or
incentive in a variety way and method However all this only can happen if the
300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way All the
plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the
instituted of bureaucracy Besides that what is more important is that we
need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play
their role effectively
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Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
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14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
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for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
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Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
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include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
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countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
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Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
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environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
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6 |
3 SOCIAL
In terms of social we can divide the term social in the three main
division such as education health and facilities
In terms of education the development administration is very important
because it increases the facilities opportunities and education
level among the citizen However due to the efforts made under the
development administration the government had able to create a
positive mindset to the citizen with the existence of more universities
and private colleges It is due to encourage and increase the education
level of citizens through the existence of these institutions Government
also provide scholarships and loans to students to continue their study
in our country or overseas This benefit will increase the motivation of
the student and it is important because students are the new generation
of administrator
After development all races had equal chances to get education The
government built more schools and higher learning education
institutions in order to help citizens to get comfortable and best learning
education Since 2008 about 14 private universities 16 university
colleges and 20 public universities in Malaysia were established
(wwwmohegovmy)
Aftermath the 1969 racial crisis drastic action by the government was to
help the Bumiputra in education In order to provide greater education
opportunity to inculcate the Malaysian national identity and foster loyalty
to the country the national language Bahasa Malaysia used as a
medium of learning and teaching in education institutions The English
primary and secondary schools gradually converted to Malay LanguageNational School beginning with the primary schools in 1970 Later
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) established drastically to
resolve the problem entrance opportunity for Bumiputra due to their lack
of English proficiency that was required as entrance requirement in
Universiti Malaya (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
In terms of health development administration in developing country
had increased the level of health among citizen Recently after
independence (within ten years) Malaysia did not have hospitals or
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| 7
clinics in the rural areas Some of these facilities just existed in the
urban areas As a result it increased the rates of death because of
small diseases such as dengue malaria and mother giving birth to
babies and babies whom did not get enough immunization In the first
decade after independent the government relies that the doctor and
nurses is really needed to manage a lot of cases in the hospital For
example Perlis as the smallest state of the Federation with a population
about 150000 at that time then had only 3 doctors in the state general
hospital and 2 in private practice in 1967 (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
After development administration the government managed to increase
the element of health because the government knows the importance of
health that generate the best generation to come or in the future Thus
citizen must get enough facilities in terms of health as it creates
stabilization in our country In present day rural areas provided with
abundance of health facilities and treatment from experienced doctors
and nurses It will help the people in that area to get the early treatment
before they will be sent to the nearest hospital if cannot be treated by
rural doctors and nurses These clinics also have a responsibility to give
enough immunization to the children especially babies
Moreover the government also tries to reduce the burden of the citizen
by giving benefit to certain people because as we know the cost of the
health treatment is expensive For example government servants and
student had given discounted low prices for treatment and medicines
This effort is to make sure that this group of people gets enough
treatment if they are sick The establishment of 1 Malaysia clinics by the
present Prime Minister (Datuk Seri Najib) added to the convenience of the people
In the matter of facilities there also have significance of the developing
administration in our developing country such as to and had increased
the number of facilities in our country For example before the
development administration there were not enough public transport
services This situation gave difficulties to the citizen to travel Public
transports at that time were only trishaw bicycles and there were less of car usage
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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8 |
After the development administration the government provides more
facilities in terms of transportation A convenient and conducive public
transportation provided in urban areas and in rural areas as well
Besides then reducing the congestion of the urban traffic it also helps
the people to move from one place to another in a faster and convenient
way Thus government had increased the level of transportation
through the Light Railway Transit (LRT) and Keretapi Tanah Melayu
(KTM) These transportation gives the comfortable to the people to
travel in short and faster duration of time
4 CULTURE
After we look at the social aspect we also can look at the significance of development administration in developing our country through the
cultural aspect In terms of culture development administration gives
people or organizational new culture When new development were
brought to organization majority of people in that organization will have
difficulties in accepting new development due to lacking of expertise in
new technologies and factors of resistance towards change However
some workers were willing to accept development as they think every
development have their own benefits and will reduce burden and
expenses Actually it is a challenge to them towards new changes due
to less understanding and unfamiliar with the new system introduced
An organizational culture precisely the government organizations
efforts to improve and develop the civil service initiated since
independence All these efforts directed at increasing output as well as
providing more efficient speedy and effective delivery of service
providing also to reduce the work burden of the public servants andreduced governmentrsquos expenses as well Due to this various policies
programs and activities introduced in the public administration of
Malaysia especially after Tun Mahathir Mohammad took office in 1981
Amongst were the introduction of policies program and strategies such
as the Civil Service Core Principles introduced in 1979 Civil Service
Codes of Ethics in 1980 Enforcement of name tags in 1981 The Look
East Policy in 1982 Clean Efficient and Trustworthy Concept in 1982
The Punch Clock System in 1982 and Leadership by Example and
Enculturation Of Islamic Values in 1983
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| 9
112 The Relationship Between Development Administration
And Public Administration
Edward Weidner (1964) suggests the development administration as one with
a special purpose inclusive of political economic and social development thatbecomes as a sub-field of public administration This is because it will guide a
developing nation towards the achievement of its development goals As a
sub-field of public administration it is action oriented and places
administration at the hub of nation building
According to Dwight Waldo public administration described as a management
of people and material to achieve government objective According him also
public administration acts as an art and science of management that related
to state matters Besides that Public Administration is all about the
management of scarce resources to accomplish the goals of public policy
(Williams 1980)
Public Administration found in all branches of government within the
legislative executive and the judiciary as well It the use of managerial
political and legal theories which involves processes to fulfil legislative
executive and judicial government mandates Public administration covers a
wide area of study but focuses on citizenship and the state These two areas
are then sub-divide into other minor areas such as management
organization political economy environment and development
Development administration considered as a field of study or a sub-area
under public administration (Nicholson and Connerly 1989) Development
administration emerged as a field of study result of research observations
and implementation carried out by scholars of public administration who are
interested in the progress that took place in the developing nations It is partial
of public administration that is precisely to handle matters regarding to
development As the outcome of emphasis it expected to be efficient in
running development programs and projects
The Public Administration and management systems in many developing
countries however are still unprepared for changes not to mention about
quality productivity effectiveness and efficiency (Bryant and White 1992) It
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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10 |
is more appropriate to use the term development administration and not mere
public administration in the developing countries because the underpinning
issues in those nations are different from those in the developed world
Therefore a special kind of administrative institution needed and he called it
as development administration
Public Administration is concerned with the uses of managerial
methodological techniques that lead to the most efficient result It is a
management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purpose of
the state (Rosenbloom 1993)
It is the science of how a country to be ruled
It is a governmentrsquos central instrument for dealing with general social
problems
It is the management of resources to achieve governmentrsquos goals and
objectives
Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies
A policy typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcomes Policies normally guide every action It provides a
framework for every aim to achieve certain objectives There are three
branches of government that are responsible to generate and implement
policies which is executive legislative and judiciary Nevertheless major
parts of administration carried out by the executive branch The duty of
executive branch is to design and implement the policies rule and regulation
While the power of legislative branch is to debate and enact rules of the
society in the form of laws and judiciary branch function in safeguard the
fundamental rights and liberties of societies These three branches play animportant role to ensure all the policy making and implementation did properly
to give benefit to state and people itself For the example before make a
policy government have to make an investigation and analysis of the
advantage and disadvantages of the policy making in order to ensure the
effectiveness when the policy are implemented
Edward Weidner therefore stated that development administration as a sub-
field of public administration is to form administrative machinery to theobjective of government It divides into two which is process and area of
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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| 11
study By process development administration means the process through
which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as
political economic and social progress or country development as a whole
Besides that Fred W Riggs as mentioned above had stated views that
development administration as administration according to dynamic social
situations Accordingly administrative machinery must be adapted to the
existing and new task The essential ideas of development lie in the increased
ability of human societies to shape their physical human and cultural
environments It is also similar to a process of improving the capably of a
nations institution and value system to meet increasing and different
demands
113 Classical And Contemporary Definitions Of Development
Administration
According to Fred Riggs (1970) definition of development administration is
about the administration of development programs using prescribed
governmental methods to implement policies which due for development
objectives and to elevate administrative capabilities As we all know in all
developing countries government had plan and provide a lot of development
program to lessen poverty of the country upgrade or enhance output and
productivity help to improve and develop the way of living of the people
especially in education and economic sector
Besides that according to Fred Riggs also development administration as the
administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies
chosen by the government to fulfil or achieve its development objectives and
to upgrade the capacity of administration Government also must ensure that
all the mission and program will give benefit to all level of society and not only
to the country itself
Furthermore in the developing nations it is essential or necessary for the
government to create policies and implement them by desirable quality and
good value of projects and programs complete with specific objectives and
goals All the programs and plans arranged or structured by the government
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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12 |
must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not
useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people) More
than that the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people
However the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot
give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to
administer it in a proper efficient and cost effective way This is because
government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be
restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can
follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives
Furthermore as we all know all government programs have used a lot of
allotment of countryrsquos wealth Especially in the developing nation government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost
project It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed
country A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road
services for instance The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have
houses money and opportunity to go to school or to get education and alsoan opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day
However road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to
enhance economic opportunities Activities of the country and directly will
provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also
for the graduate enhance and improve in income of the people and also not
to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all
citizen
In other word we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or
incentive in a variety way and method However all this only can happen if the
300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way All the
plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the
instituted of bureaucracy Besides that what is more important is that we
need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play
their role effectively
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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| 13
Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
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14 |
14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
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| 15
for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
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Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
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| 17
include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
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18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
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| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
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environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
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| 7
clinics in the rural areas Some of these facilities just existed in the
urban areas As a result it increased the rates of death because of
small diseases such as dengue malaria and mother giving birth to
babies and babies whom did not get enough immunization In the first
decade after independent the government relies that the doctor and
nurses is really needed to manage a lot of cases in the hospital For
example Perlis as the smallest state of the Federation with a population
about 150000 at that time then had only 3 doctors in the state general
hospital and 2 in private practice in 1967 (Syed Arabi Idid 2008)
After development administration the government managed to increase
the element of health because the government knows the importance of
health that generate the best generation to come or in the future Thus
citizen must get enough facilities in terms of health as it creates
stabilization in our country In present day rural areas provided with
abundance of health facilities and treatment from experienced doctors
and nurses It will help the people in that area to get the early treatment
before they will be sent to the nearest hospital if cannot be treated by
rural doctors and nurses These clinics also have a responsibility to give
enough immunization to the children especially babies
Moreover the government also tries to reduce the burden of the citizen
by giving benefit to certain people because as we know the cost of the
health treatment is expensive For example government servants and
student had given discounted low prices for treatment and medicines
This effort is to make sure that this group of people gets enough
treatment if they are sick The establishment of 1 Malaysia clinics by the
present Prime Minister (Datuk Seri Najib) added to the convenience of the people
In the matter of facilities there also have significance of the developing
administration in our developing country such as to and had increased
the number of facilities in our country For example before the
development administration there were not enough public transport
services This situation gave difficulties to the citizen to travel Public
transports at that time were only trishaw bicycles and there were less of car usage
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8 |
After the development administration the government provides more
facilities in terms of transportation A convenient and conducive public
transportation provided in urban areas and in rural areas as well
Besides then reducing the congestion of the urban traffic it also helps
the people to move from one place to another in a faster and convenient
way Thus government had increased the level of transportation
through the Light Railway Transit (LRT) and Keretapi Tanah Melayu
(KTM) These transportation gives the comfortable to the people to
travel in short and faster duration of time
4 CULTURE
After we look at the social aspect we also can look at the significance of development administration in developing our country through the
cultural aspect In terms of culture development administration gives
people or organizational new culture When new development were
brought to organization majority of people in that organization will have
difficulties in accepting new development due to lacking of expertise in
new technologies and factors of resistance towards change However
some workers were willing to accept development as they think every
development have their own benefits and will reduce burden and
expenses Actually it is a challenge to them towards new changes due
to less understanding and unfamiliar with the new system introduced
An organizational culture precisely the government organizations
efforts to improve and develop the civil service initiated since
independence All these efforts directed at increasing output as well as
providing more efficient speedy and effective delivery of service
providing also to reduce the work burden of the public servants andreduced governmentrsquos expenses as well Due to this various policies
programs and activities introduced in the public administration of
Malaysia especially after Tun Mahathir Mohammad took office in 1981
Amongst were the introduction of policies program and strategies such
as the Civil Service Core Principles introduced in 1979 Civil Service
Codes of Ethics in 1980 Enforcement of name tags in 1981 The Look
East Policy in 1982 Clean Efficient and Trustworthy Concept in 1982
The Punch Clock System in 1982 and Leadership by Example and
Enculturation Of Islamic Values in 1983
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112 The Relationship Between Development Administration
And Public Administration
Edward Weidner (1964) suggests the development administration as one with
a special purpose inclusive of political economic and social development thatbecomes as a sub-field of public administration This is because it will guide a
developing nation towards the achievement of its development goals As a
sub-field of public administration it is action oriented and places
administration at the hub of nation building
According to Dwight Waldo public administration described as a management
of people and material to achieve government objective According him also
public administration acts as an art and science of management that related
to state matters Besides that Public Administration is all about the
management of scarce resources to accomplish the goals of public policy
(Williams 1980)
Public Administration found in all branches of government within the
legislative executive and the judiciary as well It the use of managerial
political and legal theories which involves processes to fulfil legislative
executive and judicial government mandates Public administration covers a
wide area of study but focuses on citizenship and the state These two areas
are then sub-divide into other minor areas such as management
organization political economy environment and development
Development administration considered as a field of study or a sub-area
under public administration (Nicholson and Connerly 1989) Development
administration emerged as a field of study result of research observations
and implementation carried out by scholars of public administration who are
interested in the progress that took place in the developing nations It is partial
of public administration that is precisely to handle matters regarding to
development As the outcome of emphasis it expected to be efficient in
running development programs and projects
The Public Administration and management systems in many developing
countries however are still unprepared for changes not to mention about
quality productivity effectiveness and efficiency (Bryant and White 1992) It
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is more appropriate to use the term development administration and not mere
public administration in the developing countries because the underpinning
issues in those nations are different from those in the developed world
Therefore a special kind of administrative institution needed and he called it
as development administration
Public Administration is concerned with the uses of managerial
methodological techniques that lead to the most efficient result It is a
management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purpose of
the state (Rosenbloom 1993)
It is the science of how a country to be ruled
It is a governmentrsquos central instrument for dealing with general social
problems
It is the management of resources to achieve governmentrsquos goals and
objectives
Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies
A policy typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcomes Policies normally guide every action It provides a
framework for every aim to achieve certain objectives There are three
branches of government that are responsible to generate and implement
policies which is executive legislative and judiciary Nevertheless major
parts of administration carried out by the executive branch The duty of
executive branch is to design and implement the policies rule and regulation
While the power of legislative branch is to debate and enact rules of the
society in the form of laws and judiciary branch function in safeguard the
fundamental rights and liberties of societies These three branches play animportant role to ensure all the policy making and implementation did properly
to give benefit to state and people itself For the example before make a
policy government have to make an investigation and analysis of the
advantage and disadvantages of the policy making in order to ensure the
effectiveness when the policy are implemented
Edward Weidner therefore stated that development administration as a sub-
field of public administration is to form administrative machinery to theobjective of government It divides into two which is process and area of
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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| 11
study By process development administration means the process through
which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as
political economic and social progress or country development as a whole
Besides that Fred W Riggs as mentioned above had stated views that
development administration as administration according to dynamic social
situations Accordingly administrative machinery must be adapted to the
existing and new task The essential ideas of development lie in the increased
ability of human societies to shape their physical human and cultural
environments It is also similar to a process of improving the capably of a
nations institution and value system to meet increasing and different
demands
113 Classical And Contemporary Definitions Of Development
Administration
According to Fred Riggs (1970) definition of development administration is
about the administration of development programs using prescribed
governmental methods to implement policies which due for development
objectives and to elevate administrative capabilities As we all know in all
developing countries government had plan and provide a lot of development
program to lessen poverty of the country upgrade or enhance output and
productivity help to improve and develop the way of living of the people
especially in education and economic sector
Besides that according to Fred Riggs also development administration as the
administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies
chosen by the government to fulfil or achieve its development objectives and
to upgrade the capacity of administration Government also must ensure that
all the mission and program will give benefit to all level of society and not only
to the country itself
Furthermore in the developing nations it is essential or necessary for the
government to create policies and implement them by desirable quality and
good value of projects and programs complete with specific objectives and
goals All the programs and plans arranged or structured by the government
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1220
12 |
must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not
useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people) More
than that the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people
However the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot
give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to
administer it in a proper efficient and cost effective way This is because
government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be
restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can
follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives
Furthermore as we all know all government programs have used a lot of
allotment of countryrsquos wealth Especially in the developing nation government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost
project It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed
country A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road
services for instance The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have
houses money and opportunity to go to school or to get education and alsoan opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day
However road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to
enhance economic opportunities Activities of the country and directly will
provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also
for the graduate enhance and improve in income of the people and also not
to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all
citizen
In other word we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or
incentive in a variety way and method However all this only can happen if the
300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way All the
plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the
instituted of bureaucracy Besides that what is more important is that we
need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play
their role effectively
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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| 13
Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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14 |
14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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| 15
for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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16 |
Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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| 17
include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
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Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
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20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
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8 |
After the development administration the government provides more
facilities in terms of transportation A convenient and conducive public
transportation provided in urban areas and in rural areas as well
Besides then reducing the congestion of the urban traffic it also helps
the people to move from one place to another in a faster and convenient
way Thus government had increased the level of transportation
through the Light Railway Transit (LRT) and Keretapi Tanah Melayu
(KTM) These transportation gives the comfortable to the people to
travel in short and faster duration of time
4 CULTURE
After we look at the social aspect we also can look at the significance of development administration in developing our country through the
cultural aspect In terms of culture development administration gives
people or organizational new culture When new development were
brought to organization majority of people in that organization will have
difficulties in accepting new development due to lacking of expertise in
new technologies and factors of resistance towards change However
some workers were willing to accept development as they think every
development have their own benefits and will reduce burden and
expenses Actually it is a challenge to them towards new changes due
to less understanding and unfamiliar with the new system introduced
An organizational culture precisely the government organizations
efforts to improve and develop the civil service initiated since
independence All these efforts directed at increasing output as well as
providing more efficient speedy and effective delivery of service
providing also to reduce the work burden of the public servants andreduced governmentrsquos expenses as well Due to this various policies
programs and activities introduced in the public administration of
Malaysia especially after Tun Mahathir Mohammad took office in 1981
Amongst were the introduction of policies program and strategies such
as the Civil Service Core Principles introduced in 1979 Civil Service
Codes of Ethics in 1980 Enforcement of name tags in 1981 The Look
East Policy in 1982 Clean Efficient and Trustworthy Concept in 1982
The Punch Clock System in 1982 and Leadership by Example and
Enculturation Of Islamic Values in 1983
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112 The Relationship Between Development Administration
And Public Administration
Edward Weidner (1964) suggests the development administration as one with
a special purpose inclusive of political economic and social development thatbecomes as a sub-field of public administration This is because it will guide a
developing nation towards the achievement of its development goals As a
sub-field of public administration it is action oriented and places
administration at the hub of nation building
According to Dwight Waldo public administration described as a management
of people and material to achieve government objective According him also
public administration acts as an art and science of management that related
to state matters Besides that Public Administration is all about the
management of scarce resources to accomplish the goals of public policy
(Williams 1980)
Public Administration found in all branches of government within the
legislative executive and the judiciary as well It the use of managerial
political and legal theories which involves processes to fulfil legislative
executive and judicial government mandates Public administration covers a
wide area of study but focuses on citizenship and the state These two areas
are then sub-divide into other minor areas such as management
organization political economy environment and development
Development administration considered as a field of study or a sub-area
under public administration (Nicholson and Connerly 1989) Development
administration emerged as a field of study result of research observations
and implementation carried out by scholars of public administration who are
interested in the progress that took place in the developing nations It is partial
of public administration that is precisely to handle matters regarding to
development As the outcome of emphasis it expected to be efficient in
running development programs and projects
The Public Administration and management systems in many developing
countries however are still unprepared for changes not to mention about
quality productivity effectiveness and efficiency (Bryant and White 1992) It
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is more appropriate to use the term development administration and not mere
public administration in the developing countries because the underpinning
issues in those nations are different from those in the developed world
Therefore a special kind of administrative institution needed and he called it
as development administration
Public Administration is concerned with the uses of managerial
methodological techniques that lead to the most efficient result It is a
management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purpose of
the state (Rosenbloom 1993)
It is the science of how a country to be ruled
It is a governmentrsquos central instrument for dealing with general social
problems
It is the management of resources to achieve governmentrsquos goals and
objectives
Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies
A policy typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcomes Policies normally guide every action It provides a
framework for every aim to achieve certain objectives There are three
branches of government that are responsible to generate and implement
policies which is executive legislative and judiciary Nevertheless major
parts of administration carried out by the executive branch The duty of
executive branch is to design and implement the policies rule and regulation
While the power of legislative branch is to debate and enact rules of the
society in the form of laws and judiciary branch function in safeguard the
fundamental rights and liberties of societies These three branches play animportant role to ensure all the policy making and implementation did properly
to give benefit to state and people itself For the example before make a
policy government have to make an investigation and analysis of the
advantage and disadvantages of the policy making in order to ensure the
effectiveness when the policy are implemented
Edward Weidner therefore stated that development administration as a sub-
field of public administration is to form administrative machinery to theobjective of government It divides into two which is process and area of
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| 11
study By process development administration means the process through
which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as
political economic and social progress or country development as a whole
Besides that Fred W Riggs as mentioned above had stated views that
development administration as administration according to dynamic social
situations Accordingly administrative machinery must be adapted to the
existing and new task The essential ideas of development lie in the increased
ability of human societies to shape their physical human and cultural
environments It is also similar to a process of improving the capably of a
nations institution and value system to meet increasing and different
demands
113 Classical And Contemporary Definitions Of Development
Administration
According to Fred Riggs (1970) definition of development administration is
about the administration of development programs using prescribed
governmental methods to implement policies which due for development
objectives and to elevate administrative capabilities As we all know in all
developing countries government had plan and provide a lot of development
program to lessen poverty of the country upgrade or enhance output and
productivity help to improve and develop the way of living of the people
especially in education and economic sector
Besides that according to Fred Riggs also development administration as the
administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies
chosen by the government to fulfil or achieve its development objectives and
to upgrade the capacity of administration Government also must ensure that
all the mission and program will give benefit to all level of society and not only
to the country itself
Furthermore in the developing nations it is essential or necessary for the
government to create policies and implement them by desirable quality and
good value of projects and programs complete with specific objectives and
goals All the programs and plans arranged or structured by the government
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must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not
useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people) More
than that the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people
However the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot
give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to
administer it in a proper efficient and cost effective way This is because
government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be
restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can
follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives
Furthermore as we all know all government programs have used a lot of
allotment of countryrsquos wealth Especially in the developing nation government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost
project It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed
country A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road
services for instance The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have
houses money and opportunity to go to school or to get education and alsoan opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day
However road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to
enhance economic opportunities Activities of the country and directly will
provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also
for the graduate enhance and improve in income of the people and also not
to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all
citizen
In other word we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or
incentive in a variety way and method However all this only can happen if the
300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way All the
plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the
instituted of bureaucracy Besides that what is more important is that we
need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play
their role effectively
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| 13
Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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14 |
14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1520
| 15
for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1620
16 |
Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1720
| 17
include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1820
18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1920
| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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| 9
112 The Relationship Between Development Administration
And Public Administration
Edward Weidner (1964) suggests the development administration as one with
a special purpose inclusive of political economic and social development thatbecomes as a sub-field of public administration This is because it will guide a
developing nation towards the achievement of its development goals As a
sub-field of public administration it is action oriented and places
administration at the hub of nation building
According to Dwight Waldo public administration described as a management
of people and material to achieve government objective According him also
public administration acts as an art and science of management that related
to state matters Besides that Public Administration is all about the
management of scarce resources to accomplish the goals of public policy
(Williams 1980)
Public Administration found in all branches of government within the
legislative executive and the judiciary as well It the use of managerial
political and legal theories which involves processes to fulfil legislative
executive and judicial government mandates Public administration covers a
wide area of study but focuses on citizenship and the state These two areas
are then sub-divide into other minor areas such as management
organization political economy environment and development
Development administration considered as a field of study or a sub-area
under public administration (Nicholson and Connerly 1989) Development
administration emerged as a field of study result of research observations
and implementation carried out by scholars of public administration who are
interested in the progress that took place in the developing nations It is partial
of public administration that is precisely to handle matters regarding to
development As the outcome of emphasis it expected to be efficient in
running development programs and projects
The Public Administration and management systems in many developing
countries however are still unprepared for changes not to mention about
quality productivity effectiveness and efficiency (Bryant and White 1992) It
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1020
10 |
is more appropriate to use the term development administration and not mere
public administration in the developing countries because the underpinning
issues in those nations are different from those in the developed world
Therefore a special kind of administrative institution needed and he called it
as development administration
Public Administration is concerned with the uses of managerial
methodological techniques that lead to the most efficient result It is a
management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purpose of
the state (Rosenbloom 1993)
It is the science of how a country to be ruled
It is a governmentrsquos central instrument for dealing with general social
problems
It is the management of resources to achieve governmentrsquos goals and
objectives
Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies
A policy typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcomes Policies normally guide every action It provides a
framework for every aim to achieve certain objectives There are three
branches of government that are responsible to generate and implement
policies which is executive legislative and judiciary Nevertheless major
parts of administration carried out by the executive branch The duty of
executive branch is to design and implement the policies rule and regulation
While the power of legislative branch is to debate and enact rules of the
society in the form of laws and judiciary branch function in safeguard the
fundamental rights and liberties of societies These three branches play animportant role to ensure all the policy making and implementation did properly
to give benefit to state and people itself For the example before make a
policy government have to make an investigation and analysis of the
advantage and disadvantages of the policy making in order to ensure the
effectiveness when the policy are implemented
Edward Weidner therefore stated that development administration as a sub-
field of public administration is to form administrative machinery to theobjective of government It divides into two which is process and area of
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1120
| 11
study By process development administration means the process through
which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as
political economic and social progress or country development as a whole
Besides that Fred W Riggs as mentioned above had stated views that
development administration as administration according to dynamic social
situations Accordingly administrative machinery must be adapted to the
existing and new task The essential ideas of development lie in the increased
ability of human societies to shape their physical human and cultural
environments It is also similar to a process of improving the capably of a
nations institution and value system to meet increasing and different
demands
113 Classical And Contemporary Definitions Of Development
Administration
According to Fred Riggs (1970) definition of development administration is
about the administration of development programs using prescribed
governmental methods to implement policies which due for development
objectives and to elevate administrative capabilities As we all know in all
developing countries government had plan and provide a lot of development
program to lessen poverty of the country upgrade or enhance output and
productivity help to improve and develop the way of living of the people
especially in education and economic sector
Besides that according to Fred Riggs also development administration as the
administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies
chosen by the government to fulfil or achieve its development objectives and
to upgrade the capacity of administration Government also must ensure that
all the mission and program will give benefit to all level of society and not only
to the country itself
Furthermore in the developing nations it is essential or necessary for the
government to create policies and implement them by desirable quality and
good value of projects and programs complete with specific objectives and
goals All the programs and plans arranged or structured by the government
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1220
12 |
must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not
useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people) More
than that the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people
However the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot
give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to
administer it in a proper efficient and cost effective way This is because
government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be
restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can
follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives
Furthermore as we all know all government programs have used a lot of
allotment of countryrsquos wealth Especially in the developing nation government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost
project It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed
country A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road
services for instance The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have
houses money and opportunity to go to school or to get education and alsoan opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day
However road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to
enhance economic opportunities Activities of the country and directly will
provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also
for the graduate enhance and improve in income of the people and also not
to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all
citizen
In other word we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or
incentive in a variety way and method However all this only can happen if the
300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way All the
plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the
instituted of bureaucracy Besides that what is more important is that we
need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play
their role effectively
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1320
| 13
Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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14 |
14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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| 15
for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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16 |
Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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| 17
include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1920
| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1020
10 |
is more appropriate to use the term development administration and not mere
public administration in the developing countries because the underpinning
issues in those nations are different from those in the developed world
Therefore a special kind of administrative institution needed and he called it
as development administration
Public Administration is concerned with the uses of managerial
methodological techniques that lead to the most efficient result It is a
management of men and materials in the accomplishment of the purpose of
the state (Rosenbloom 1993)
It is the science of how a country to be ruled
It is a governmentrsquos central instrument for dealing with general social
problems
It is the management of resources to achieve governmentrsquos goals and
objectives
Public administration objective is to generate and implement policies
A policy typically described as a principle or rule to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcomes Policies normally guide every action It provides a
framework for every aim to achieve certain objectives There are three
branches of government that are responsible to generate and implement
policies which is executive legislative and judiciary Nevertheless major
parts of administration carried out by the executive branch The duty of
executive branch is to design and implement the policies rule and regulation
While the power of legislative branch is to debate and enact rules of the
society in the form of laws and judiciary branch function in safeguard the
fundamental rights and liberties of societies These three branches play animportant role to ensure all the policy making and implementation did properly
to give benefit to state and people itself For the example before make a
policy government have to make an investigation and analysis of the
advantage and disadvantages of the policy making in order to ensure the
effectiveness when the policy are implemented
Edward Weidner therefore stated that development administration as a sub-
field of public administration is to form administrative machinery to theobjective of government It divides into two which is process and area of
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1120
| 11
study By process development administration means the process through
which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as
political economic and social progress or country development as a whole
Besides that Fred W Riggs as mentioned above had stated views that
development administration as administration according to dynamic social
situations Accordingly administrative machinery must be adapted to the
existing and new task The essential ideas of development lie in the increased
ability of human societies to shape their physical human and cultural
environments It is also similar to a process of improving the capably of a
nations institution and value system to meet increasing and different
demands
113 Classical And Contemporary Definitions Of Development
Administration
According to Fred Riggs (1970) definition of development administration is
about the administration of development programs using prescribed
governmental methods to implement policies which due for development
objectives and to elevate administrative capabilities As we all know in all
developing countries government had plan and provide a lot of development
program to lessen poverty of the country upgrade or enhance output and
productivity help to improve and develop the way of living of the people
especially in education and economic sector
Besides that according to Fred Riggs also development administration as the
administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies
chosen by the government to fulfil or achieve its development objectives and
to upgrade the capacity of administration Government also must ensure that
all the mission and program will give benefit to all level of society and not only
to the country itself
Furthermore in the developing nations it is essential or necessary for the
government to create policies and implement them by desirable quality and
good value of projects and programs complete with specific objectives and
goals All the programs and plans arranged or structured by the government
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1220
12 |
must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not
useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people) More
than that the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people
However the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot
give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to
administer it in a proper efficient and cost effective way This is because
government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be
restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can
follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives
Furthermore as we all know all government programs have used a lot of
allotment of countryrsquos wealth Especially in the developing nation government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost
project It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed
country A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road
services for instance The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have
houses money and opportunity to go to school or to get education and alsoan opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day
However road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to
enhance economic opportunities Activities of the country and directly will
provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also
for the graduate enhance and improve in income of the people and also not
to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all
citizen
In other word we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or
incentive in a variety way and method However all this only can happen if the
300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way All the
plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the
instituted of bureaucracy Besides that what is more important is that we
need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play
their role effectively
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1320
| 13
Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1420
14 |
14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1520
| 15
for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1620
16 |
Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1720
| 17
include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1820
18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1920
| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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| 11
study By process development administration means the process through
which the determined organizational objectives accomplished such as
political economic and social progress or country development as a whole
Besides that Fred W Riggs as mentioned above had stated views that
development administration as administration according to dynamic social
situations Accordingly administrative machinery must be adapted to the
existing and new task The essential ideas of development lie in the increased
ability of human societies to shape their physical human and cultural
environments It is also similar to a process of improving the capably of a
nations institution and value system to meet increasing and different
demands
113 Classical And Contemporary Definitions Of Development
Administration
According to Fred Riggs (1970) definition of development administration is
about the administration of development programs using prescribed
governmental methods to implement policies which due for development
objectives and to elevate administrative capabilities As we all know in all
developing countries government had plan and provide a lot of development
program to lessen poverty of the country upgrade or enhance output and
productivity help to improve and develop the way of living of the people
especially in education and economic sector
Besides that according to Fred Riggs also development administration as the
administration of development programs by means of initiatives and policies
chosen by the government to fulfil or achieve its development objectives and
to upgrade the capacity of administration Government also must ensure that
all the mission and program will give benefit to all level of society and not only
to the country itself
Furthermore in the developing nations it is essential or necessary for the
government to create policies and implement them by desirable quality and
good value of projects and programs complete with specific objectives and
goals All the programs and plans arranged or structured by the government
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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12 |
must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not
useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people) More
than that the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people
However the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot
give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to
administer it in a proper efficient and cost effective way This is because
government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be
restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can
follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives
Furthermore as we all know all government programs have used a lot of
allotment of countryrsquos wealth Especially in the developing nation government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost
project It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed
country A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road
services for instance The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have
houses money and opportunity to go to school or to get education and alsoan opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day
However road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to
enhance economic opportunities Activities of the country and directly will
provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also
for the graduate enhance and improve in income of the people and also not
to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all
citizen
In other word we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or
incentive in a variety way and method However all this only can happen if the
300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way All the
plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the
instituted of bureaucracy Besides that what is more important is that we
need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play
their role effectively
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
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| 13
Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1420
14 |
14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1520
| 15
for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1620
16 |
Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1720
| 17
include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1820
18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1920
| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1220
12 |
must be implementing in a good way to ensure that the entire program is not
useless and able to give benefits to all (the government and the people) More
than that the way the plan and program implemented will determine whether
it creates positive or negative effect to the people
However the policy and the program that chosen by the government cannot
give profit and benefit to the society if the government fail to give full effort to
administer it in a proper efficient and cost effective way This is because
government need to arrange it properly so that all the programs must be
restricted to the certain rules and policy to ensure that all the people can
follow and give full corporation to achieve required goals and objectives
Furthermore as we all know all government programs have used a lot of
allotment of countryrsquos wealth Especially in the developing nation government
must provide a big amount of money in operating expenses for the high cost
project It is more burdening and acquires high risk compare to developed
country A three hundred million ringgit only just to construct or provide road
services for instance The money may be useful in helping poor people with
poverty problems which will become worse if these people do not have
houses money and opportunity to go to school or to get education and alsoan opportunity to get nutrient food to continue their live every day
However road services give lot of benefits and it is a very important asset to
enhance economic opportunities Activities of the country and directly will
provide more job opportunities especially for those who are jobless and also
for the graduate enhance and improve in income of the people and also not
to forget it can help to distribute back profits of the country equally to all
citizen
In other word we can say that all the poor people can have all their reward or
incentive in a variety way and method However all this only can happen if the
300 million projects are properly planned and run in an effective way All the
plan and project also must be well understood and implemented by the
instituted of bureaucracy Besides that what is more important is that we
need an efficient bureaucracy body to ensure that they implement and play
their role effectively
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1320
| 13
Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1420
14 |
14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1520
| 15
for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1620
16 |
Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1720
| 17
include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1820
18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1920
| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1320
| 13
Other than that government plays an important role to provide facilities or
services to make the bureaucracy body more effective and competent in
implementing their responsibility According to Riggs in developing nation
development administration can only be fair and good if it gives full attention
to the human resource in their organization aspect For public services
servant government need to upgrade their skills give them a lot of
experience and also provide incentives as much as they needed
In organization system it improved by using modern administration and new
technology to facilitate work and enhance productivity and quality For
countries that have been developed what is more important is to maintain
and give services that are full of quality and productivity and also must
response and responsive to the publicrsquos need and voice of the people
Development administration furthermore is development orientation Its
central concern is with socio economic change It is committed to peoplersquos
welfare (Hazary 2006) It is positively oriented towards satisfying the needs of
the people It is client oriented Bureaucracy expected to be involved and
committed It expected to be result oriented and time oriented Development
programmed is to achieve within a period It is this special orientation which
concerned with maintenance of status quo and existing property relations But
in any large scale of administration arrangement bureaucracy cannot be
thrown overboard Its dysfunctional ties need to identify and corrected There
should redesign to enable cooperative decision-making Secondly authority
should be decentralized to enable filed unit to take decisions on the spot as
far as possible Thirdly supremacy of the politician must be accepted and
bureaucracy must work alongside him as a co-partner in development
enterprise fourthly bureaucracy must secure the cooperation of the people indevelopment work Bureaucracy must understand that however capable it
may be it cannot take the entire responsibility and load of development The
people must understand that they have to look after themselves They have to
be the primary factors in the development It is in their interest not to be
dependent on the administration Self-help is the best help Fifthly if
development is to have a meaningful content defence expenditure has to
curtail
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1420
14 |
14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1520
| 15
for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1620
16 |
Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1720
| 17
include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1820
18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1920
| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1420
14 |
14 HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION IN
MALAYSIA
The Colonia l Period (Before Ind ependence) Administration maintaining the
welfare security and peaceful life of the people Administrative system by the British
administered the state without development to the local people There were no serious
efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time Most of the time
development that occurred during that time merely for the benefits of the European
and the English administrators that lived in the state at that time
In general maintenance administration is maintaining the welfare security and
peaceful life of the people During the administrative system that administered by the
British colonial in the state they only developed the administrative system without
doing or giving development to the local people without considering the local people
They did not want to develop the local people because they did not want the local
people exposed to the education that will later give some awareness to them to gain
independence When the local people are educated they will struggle for the
independent and will be hesitant towards all the orders and principles introduced by
the British in the beginning of their administrative system So that is why there were
no serious efforts to develop the local people and the state at that time In addition to
that the existence of the colonizer like British in our country is not to develop the state
or the country It is only to take and grab the opportunity of the natural resources to
export to their country so that all the resources used to help the industrial revolution in
Europe at that time All this will deduct the cost for importing from other outside
countries besides giving them huge profit with little expenses
Most of the time development that occurred during that time was merely for the
benefits of the administrators whom had lived in the state for a long period They onlywant to develop their own people and give education to their own new generations
The local people only become their lower assistant in order to help them developed the
administration that only provided benefits to their own people without considering the
local people All the administration system and the policies created by them were one
of the ways to make their social and economy activities easier
The administrative machinery left by the British was primarily oriented towards the
maintenance of the law and order and the collection of revenue It was not strongenough to implement the newly independent Malaya governments plans (after 1957)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1520
| 15
for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1620
16 |
Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1720
| 17
include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1820
18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1920
| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1520
| 15
for a rapid socio-economic growth and to respond to the many challenges posed by
the domestic and global economic and political changes Administration is the
administration in the colonial period which was before our country gained
independence from British It was merely maintaining the welfare interest security or
safety and peaceful life of the people
The administrative system started by the British and all the system and policies
created by British that mostly for their own benefits and for the advantages of their own
people They only developed the administration system for their own good without
concerning the development and improvement of the local people They only made the
local people as a lower assistant to help them to manage the administration system
without a serious effort to educate them to be an officer in the administration office
They cheated local people by tricking them with their policies and principles that
seems to benefit the local people but had actually provided for their own goods
The Post Colonia l Period (After Independence) Development
Administration ndash A reform was made in the administration Therefore the
administrative reform was planned by the government to respond to these changes in
the national status from that of a colony to self-government There were serious and
rapid efforts to develop the people and the nation precisely the development of
Malaysia in economy social culture politics and environment Policies made to
achieve development goals and objectives with a specific mechanism to administer the
programs and projects to achieve the development goals
Development administration however is the administration in the postcolonial period
which is after our country gained its independence from the British It is generally
about the reformation of the administrative system It means that the postcolonial
government had restructured the system of the administration inherited from the British
before
It is contrary to the development administration where all the local people can
contribute in the administration system and the local peoplesrsquo representatives made
policies for their own people after the postcolonial period
Development Administration has undergone numerous expansions in its focus and its
scope had extended beyond what was actually initiated in the 1950s (Nicholson amp
Connerly 1989)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1620
16 |
Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1720
| 17
include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1820
18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1920
| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1620
16 |
Malaysia had its public service orientating its role and functions from administration in
the 1960s to development administration in the 1970s and 1980s that witnessed
almost the entire planning and administrative machinery of the government geared
towards efforts in socio-economic development based on the objectives and strategies
of the New Economic Policy and now the National Development Policy The role of the
public service was essentially that of facilitator supporter advisor regulator and
evaluator Certainly these new tasks require adjustment in human capacity
organizational structure work process and procedures and in some cases even
reorientation in approaches and attitudes among public service employees
15 DEFINITION OF DEVELOPED DEVELOPING amp POORCOUNTRY
151 Developed countries
The term developed country is used to describe countries that have a high
level of development according to some criteria Which criteria and countries
that are classified as being developed is a contentious issue and there is
fierce debate about this
Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions One such criterion is
income per capita and countries with high gross domestic product (GDP) per
capita being described as developed countries
Another economic criterion is industrialization Countries in which the tertiary
and quaternary sectors of industry dominate being described as developed
More recently another measure the Human Development Index which
combines with an economic measure national income with other measures
indices for life expectancy and education has become prominent ((IMF 20
July 2009)
Developed countries such industrial countries or industrially advanced
countries Developed countries means the high income countries in which
most people have a high standard of living Sometimes also as countries with
a large stock of physical capital in which most people undertake highly
specialized activities According to the World Bank classification these
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1720
| 17
include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1820
18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1920
| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1720
| 17
include all high income economies Depending on who defines them
developed countries may also include middle income countries with transition
economies because these countries are highly industrialized Developed
countries contain about 15 percent of the worlds population ((IMF 20 July
2009)
152 Developing countries
Developing country is a term generally used to describe a nation with a low
level of material well being There is no single internationally-recognized
definition of developed country and the levels of development may vary
widely within so-called developing countries with some developing countrieshaving high average standards of living
According to the classification from IMF before April 2004 all the countries of
Eastern Europe (including Central European countries which still belongs to
Eastern Europe Group in the UN institutions) as well as the former Soviet
Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan Uzbekistan
Kyrgyzstan Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and Mongolia were not included
under either developed or developing regions but rather were referred to ascountries in transition however they are now widely regarded (in the
international reports) as developing countries
In the 21st century the original Four Asian Tigers regions (Hong Kong
Singapore South Korea and Taiwan are considered developed region or
areas along with Cyprus Israel Malta and Slovenia are considered newly
developed countries(IMF 20 July 2009)
The IMF uses a flexible classification system that considers (1) per capita
income level (2) export diversificationmdashso oil exporters that have high per
capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70
of its exports are oil and (3) degree of integration into the global financial
system (IMF 20 July 2009)
The World Bank classifies countries into four income groups Low income
countries have GNI per capita of US$975 or less Lower middle income
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1820
18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1920
| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1820
18 |
countries have GNI per capita of US$976 ndash$3855 Upper middle income
countries have GNI per capita between US$3856 ndash$11905 High income
countries have GNI above $11906 The World Bank classifies all low- and
middle-income countries as developing but notes The use of the term is
convenient it is not intended to imply that all economies in the group are
experiencing similar development or that other economies have reached a
preferred or final stage of development Classification by income does not
necessarily reflect development status(World Bank Report 2009)
According to the World Bank classification countries with low or middle levels
of GNP per capita as well as five high income developing economies such
Brunei Singapore Thailand Malaysia and Philippines These five economies
are classified as developing despite their high per capita income because of
their economic structure or the official opinion of their governments Several
countries with transition economies are sometimes grouped with developing
countries based on their low or middle levels of per capita income and
sometimes with developed countries based on their high industrialization
More than 80 percent of the worlds population lives in the more than 100
developing countries
153 Poor countries
Poor countries are the countries that are not developed in achieving the
economic growth
There are several countries are not developed which are Myanmar Laos
Cambodia Vietnam also Afghanistan Angola Bangladesh Benin Bhutan
Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cape Verde Central African Republic
Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea Ethiopia Gambia Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Kiribati Laos
Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Maldives Mali Mauritania
Mozambique Myanmar Nepal Niger Rwanda Samoa Satildeo Tomeacute and
Priacutencipe Senegal Sierra Leone Solomon Islands Somalia Sudan East
Timor Togo Tuvalu Uganda Tanzania Vanuatu Yemen Zambia All these
countries are not successful with their development ((IMF 20 July 2009)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1920
| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 1920
| 19
Also mostly these poor countries have similarities of problems such as
high b ir th ra te comp ared to to tal pop u la tion
Also known as overpopulation the situation of having large numbers of
people with too few resources and too little space is closely associated
with poverty It can result from high populat ion densi ty (the ratio of
people to land area usually expressed as numbers of persons per
square kilometre or square mile) or from low amounts of resources or
from both Excessively high population densities put stress on available
resources Only a certain number of people can be supported on a
given area of land and that number depends on how much food and
other resources the land can provide In countries where people live
primarily by means of simple farming gardening herding hunting and
gathering even large areas of land can support only small numbers of
people because these labour-intensive subsistence activities produce
only small amounts of food
uns table pol i t ica l system
About 60 of the poorest countries experienced civil conflict of varying
intensity and duration in the period 1990 ndash
2001 that in most caseserupted after a period of economic stagnation and regression In
Rwanda for example average private consumption per capita fell by
more than 12 between 1980 and 1993 the year before the genocide
occurred
high ra te of unemp loyment
Changes in labor markets also contributed to increased unemployment
For instance the number of relatively high-paying manufacturing jobs
has declined while the demand for workers in service- and technology-
related industries has increased Historically people have learned the
skills required for jobs that involve manual labour such as those in
manufacturing either on the job or through easily accessible school
vocational programs As these jobs replaced by service- and
technology-related jobsmdash jobs that usually require skills taught at the
college level mdash people who cannot afford a college education find it
increasingly difficult to obtain well-paying work
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)
7302019 1Introduction to Development Administration
httpslidepdfcomreaderfull1introduction-to-development-administration 2020
20 |
environmental degradat ion
In many parts of the world environmental degradation mdash the
deterioration of the natural environment including the atmosphere
bodies of water soil and forests mdash is an imp ortant cause of poverty
Environmental problems have led to shortages of food clean water
materials for shelter and other essential resources As forests land air
and water are degraded people who live directly off these natural
resources suffer most from the effects ( World Bank Report 2009)
QUESTION 1
a) Define Development Administration
(5 marks)
b) Differentiate the colonial administration and the postcolonial administration in
development
(20 marks)
QUESTION 2
Discuss the importance contributions of Development Administration in developing
Malaysia
(25 marks)
QUESTION 3
Elaborate on the similarities of obstacles encountered by poor countries to develop
(25 marks)
QUESTION 4
Distinguish between developed developing and poor countries by citing to relevant
example
(25 marks)
QUESTION 5
Explain the history of Development Administration in Malaysia(25 marks)