12 ge lecture presentation
TRANSCRIPT
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BIOLOGYA Global Approach
Campbell • Reece • Urry • Cain • Wasserman • Minorsky • Jackson
© 2015 Pearson Education Ltd
TENTH EDITION
Global Edition
Lecture Presentation by Nicole Tunbridge andKathleen Fitzpatrick
12Mitosis
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The Key Roles of Cell Division
a) The ability of organisms to produce more of their own kind best distinguishes living things from nonliving matter
b) The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells, or cell division
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Figure 12.1
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Figure 12.1a
Chromosomes (blue) are moved by cellmachinery (red) during division of a ratkangaroo cell.
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Video: Sea Urchin Embryonic Development (time-lapse)
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a) In unicellular organisms, division of one cell reproduces the entire organism
b) Multicellular eukaryotes depend on cell division for
a)Development from a fertilized cell
b)Growth
c)Repair
c) Cell division is an integral part of the cell cycle, the life of a cell from formation to its own division
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Figure 12.2
(a) Reproduction
(b) Growth and develop-ment
(c) Tissue renewal
100 μm
50 μm
20 µm
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Figure 12.2a
(a) Reproduction
100 μm
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Figure 12.2b
50 μm
(b) Growth and development
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Figure 12.2c
(c) Tissue renewal
20 μm
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Concept 12.1: Most cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells
a) Most cell division results in daughter cells with identical genetic information, DNA
b) The exception is meiosis, a special type of division that can produce sperm and egg cells
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Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material
a) All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cell’s genome
b) A genome can consist of a single DNA molecule (common in prokaryotic cells) or a number of DNA molecules (common in eukaryotic cells)
c) DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into chromosomes
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Figure 12.3
20 μm
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a) Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of chromatin, a complex of DNA and protein that condenses during cell division
b) Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus
c) Somatic cells (nonreproductive cells) have two sets of chromosomes
d)Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and eggs) have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells
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Distribution of Chromosomes During Eukaryotic Cell Division
a) In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense
b) Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids (joined copies of the original chromosome), attached along their lengths by cohesins
c) The centromere is the narrow “waist” of the duplicated chromosome, where the two chromatids are most closely attached
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Figure 12.4
Sisterchromatids
Centromere 0.5 μm
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a) During cell division, the two sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome separate and move into two nuclei
b) Once separate, the chromatids are called chromosomes
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Figure 12.5-1
Chromosomes
Centromere
Chromosomearm
ChromosomalDNA molecules
1
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Figure 12.5-2
Chromosomes
Centromere
Chromosomearm
ChromosomalDNA molecules
1
Chromosomeduplication
Sisterchromatids
2
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Figure 12.5-3
Chromosomes
Centromere
Chromosomearm
ChromosomalDNA molecules
1
Chromosomeduplication
Sisterchromatids
2
3
Separation ofsister chromatids
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a) Eukaryotic cell division consists of
a)Mitosis, the division of the genetic material in thenucleus
b)Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm
b) Gametes are produced by a variation of cell division called meiosis
c) Meiosis yields nonidentical daughter cells that have half as many chromosomes as the parent cell
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Concept 12.2: The mitotic phase alternates with interphase in the cell cycle
a) In 1882, the German anatomist Walther Flemming developed dyes to observe chromosomes during mitosis and cytokinesis
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Phases of the Cell Cycle
a) The cell cycle consists of
a)Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis)
b)Interphase (cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell division)
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a) Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) canbe divided into subphases
a)G1 phase (“first gap”)
b)S phase (“synthesis”)
c)G2 phase (“second gap”)
b) The cell grows during all three phases, but chromosomes are duplicated only during theS phase
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Figure 12.6
G1
G2
(DNA synthesis)S
CytokinesisMito
sis
MITOTIC(M) PHASE
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Figure 12.7a
G2 of InterphaseCentrosomes(with centriolepairs)
Chromosomes(duplicated,uncondensed)
Early mitoticspindle Aster
Centromere
Fragmentsof nuclearenvelope
Nonkinetochoremicrotubules
Kinetochoremicrotubule
KinetochoreTwo sister chromatidsof one chromosome
PlasmamembraneNuclear
envelope
Nucleolus
Prometaphase
10 μ
m
Prophase
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Figure 12.7b
AnaphaseMetaphase Telophase and Cytokinesis
10 μ
m
Cleavagefurrow
Nucleolusforming
Nuclearenvelopeforming
Daughterchromosomes
Centrosome atone spindle pole
Metaphaseplate
Spindle
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Figure 12.7c
Prophase
Nucleolus
G2 of Interphase
Nuclearenvelope
Plasmamembrane Two sister chromatids
of one chromosome
Centrosomes(with centriolepairs)
Centrosomes(duplicated,uncondensed)
Early mitoticspindle
AsterCentromere
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Figure 12.7d
Metaphase
Metaphaseplate
Prometaphase
Nonkinetochoremicrotubules
Fragmentsof nuclearenvelope
Kinetochore Kinetochoremicrotubule
Spindle Centrosome atone spindle pole
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Video: Microtubules in Cell Division
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Figure 12.7e
Anaphase
Cleavagefurrow
Telophase and Cytokinesis
Nuclearenvelopeforming
Nucleolusforming
Daughterchromosomes
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Video: Microtubules in Anaphase
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Figure 12.7f
G2 of Interphase
10 μ
m
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Video: Nuclear Envelope Formation
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Figure 12.7g
Prophase
10 µ
m
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Figure 12.7h
Prometaphase
10 µ
m
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Figure 12.7i
Metaphase
10 µ
m
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Figure 12.7j
Anaphase
10 µ
m
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Figure 12.7k
Telophase andCytokinesis
10 µ
m
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BioFlix: Mitosis
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Video: Animal Mitosis (time-lapse)
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The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look
a) The mitotic spindle is a structure made of microtubules that controls chromosome movement during mitosis
b) In animal cells, assembly of spindle microtubules begins in the centrosome, the microtubule organizing center
c) The centrosome replicates during interphase, forming two centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell during prophase and prometaphase
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a) An aster (a radial array of short microtubules) extends from each centrosome
b) The spindle includes the centrosomes, the spindle microtubules, and the asters
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a) During prometaphase, some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes and begin to move the chromosomes
b)Kinetochores are protein complexes associated with centromeres
c) At metaphase, the chromosomes are all lined up at the metaphase plate, a plane midway between the spindle’s two poles
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Figure 12.8
Sisterchromatids
Aster CentrosomeMetaphaseplate(imaginary)
Kineto-chores
Kinetochoremicrotubules
MicrotubulesOverlappingnonkinetochoremicrotubules
Chromosomes
Centrosome
1 µm 0.5 µm
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a) In anaphase the cohesins are cleaved by an enzyme called separase
b) Sister chromatids separate and move along the kinetochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell
c) The microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at their kinetochore ends
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Figure 12.9
Experiment
Mark
Spindlepole
KinetochoreResults
Conclusion
Chromosomemovement
Chromosome
Microtubule Motorprotein
Tubulinsubunits
Kinetochore
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Figure 12.9a
Experiment
Mark
Spindlepole
Kinetochore
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Figure 12.9b
Results
ConclusionChromosomemovement
Chromosome
Microtubule Motorprotein
Tubulinsubunits
Kinetochore
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a) Nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite poles overlap and push against each other, elongating the cell
b) In telophase, genetically identical daughter nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell
c) Cytokinesis begins during anaphase or telophase and the spindle eventually disassembles
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Cytokinesis: A Closer Look
a) In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process known as cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow
b) In plant cells, a cell plate forms during cytokinesis
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Figure 12.10
(a) Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM) (b) Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM)
Cleavage furrow
Contractile ring ofmicrofilaments
Daughter cells
100 µm1 µm
Daughter cells
New cell wallCell plate
Wall of parent cellVesiclesformingcell plate
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Binary Fission in Bacteria
a) Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by a type of cell division called binary fission
b) In binary fission, the chromosome replicates (beginning at the origin of replication), and the two daughter chromosomes actively move apart
c) The plasma membrane pinches inward, dividing the cell into two
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Figure 12.12-1
Chromosomereplicationbegins.
Two copiesof origin
E. coli cell
Origin ofreplication
Cell wall
Plasmamembrane
Bacterialchromosome1
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Figure 12.12-2
Chromosomereplicationbegins.
Two copiesof origin
E. coli cell
Origin ofreplication
Cell wall
Plasmamembrane
Bacterialchromosome1
2 Origin OriginOne copy of theorigin is now ateach end of thecell.
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Figure 12.12-3
Chromosomereplicationbegins.
Two copiesof origin
E. coli cell
Origin ofreplication
Cell wall
Plasmamembrane
Bacterialchromosome1
2 Origin OriginOne copy of theorigin is now ateach end of thecell.
3 Replicationfinishes.
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Figure 12.12-4
Chromosomereplicationbegins.
Two copiesof origin
E. coli cell
Origin ofreplication
Cell wall
Plasmamembrane
Bacterialchromosome1
2 Origin OriginOne copy of theorigin is now ateach end of thecell.
3
Two daughtercells result.
4
Replicationfinishes.
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Concept 12.3: The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system
a) The frequency of cell division varies with the type of cell
b) These differences result from regulation at the molecular level
c) Cancer cells manage to escape the usual controls on the cell cycle
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Figure 12.15G1 checkpoint
G2 checkpointM checkpoint
G1
G2M
SControlsystem
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Figure 12.16a
M M M G1G2G2G1 G1S S
MPF activity
(a) Fluctuation of MPF activity and cyclinconcentration during the cell cycle
Time
Cyclinconcentration
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Stop and Go Signs: Internal and External Signals at the Checkpoints
a) Many signals registered at checkpoints come from cellular surveillance mechanisms within the cell
b) Checkpoints also register signals from outsidethe cell
c) Three important checkpoints are those in G1, G2, and M phases
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a) For many cells, the G1 checkpoint seems to be the most important
b) If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually complete the S, G2, and M phases and divide
c) If the cell does not receive the go-ahead signal, it will exit the cycle, switching into a nondividing state called the G0 phase
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Figure 12.17G1 checkpoint
G0
G1
Without go-ahead signal,cell enters G0.
(a) G1 checkpoint
G1
G1
G2
S
M
M checkpoint
(b) M checkpoint
Without full chromosomeattachment, stop signal isreceived.
PrometaphaseAnaphase
M G2
G1
M G2
G1
With go-ahead signal,cell continues cell cycle.
G2 checkpoint
MetaphaseWith full chromosomeattachment, go-ahead signalis received.
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Figure 12.17a
G1 checkpoint
G0
G1
Without go-ahead signal,cell enters G0.
(a) G1 checkpoint
G1
With go-ahead signal,cell continues cell cycle.
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Figure 12.17b
G1
M G2
G1
M G2
M checkpoint
Without full chromosomeattachment, stop signal isreceived.
PrometaphaseAnaphase
G2 checkpointMetaphase
With full chromosomeattachment, go-ahead signalis received.
(b) M checkpoint
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a) An example of an internal signal is that cells will not begin anaphase until all chromosomes are properly attached to the spindle at the metaphase plate
b) This mechanism assures that daughter cells have the correct number of chromosomes
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a) External factors that influence cell division include specific growth factors
b)Growth factors are released by certain cells and stimulate other cells to divide
c) Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) is made by blood cell fragments called platelets
d) In density-dependent inhibition, crowded cells will stop dividing
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Figure 12.18-1
Scalpels1
Petridish
A sample ofhuman connectivetissue is cutup into smallpieces.
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Figure 12.18-2
Scalpels1
Petridish
A sample ofhuman connectivetissue is cutup into smallpieces.
2 Enzymes digestthe extracellularmatrix, resultingin a suspension offree fibroblasts.
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Figure 12.18-3
Scalpels1
Petridish
A sample ofhuman connectivetissue is cutup into smallpieces.
2 Enzymes digestthe extracellularmatrix, resultingin a suspension offree fibroblasts.
3 Cells are transferredto culture vessels. 4 PDGF is added
to half the vessels.
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Figure 12.18-4
Scalpels1
Petridish
A sample ofhuman connectivetissue is cutup into smallpieces.
2 Enzymes digestthe extracellularmatrix, resultingin a suspension offree fibroblasts.
3 Cells are transferredto culture vessels. 4 PDGF is added
to half the vessels.
Without PDGF With PDGF Cultured fibroblasts (SEM)
10 µ
m
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Figure 12.18a
Cultured fibroblasts (SEM)
10 µ
m
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a) Most cells also exhibit anchorage dependence—to divide, they must be attached to a substratum
b) Density-dependent inhibition and anchorage dependence check the growth of cells at an optimal density
c) Cancer cells exhibit neither type of regulation of their division
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Figure 12.19
Anchorage dependence: cellsrequire a surface for division
Density-dependent inhibition:cells form a single layer
Density-dependent inhibition:cells divide to fill a gap andthen stop
(a) Normal mammalian cells (b) Cancer cells
20 µm 20 µm
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Figure 12.19a
(a) Normal mammalian cells
20 µm
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Figure 12.19b
(b) Cancer cells
20 µm
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Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells
a) Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body’s control mechanisms
b) Cancer cells may not need growth factors to grow and divide
a)They may make their own growth factor
b)They may convey a growth factor’s signal without the presence of the growth factor
c)They may have an abnormal cell cycle control system
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a) A normal cell is converted to a cancerous cell by a process called transformation
b) Cancer cells that are not eliminated by the immune system form tumors, masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue
c) If abnormal cells remain only at the original site, the lump is called a benign tumor
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a) Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and can metastasize, exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form additional tumors
b) Localized tumors may be treated with high-energy radiation, which damages the DNA in the cancer cells
c) To treat metastatic cancers, chemotherapies that target the cell cycle may be used
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Figure 12.20
Tumor
Glandulartissue
A tumor growsfrom a singlecancer cell.
1 2 3Cancer cells invadeneighboring tissue.
Cancer cells spreadthrough lymph andblood vessels to otherparts of the body.
4 A small percentageof cancer cells maymetastasize toanother part of thebody.
Cancercell
Bloodvessel
Lymphvessel
Breast cancer cell(colorized SEM)
Metastatictumor
5 µm
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Figure 12.20a
Tumor
Glandulartissue
A tumor growsfrom a singlecancer cell.
1 Cancer cells invadeneighboring tissue.
Cancer cells spread through lymph and blood vessels to otherparts of the body.
2 3
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Figure 12.20b
3 4Cancer cells spreadthrough lymph andblood vessels to otherparts of the body.
A small percentageof cancer cells maymetastasize toanother part of thebody.
Cancercell
Bloodvessel
Lymphvessel
Metastatictumor
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Figure 12.20c
Breast cancer cell(colorized SEM)
5 µm
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a) Recent advances in understanding the cell cycle and cell cycle signaling have led to advances in cancer treatment
b) Coupled with the ability to sequence the DNA of cells in a particular tumor, treatments are becoming more “personalized”
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Figure 12.UN02
CytokinesisMitosis
G1 S
G2
MITOTIC (M)PHASE
Telophaseand
CytokinesisAnaphase
Metaphase
Prometaphase
Prophase
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Figure 12.UN03
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Figure 12.UN04