01 people at work and nature of motivation

8/4/2019 01 People at Work and Nature of Motivation

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3. People at Work

4. The Nature of Motivation


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1. Group defined

Types of groups

Benefits and Dangers of Groups

Group Development

2. Types of Communication Network

Bales Interaction Process Categories

Effective and Ineffective Decision-Making Groups

Communications in the Organization

3. The Nature of Motivation

Dimensions of Motivating Potential

Reward System


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Conceiving of a group as a dynamic whole

should include a definition of group that isbased on interdependence of the members (or

better, the subparts of the group). Kurt Lewin(1951:

1

46)


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To put it simply they are units composed of

two or more persons who come into contact fora purpose and who consider the contact

meaningful. Theodore M. Mills (1967: 2)


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A group is a collection of individuals who have

relations to one anotherthat make theminterdependent to some significant degree.

As so defined, the termgroup refers to a class

of social entities having in common theproperty of interdependence among theirconstituent members. Dorwin Cartwright and

Alvin Zander(1968: 46)


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A set of people engage infrequentinteractions

They identifywith one another. They are defined by others as a group. They share beliefs, values, and norms about

areas of common interest.

They define themselves as agroup. They come together to workon common

tasks and for agreed purposes (Benson 2000:5)


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They are not some random experience and as a

result they have three crucial characteristics:

There are parts There is relationship between the parts

There is an organizing principle (op. cit.)


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There are various ways of classifying groups,

for example in terms of their purpose or

structure: primary and secondarygroups; and

planned and emergentgroups.


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Primary groups are clusters of people likefamilies or close friendship circles where

there is close, face-to-face and intimateinteraction. There is also often a high level of

interdependence between members.

Primary groups are also the key means ofsocialization in society, the main place whereattitudes, values and orientations aredeveloped and sustained.


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Secondary groups are those in which

members are rarely, if ever, all in direct

contact. They are often large and usually formally

organized. Trades unions and membershiporganizations.

They are an important place for socialization,but secondary to primary groups.


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Planned groups.

Planned groups are specifically formed for

some purpose either by their members, orby some external individual, group or

organization.


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Emergent groups.

Emergent groups come into being relatively

spontaneously where people find themselvestogether in the same place, or where the

same collection of people gradually come toknow each other through conversation and

interaction over a period of time. (Cartwrightand Zander 1968).


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significant sites of socialization and education

enabling people to develop a sense of

identity and belonging, and to deepenknowledge, skills, and values and attitudes.

places where relationships can form and grow,and where people can find help and support.

settings where wisdom flourishes.As JamesSuriwiecki (2004) has argued, it is often the

case that 'the many are smarter than the few'.


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The socialization they offer might be highly

constraining and oppressive for some of their

members. They can also become environments that

foster interpersonal conflict.


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The boundaries drawn around groups arepart of a process of excluding certain people

(sometimes to their detriment) and creatinginter-group conflict. There is also evidence to show that groups

can impact upon individuals in ways that

warp their judgements and that lead todamaging decision making (what somecommentators have talked about as'groupthink').


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For these reasons we need to be able to

appreciate what is going on in groups - and to

actwhere we can to make them morefulfilling and beneficial to their members and

to society as a whole.


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Bruce W. Tuckman (1965)


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Process there is anxiety,dependence on leader; testing to

find out the nature of the situation

and what behavior is acceptable

Outcome members find out what

the task is, what the rules are andwhat methods are appropriate.


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Process conflict between

subgroups; rebellion against a

leader; opinions are polarized;resistance to control by group

Outcome emotional resistanceto demands of task


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Process development of groupcohesion; norms emerge;resistance is overcome and

conflicts are patched up; mutualsupport and sense of groupidentity

Outcome open exchange ofviews and feelings; cooperationdevelops


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Process interpersonal problems areresolved; interpersonal structurebecomes the means of getting things

done; roles are flexible and functional

Outcome solutions to problemsemerge; there are constructiveattempts to complete tasks andenergy is now available for effectivework


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It is clear, that people tend to want to know

something about the other members;have to develop a degree ofinterdependence inorder that the group or team may achieve its

tasks and be satisfying to its members; and

has to learn at some level to deal with conflict ifit is to survive.


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Humans are small group beings.

We always have been and we always will be.

The ubiquitousness of groups and theinevitability of being in them makes groups

one of the most important factors in our lives.


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As the effectiveness of our groups goes, so

goes the quality of our lives.

To ensure that groups are effective, membersmust be extremely competent in using small

group skills.

Humans are not born with these skills; they

must be developed. (Johnson and Johnson2003:579; 581)


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Communication Structure and its Effects on

Task Performance, by Alex Bavelas and his

student Harold Leavitt

The Wheel, Chain, Circle, Y, Completely

Connected Network


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TheWheel

All communication has to

go through person 1 at

the center. This pattern

involves quick answers

to simple questions,

but 2, 3, 4 & 5 tend tobe dissatisfied with

their roles


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The Chain

No one member is able to

communicate with all

the others. Members

are reasonably satisfied

with this system of

communication, but itcan be slow and lead to

errors.


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The Circle

At time 1, persons 5 and 2send to person 1,

person 1 sends toperson 2, and persons 4and 3 exchange theirinformation, so that at

the end of time 1, hereis what each personknows:


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The Circle End of time 1

The numbers in theparentheses indicate

whose information aperson has at the endof the round. Person 1has {1,5,2} which means

they have obtained theinformation that 2 and5 had, plus their own.


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The Circle Time 2Now, in Time 2, person 1

sends their info to

person 5, person 4 alsosends to person5, person 3 and person2 exchangeinformation.At the end

of Time 2, person 5knows the answer, butno one else does:


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The Circle Time 3

In time 3, persons 3 and 4exchange their

information (so bothknow the answer), andpersons 1 and 2 exchangetheir information, so eachof them knows the

answer. Since person 5already knew the answer,the round is over.


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The CircleBy closing the chain

(circle) each member

can communicatedirectly with twoothers. This providesthe highest level ofgeneral satisfaction

and can be effective fordealing with complexproblems.


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The Y

This combines features

of the wheel and thechain in a centralized

network.


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The Completely

connected network

Each person can nowcommunicate freely

with every other

person and all are

satisfied with theirrole.


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interaction process analysis.doc

http://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2006/Patrick_J_Fahy.htm


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TaskArea:AttemptedAnswers

6. Gives orientation, information, repeats,

clarifies, confirms 6 & 7 Orientation

TaskArea:Questions7. Asks for orientation, information repetition,

confirmation 7 & 6 Orientation


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TaskArea:AttemptedAnswers5. Gives opinion, evaluation, analysis,

expresses feeling, wish 5 & 8 Evaluation

TaskArea:Questions

8. Asks for opinion, evaluation, analysis,

expression of feeling 8 & 5Evaluation


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TaskArea:AttemptedAnswers

4. Gives suggestion, direction, implying

autonomy for other 4 & 9Control

TaskArea:Questions9. Asks for suggestion, direction, possible

action 9 & 4 Control


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Social emotionalArea: Positive Reactions

3. Agrees, shows passive acceptance,

understands, concurs, complies 3 & 10Decision

Social emotionalArea: Negative Reactions10. Disagrees, shows passive rejection,

formality, withholds help 10 & 3 Decision


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Social emotionalArea: Positive Reactions

2. Shows tension release, jokes, laughs, shows

satisfaction 2 & 11Tension-management

Social emotionalArea: Negative Reactions11. Shows tension, asks for help, withdraws out

of field 11 & 2 Tension-management


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Social emotionalArea: Positive Reactions1. Shows solidarity, raises other's status, gives

help, reward 1 & 12 Problems ofintegration

Social emotionalArea: Negative Reactions12. Shows antagonism. Deflates other's status,

defends/asserts self12 & 1Integration


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Positional Analysis

Leavitt also analyzed the data by position in the

network -- i.e., by node. He found that:

The most central positions send the most messages They enjoy their jobs more

The most central positions send fewer

organizational messages and more

informational/solution messages. (and in highlycentralized networks, the most central nodes send

few informational messages vs solution messages)


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If the group is charged with making decisionsthere are several issues that need clearing:

What are the terms of reference for the decisionmaking?

Can the group really make a decision, or can itonly make a recommendation?

What decisions are allowed: are there some thatare not?

Have any decisions already been made that cannot be changed?


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If the group is charged with making decisions

there are several issues that need clearing:

Who should be in the group that is to make thedecision?

All involved in a decision are committed to making itwork, those who were not involved can find all sorts of

reasons why it will not work


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Ineffective decision-making may be due to a lackof task orientation or a lack of cohesion amongthe group.

It is important to focus discussion ondisagreements that need resolving.

Asking for clarification where other membershave obviously not understood a speaker can

also keep the discussion focused Important thing is look after both the content

and the process


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Effective managers are the ones who can work

in a variety of groups. They understandthe

dynamics and are able to influence eventstowards a desired outcome.

They understand that this is NOT alwaysachieved by making statements so as much

as by nursing others towards making theirown contribution and so getting the

commitment to making the outcome work.


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- Groups develop through various stages before

they can work well. They maintain cohesion

through group norms- Effective groups look after the content, the

what and theprocess, the how, of theirmeetings

- How the various groups of an organizationare co-ordinated will be determined by the

nature of the organization


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In organizations, most of the communication

that takes place is interpersonal, faceto

face. Some communication strategies aredeliberately established, usually by managers

to enable particular sorts of communicationto take place.

The process is sometimes called organizationalcommunication


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H.W. Greenbaum has developed a model for

auditing communication in an organization.

- Four main objectives that managers have fororganizational communication:

- Regulation seeking to ensure that employeesbehavior conforms with organizational objectives

- Innovation seeking to change aspects oforganizational functioning in specific directions


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H.W. Greenbaum has developed a model forauditing communication in an organization.

- Four main objectives that managers have for

organizational communication:- Integration maintaining morale of the work force

and developing as feeling of identity with theorganization and its members

- Information giving the mainly factual informationthat people need for their everyday work -what hasto be done, quality standards, customers complaints,etc.


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Overt reasons for meetings

- Making decisions: often prior discussions

have arrived at the decisions and themeeting merely ratifies them

- Making recommendations: to individuals

or other groups


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Overt reasons for meetings

- Training: newcomers to the group

- Analysis and report: organizing materialfor another group

- Information: this usually takes place

under any other business or mattersarising


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Covert (hidden) reasons for meetings

- Cohesion: feeling part of the whole by

chatting beforehand, catchingsomeones eye or joking

- Catharsis: giving vent to anger, even

when nothing can be done- Manipulation: usually by senior staff


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Communication failure happens when

someone is unable to transmitthe desired

message to another.A failure to understandoften lies at the root of conflictbecause

different needs, interests and experienceshave not been communicated.


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Communication canfailin three ways:

- Ineffective sending- Ineffective reception- Amismatch between communicators


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Communication is the lifeblood of human

interaction. It is never perfect, as we do not

understandeach other perfectly and sosometimes we communicate the wrong thing.

However, we can make some efforts towardsmore effective communication.

Communication is often blamed fororganizational and personal problems. It can

be improved.


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It may also be that the what, to whom, by

whom, using which media? or in what

context is to blame.It is always worth unravelling a communication

difficulty to see what are the various factorsaffecting communication.


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Not everything called a problem of

communication is due to communication

difficulties. It may be other aspects of theorganization that are at fault

Communication in organizations can be

about regulation, innovation, integration andinformation


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Communication takes place only when the

chain from sender to receiver is completed

with feedback to the sender

Meetings are a critical part of managerscommunication and it is worth spending time

getting them right.


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The Nature of Motivation


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-Hackman and Oldham (1975) broke "The

job itself" into five dimensions. They say

that any given job can be analyzed,utilizing these five dimensions for its

motivating potential. The job can then

be redesigned to eliminate what isbothering the workers.


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Listed below are the five dimensions of

motivating potential:

Skill variety (this gives meaning to the workpeople do)

Doing different things; using different valued skills,abilities, and talents.

The degree to which a job requires a variety ofchallenging skills and abilities.


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Listed below are the five dimensions of

motivating potential:

Task identity (this gives meaning to the workpeople do)

Doing a complete job from beginning to end, the wholejob rather than bits and pieces.

The degree to which a job requires completion of awhole and identifiable piece of work.


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Listed below are the five dimensions ofmotivating potential: Task significance (this gives meaning to the work

people do) The degree of meaningful impact the job has on others;

the importance of the job.

The degree to which the job has a perceivable impact onthe lives of others, either within the organization or theworld at large.


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Listed below are the five dimensions ofmotivating potential: Autonomy (this gives responsibility to job holders)

Freedom to do the work as one sees fit; discretion inscheduling, decision-making, and means foraccomplishing a job.

The degree to which the job gives the worker freedomand independence in scheduling work and determininghow the work will be carried out.


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Listed below are the five dimensions ofmotivating potential:

- Feedback (this gives the job holderknowledge of results)- Clear and direct information about job outcomes

or performance.

- The degree to which the worker gets informationabout the effectiveness of his or her efforts, eitherdirectly from the work itself or from others.


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Managers can redesign jobs to increase

motivation

Various strategies are available for nurturing

teams and leadership


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Managers can use a variety of monitoring

devices to indicate a potential problem with

performance

The idea of implicit, as well as explicit,contract between the employee and the

employing organization is useful in keeping abalance when considering motivating people

at work


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Performance-related pay is a financial reward toemployees whose work is:

Considered to have reached a required standard,

and/or Is above averagePerformance related pay is generally used where

employee performance cannot be appropriatelymeasured in terms of output produced or sales

achieved. Like piece-rates and commission,performance related pay is a form of incentivepay.


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Individual performance is reviewed regularly(usually once per year) against agreed objectivesor performance standards. This is the

performance appraisal.At the end of the appraisal, employees are

categorised into performance groups whichdetermine what the reward will be (if any)

The method of reward will vary, but traditionally itinvolves a cash bonus and/or increase in wagerate or salary.


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1. A grade for the job is derived using job

evaluation techniques

2.A

development plan for each individual isdevised3. Individual performance is evaluated using

series of headings such as:

a. Team working

b. Decision-making

c. Initiative


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3. Individual performance is evaluated using

series of headings such as:

d. Creativitye. Safety

f. Planning

4.A ranking is given to each individual out of thefollowing: unacceptable/acceptable/good/

excellent/exceptional


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5. These are then compared with a matrix so

that those with a higher ranking get a larger

pay rise than those below:- Improvements in staff levels of commitment- Easier identification of training needs- Improved job satisfaction- Opportunity to harmonize conditions- Improved communication between

supervisor and subordinates


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There are several problems with performance-

related pay:

There may be disputes about howperformance is measured and whether an

employee has done enough to be rewarded

Rewarding employees individually does very

little to encourage teamwork


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There are several problems with performance-

related pay:

It may encourage unhealthy rivalry betweenmanagers

There is much doubt about whetherperformance-related pay actually does

anything to motivate employees. This may bebecause the performance element is usually

only a small percentage of total pay.


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Carrying out the appraisals Individuals concentrating on objectives related

to pay rather than to their whole job

Translating appraisals into pay Trade union attitudes The cost of running system The demotivating effect on those ranked

average Perceived unfairness Lack of evaluation The effect on team culture


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Reward systems are usually set at an

organization-wide level, even when there is

decentralized bargaining. This reward systemmay try to reward individual performance or

be aimed at collective effort.

Any individual manager is unlikely to have

control over the reward systems, particularlypayment systems.


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There are other less tangible rewards, such as

job allocation, monitoring and

communication, which can be used byindividual managers.- Pay is a manifestation of the relationship

between employers and employees- Pay is NOT the only reason why individuals

work. There are other rewards that motivate

people to give effort to their employers


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Assessing your drives


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Directions: Examine each of the following

four sets of terms. Rate them according to

the degree to which you feel mostcomfortable with them as they describe you.

Assign a best descriptor a 4, the next best a 3,the third a 2, and the least descriptive a 1. Do

this for each of the sets


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I like(a) _____ challenging work

(b) _____ cooperative colleagues(c) _____ mastering my job(d) _____ wielding (manipulating)influence


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I like(a) _____ specific feedback

(b) _____ social relationships(c) _____ being innovative(d) _____ having an impact


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I like(a) _____ taking moderate risks

(b) _____ working together with others(c) _____ doing high quality work(d) _____ exercising power


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I like(a) _____ receiving personal credit

(b) _____ personal friendships(c) _____ being respected by others(d) _____ inducing change


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Scoring: Add up your four a scores, four b scores, four c

scores, and the four d scores and see which are

highest. (Total points for each should range from4 to 16).

A scores represent a rough measure of yourachievement drive

B affiliation drive C competence drive D power drive


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Meet with several other class members and

compare your scores. What do they tell you

about yourself?A

bout others?A

boutmanaging others with different patterns of

scores?


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01 people at work and nature of motivation

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