Three angels on motivation

• Motivation - a phenomenon or a construct?

• Motivation - why do people do what they do?- how to get people to do as you want?

• Motivation - models and theories that give explanations.

slides by Sletten. NTNU

Phenomenon or construct

• Motivation as phenomenon- motivation is a “something” that is inherent in humans- motivation is generating activities- motivation is a way of explaining why something is done

• Motivation as construct- motivation is a “tool” to generate activity- motivation can be constructed according to needs for this “tool”- motivation is a way of controlling performance

Motivation as “tool”An example

Sievers motivation….has been used to quite a large extent (5) as a substitute for power and coercion which

previously were the predominant means of influence.

Lawson & A firm understanding of motivation….can helpShen managers get to know their colleagues fully and(118) harness these motivational forces to enhance the

effectiveness of individual members and the organization.

Motivation as “phenomenon”An example

• Psychoanalysis- the instinct is the basic energetic psychological entity- the source of an instinct is bodily processes - needs are the resultant of the instinct- the need has to be satisfied by attaining a relevant object

Motivation as an answer to “why”

• Three ways of looking at motivation

1) Some basic assumptions - self-satisfaction- whipping- the carrot

2) The production view - the motivational push- the motivational pull

3) The micro and macro view - internal forces- external forces

Micro and macro models of motivation

Micro models - focus is on internal forces that impel the individual to a higher level of motivation

Macro models - focus on the organization of which the individual is a member- focus on the organizational processes that are essential to manufacturing of a product or delivery of a service

A definition

Motivation isforces within or outside (dispositional/endogenous or situational/exogenous)

the person or the group

that initiate, direct and sustain action

toward a goal or set of goals.

(Lawson & Shen)

A micro theory of motivation - Maslow

Deficiencyneeds

Physiological needs (water, air, food)

Safety needs

Surplus needs

Social needs

Self-esteem

Self actualization

A micro theory on motivation - McClelland

• Three most important basic needs - the need for achievement (Ach)- the need for power (Pow)- the need for affiliation (Aff)

Ach Pow Aff Ach Pow Aff

Person I Person II

The achievement need

The two sides- the need/lust to achieve- the risk for failure

The attribution of cause- the responsibility for success- the responsibility for failure

Micro theories of motivation - cognitive theories

Basic:Action is a result of “conscious”choice

Action is (normally) not a result of needs orimpulses which cannot be/is not consciously experienced by the person

A micro theory of motivation - Vroom

Basic:One does something when one expects to master it,and to get out of it what one wants.

Expectation a conscious conception of - which consequences the work one does, will have for one’s wish for rewards - the value of the reward for oneself.

A micro theory of motivation - Vroom

The three basic elements

• Subjective expectation that the effort will make results

• Instrumental consideration that work effort will result in rewards

• Valence estimation that the rewards is of value for oneself

A micro theory of motivation - Vroom

Expectation

Performance

Reward

Effort

Instrumentality

Valence

Motivation

SkillsAbility

Roles

Workperformance

A macro model of motivation - Hertzberg

Basic:What gives rise to work satisfaction (motivator factors)

are different fromwhat gives rise to work dissatisfaction (hygiene factors)

A macro model of motivation - Herzberg

Work dissatisfaction Work satisfaction

Hygiene factors Motivator factors

Salary ResponsibilityRelationships RecognitionManagement style OpportunitiesWork environment Development

0

Extrinsic to the work Intrinsic to the work

A macro model of motivation Management by objectives

Basic:• Goals are immediate regulators/determinators of task performance.

• Goal setting is an effective motivational tool because it activates both cognitive and emotional processes in the person or group.

A macro model of motivation Management by objectives

Some findings

• Increased difficulty of goal is translated into higher performance.

• Goals that are specific and difficult yield higher levels of performance than do vague and/or nonquantitative goals.

• Public commitment to a goal is stronger/more effective than private commitment.

A macro model of motivation Total Quality (TQ)

Basic:The fundamental of TQ programs is to deliverproducts and services that are of a quality that meets or exceeds customer’s/client’s expectations.

A macro model of motivation Total Quality (TQ)

• The organizational motivation is based on and focuses on customer and client relation.

• The organizational motivational focus has motivational impact on all member of that organization

A macro model of motivation Total Quality (TQ)

In TQ the focus is shifted from the employee/organization/manager as primary initiator of action, to the customer/client.

The customer/client thus is first component in the motivational chain.

A macro model of motivation The TQ management philosophy

• focus on the production system rather than the individual or team

• use data-based problem solving

• keep in constant contact with customer/client

• pursue relentlessly continuous improvements

• have TQ principles adopted by organizational members

• internalize the TQ philosophy and principles in the organization

Some other models of motivation - “Making the wish come through”

The Pygmalion effect A persons performance is enhanced because another (important for him/her) person expects her/him to perform better.

The Galatea effect A persons performance is raised becausehis/her self-expectations for the performanceis raised.

Some other models of motivation - Perceived self-efficacy (PSE)

Basic:People’s judgements of their capabilities to organizeand execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performance.

Some other models of motivation - Perceived self-efficacy (PSE)

To develop a high PSE

• Enactiv attainment sense of mastery based on earlierearlier successful task completion

• Modelling working with a mentor

• Verbal persuasion coaching with direction orientedverbal support

• Arousal interpretation of physical signsas increased respiration/hearthbeat

Performance management systems (PMS)

Basic: PMS direct and motivate employees to maximize the effort they exert on behalf of the organization.

Two vital components of PMS are:• performance appraisal and feedback processes which directs employee’s attention toward the most important tasks and behaviours• performance incentives which motivates employees to perform at the level of their maximum potential.

Performance management systems (PMS)

Performance appraisal system• a formal, structured system for

- measuring- evaluating- influencing

an employee’s work-related attributes, behaviours and outcomes.

• Focus is on discovering- how productive the employee is- if the employee can perform as or more effectively in the future.

Performance management systems (PMS)

Information from PMS can be used for

evaluation comparisons to persons, marks

development employee improvement

systems assessment of organizational needs

maintenance and goal attainment

documentation maintenance of records forperformance documentation

Performance management systems (PMS)

The performance appraisal system

• can function adequately when performance is aligned and integrated with the strategic business objectives

• which makes it possible to- monitor performance- give feedback

Performance management systems (PMS) - Appraisal

Performance appraisal presupposes performance criteriaon task performance and on general performance

• trait-based criteria personal characteristics(loyalty, responsibility, etc)

• behavioural criteria how work is performed(friendliness, cleanliness, etc)

• outcome-based what is performed criteria (quantity, etc)

Performance management systems (PMS)360-degree appraisals

Who is participating• Supervisors the person’s immediate boss

• Oneself the person being appraised

• Peers the colleagues/team-members of the person

• Subordinates the employees the person haswork responsibility for

• Customers the receiver of the product ofthe person’s performance

Performance management systems (PMS)Feedback

Basic:Performance management is an ongoing process

punctuated by - formal appraisals - formal feedback.

In feedback sessions supervisor and subordinate meet to- exchange information on the work done- evaluate performance- express ideas for improvement- set new work goals

Performance management systems (PMS)Feedback

Sources of conflict associated with performance feedback:

• Goal conflicts between various stakeholders in the work process being appraised

- between the organizations evaluative and developmental goals- the employee’s various goals

• Perceptual focus- the perspective of the supervisor on the subordinate- the perspective of the subordinate on the organization

Performance management systems (PMS)Performance reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is to use positive rewards to increasethe occurrence of desired performance.

Some rules:• Do not reward everyone the same way• No response is also a way of reinforcing• People must know what they must do to be rewarded• People must be told what they do wrong• Do not punish in front of others• Be fair.