+

Promoting Physical Activity in Adult Women & Men: Part I

Chapter 4

+Interventions for Women

Interventions

Exercise Prescription

Behavioral Modifications

Personality matching

Lowering the Barriers of exercise

Promoting Self-efficacy

Body image considerations

Social support

+Exercise Prescription for Women & MenStudies have indicated for women:

Women prefer moderate intensity Duration of exercise needs to be short Progressive in nature The mode of exercise most preferred by women is walking

Studies have indicated for men: Men prefer higher intensity PA activities Competitive rather than cooperative Progression & duration is unknown at this time

Studies have indicated for both GendersProgression needs to seen immediatelyNeeds to be simple and easy not complex or highly intense

+Walking

Walking is the most popular form of exercise for adult Americans (Segal, 1995). Because it is safe (Procari, et al., 1988) Effective (Dishman, 1994) Simple (Kriska, et. al, 1986)

Walking at moderate (3-6 METs) can improve one’s health if done on a regular basis and meets CDC guidelines (Fletcher, et al, 1996)

Walking can be self-regulated by: Exertional perceptions (RPE) Without a great levels of physiological strain More enjoyable

+Behavioral Modification Interventions for Women Activity needs to be enjoyable which then effects

exercise intensity

Provide choice in the mode of exercise

Women – only participation opportunities

Teach goal setting techniques (manipulate mode, frequency, intensity, & duration of exercise)

Teach self-monitoring techniques (logs, use of pedometers, etc)

Regular contact with a fitness professional

Teach positive self-talk

+Mode Preference (Miller, et.al., 2005)

Undergraduate females exercised on 5 different pieces of cardiovascular equipment (steppers, treadmill, rower, spinners, & cross-country ski simulator) Females completed 5 experimental sessions: two with their

most favorite modes of exercise, 2 with their least favorite modes, and a no-exercise control.

The most favorite preference exercise session produced the greatest positive mood changes and elicited highest level of exercise enjoyment before, during, and 40 minutes past exercise.

Psychological states will vary as a function of exercise preference resulting in higher adherence levels.*

+Personality & Adherence

Women & men who are extraverted and demonstrate conscientious have higher adherence rates in exercise than those that demonstrate neuroticism and/or are less extraverted. (Rhodes, 2006)

Personality matched interventions are warranted for both women and men who display neuroticism and/or are less extraverted

+Personality Match Interventions & PA Less extraverted clients require:

Strategies that strength one’s intention to exercise (e.g. gradually progress in intensity to assure success)

Goal setting Behavioral strategies (e.g. reinforcement, role models)

Neurotic clients require Normative based interventions (e.g., involving friends,

family) (Rhodes, 2006)

+Pairing Personality with Activity

Garvin (2004) article in The Physician & Sports Medicine provided fitness professional with means to match one’s personality to an activity .

Matching one’s personality traits to an activity is a tool that can help fitness specialists have a women or men clients reflect on what activities that are best for them.

+Common Barriers to exercise for Women Personal Factors

Expected to be the caregiver Single moms with children versus

divorced fathers Lack of social support for women Low exercise self-efficacy Lack of money Fear of injury Dislike sweating & vigorous

activity Knowledge about how to exercise High social physique anxiety Failure to see immediate

improvement Low motivation

Fewer barriers exist for men in our society than women

Environmental Factors Lack of child care Cost of facilities Cost of equipment Neighborhoods

High crime Lack of outdoor

parks/spaces Excessive traffic

Weather

+Promote Self-Efficacy

Belief and expectations about how capable one is to perform PA or exercise to achieve an outcome( e.g. low weight, fitness).

Major determinate of adherence in women

+Sources of Self-efficacy

Sources Strategies

Personal accomplishmentModeling

Start out easy and progress slowly

Verbal persuasion Involve women of the same age, shape, & problems

Physiological states Awareness of exercise intensity, exercise durations, different modes of exercise

Emotional arousal Exercise needs to be enjoyable

+Some interesting findings about group activities

Group activities (e.g., spin class, running clubs) promotes higher levels of vigorous exercise in women because they perceive having a higher level of social support.

Men perceive and prefer solitary exercise than group activities to promote higher levels of exercise.

Social support is a influential factor in the initiation stage of an activity for both men & women.

Perceived social support by a spouse or significant other is a key determinate in women adhering to exercise

+

Promoting Physical Activity in Adult Women & Men: Part II Body Image Chapter 4

+Healthy Body Ideal Connection to Exercise Involvement

Relationship exists between perceived body image and exercise in both genders Recognition that human bodies naturally come in a wide

range of shapes/sizes and that genetic factors are instrumental in determining one’s weight and shape

A realistic level of health and fitness for one’s own unique, personal body shape

+Perceptual Measurement

+Body Image Disturbance (BID)

Inaccurate perceptions of one’s body shape and size; image differs from one’s actual shape/size

Negative thoughts and feelings about one’s body

Actions performed to hide or change the body without regard to health implications

Body Dissatisfaction in Adults

Berscheid et al. (1973); Berscheid et al. (1973); Garner (1997)Garner (1997)

+

Correlation is much stronger for women than for men A woman’s feelings of self-worth are typically more strongly

influenced by her perceived physical attractiveness than those of a man

Are women or men more dissatisfied with their body?

+What do women or men want from their exercise program to improve their body image?

For men and women are to lose weight and increase muscle (Rodger & Gauvin, 1994)

The problem areas for men are abdomen and overall weight. Men want to have more muscle mass, broad, muscular

shoulders, toned “six-pack” abdominals, a narrow waist, and muscular legs

The problematic areas for women are abdomen, hips, thighs, and overall weight Females want ultra-thin, shapely, toned, and firm body

+Why Is Body Image Important?

Healthy body image is related to better psychological well-being in two ways: Better self-esteem Lowered risk for depression and anxiety

Healthy body image is related to: Type of exercise Exercise adherence levels

+ Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD)

An extreme case of body dissatisfaction

Excessive preoccupation with some aspect of one’s physical appearance

Obsessive-compulsive activities (e.g., constantly weighing oneself)

Muscle dysmorphia: Preoccupation with muscularity Fear of being muscularly small is estimated at 9% of the

male population (Olivardia, 2001) or 1-2 % of the population (Phillips & Dufresne, 2000)

Anxiety and dissatisfaction with muscles Steroid use and excessive work out routines Avoids social gathering

+ Mechanisms by Which Exercise Might Improve Body Image

+Body Image & Exercise

Findings

-Exercise training can lead to significant improvements in body image of women (Martin & Lichtenberger, 2002) and men

-Both aerobic and weight training improved body image with weight training having the greatest impact.

- Exercisers frequently report being dissatisfied with their weight

-Active women evaluated their physical appearance higher than inactive women

+

Promoting Physical Activity in Adult Women & Men: Part III Social Physique AnxietyChapter 4

+ Physical Activity and Anxiety About the Body

Social Physique Anxiety (SPA)Women who possess high SPA view their

physical appearance more negativelyWomen with high SPA individuals often

exercise for self-presentation reasons (e.g. Weight loss, to improve appearance, and body tone)

Women low in SPA were more likely to exercise for the purpose of fitness, mood enhancement, & health.

Men have lower SPA levels as compared to women

+ Social Physique Anxiety (SPA)SPA is a form of anxiety that is experienced

by people (men and women) that is real or imagined evaluations of one’s body by others (Hart, Leary, & Rejeski, 1989)

Most SPA studies looked at whether people’s dispositional tendencies to experience SPA can also have situational consequences.

SPA is the most studied self-presentation topic in exercise psychology.

+Variables of interest

Does one’s SPA level affect their persistence to exercise?

Does one’s SPA level affect their effort or exercise intensity?

Does one’s SPA level affect their choices of exercise settings (primarily among women)?

+SPA and Persistence of Exercise Participation

Meta analysis research by Roberts et al (2012) found a r = -10, indicating that on, average, SPA accounted for about 1% of the variance in persistency of exercise participation.

+SPA and effort or exercise intensity

Do people with high SPAs work out harder to maximize changes in their appearances (e.g., reduce weight, increase muscle mass) and alleviate physique anxiety?

Little research exists….what little research exists the few studies have found a moderate negative relationship (r = -.35) between SPA and one’s perceived rate of exercise effort.

Some researchers contend that SPA accounts for negligible variance in exercise effort.

+SPA and choices of exercise settings

Studies have found: Women want to exercise with other but their body anxiety

prevents them from do so (Diehl et al, 2001) When women do exercise in a group they choose:

All female environments (Yin, 2001; Eklund &Crawford, 1994)

Wear exercise attire that is not revealing (Eklund & Crawford, 1994; Sinden et al, (2003)

Exercise in the back of the class (Brewer et al, 2004)

Overall the relationship between SPA and exercise choice tend to be modest.

+Summary of SPA Research

Very weak negative association between SPA and persistency to exercise participation.

Few studies exist that studied the association between SPA and effort or exercise intensity

Women choice of exercise activities and setting has shown an association with SPA but these affect are small.

IN CONCLUSION THERE ARE SMALL TO MEDIUM-SIZED DIRECT ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN SELF-PRESENTATION AND EXERCISE MOTIVATION

+SPA and the Exercisers

The strongest SPA finding was that people who are motivated to exercise for self-presentational reasons do less exercise than those who are motivated for other reasons.

From a self-determination theory perspective these people are in the introjected phase, that is, their exercise behavior is regulated by internal pressures toward attainment of :1) reward (e.g., praise for changes in their appearance)2) avoiding punishment (e.g.,wearing speedo in public)3) maintaining self-worth

Strategies from controlling to a more autonomous exercise motives is needed.

+Strategies for self-presentation exercisers are:

Exercise plans should indicate where, when, and what type of exercise will be performed.

Coping plans need to be developed to over come exercise barriers

Client should be given the opportunity to select the intensity of a workout (e.g., take responsibility for their workout to increase ownership).

Down play the importance of exercise as appearance-altering strategy to being more aware of the intrinsic pleasure and benefits of being in shape.

+The Fitness Leader & SPA

Characteristics of the fitness leader can influence self-presentation levels in clients: 1) Ultrafit leaders wearing physique attire can elicit comparisons

between leader and exerciser (Greenleaf et al, 2001) 2)Leader’s sex does not influence self-presentation concerns 3)Leader who emphasize decreased weight and increased muscle

tone increases client’s self-presentation levels (Raedeke et al, 2007)

What should a leader do? 1) Employ fitness leaders with a variety of body sizes. 2) Make comments “Let’s get fit” not “Let’s get the legs toned” 3) Presents of friends reduces self-presentation 4) Team building interventions lowers self-presentation

+Exercise Environment & SPA

The presence of men increase women’s SPA levels (Kruisselbrink et al., 2004)

Have all women areas

Presence of mirrors increases SPA levels in women who are not regular exercisers (Martin Ginis, et al 2003, 2008)

Push for construction of more trials, bike paths, tracks, and outdoor exercise facilities.

+

Promoting Physical Activity in Adult Women & Men: Part IV Summary Chapter 4

+Summary Offer low to moderate activities for women and higher more vigorous activities for

men

Offer women only classes or co-ed classes

Duration of exercise should be short rather than long

Promote self-efficacy by developing a easy to difficult program to promote successful experiences, especially for women.

Provide social support by enlisting the spouse or significant other in exercise.

Encourage group activities as well as individual personal training

Provide social support initially for both men and women

Personality pairing strategies are affective for both men and women

Develop a program that included aerobic activities but emphasizes weight training

Engage men and women in behavioral interventions that promotes adherence such as goal setting, keeping a log, etc.

Be aware of body image and SPA tendencies, especially in women.