© 2009 mcgraw-hill higher education. all rights reserved. chapter 11 learning and cognition in the...
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© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
CHAPTER 11
Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas
© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Learning Goals
1. Distinguish between expert knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge.
2. Explain how reading develops and discuss some useful approaches to teaching reading.
3. Describe how writing develops and discuss some useful approaches to teaching writing.
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Learning Goals, cont’d
4. Characterize how mathematical thinking develops and identify some issues related to teaching mathematics.
5. Identify some challenges and strategies related to teaching children how to think scientifically.
6. Summarize how learning in social studies is becoming more constructivist.
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Expert and Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Expert knowledge means an excellent knowledge about the content of a particular discipline.
Pedagogical content knowledge is knowledge about how to effectively teach a particular discipline.
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Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas
A DevelopmentalModel of Reading
CognitiveApproaches
Social ConstructivistApproaches
Approaches to Reading
Reading
Language Rule Systems
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Developmental Model of Reading
Stage 1 (grades 1–2) Learn to sound out words
Stage 0 Left to right progression, identification of letters of the alphabet, how to write their names
Stage 2 (grades 2–3) Retrieve individual words and develop mechanical skills
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Developmental Model of Reading
Stage 3 (grades 4–8) Read to learn, understand various perspectives
Stage 4 (high school) Develop the ability to understand material written from different perspectives and discuss
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Language Rule Systems
Phonology Sound system of a language
Morphology Units of meaning involved in word formation
Syntax Rules for combining words into acceptable phrases/sentences
Semantics Meaning of words and sentences
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Teaching Reading
Reading is the ability to understand written discourse.
Whole-Language Approach
Phonics Approach
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Cognitive ApproachesDecoding and Comprehending Words
Automaticity and Metacognitive Strategies:
Overview of text Seek and relate important ideas Determine word meaning Monitor comprehension Understand relationships Recognize the necessity to
reread Adjust pace based on difficulty
of material
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Cognitive Approaches
Prior Knowledge A reader’s background knowledge is related to how he or she interprets and remembers reading material.
Develop Expert Strategies
The transactional strategy instruction approach allows students to learn strategies to monitor reading and to summarize information.
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Social Constructivist Approaches
Meaning is “socially negotiated” (reader’s contribution, context, and purpose)
Assumptions:1. The social context plays an important role
in reading.2. Knowledgeable readers in the culture assist
less knowledgeable readers.
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Social Constructivist Approaches
Reciprocal Teaching
1. Generate questions about text
2. Clarify understanding of text
3. Summarize text
4. Make predictions
Book Clubs
School/Family/Community Connections
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Comparing Approaches to Reading Instruction
Reciprocal group takes turns with the teacher.
Explicit instruction group listens and completes paper-pencil activities.
Modeling group observes teacher’s use of strategies.
Control group was given no reading strategy information.
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Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas
CognitiveApproaches
Social ConstructivistApproaches
DevelopmentalChanges
Writing
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Developmental Changes in Writing
Age 4 In the United States, children can usually reproduce their name
Age 2–3 Writing emerges out of scribbles
Age 5 Reproduce letters and copy short words
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Developmental Changes in Writing
Middle and High School: Students develop sophisticated methods of organizing ideas
Early Elementary School: Distinguish letter characteristics, continued reversal of letters (b-d;p-q); criticism of printing skills should be minimized
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Cognitive Approaches to Teaching Writing
Planning Outlining and organizing content information.
Problem Solving Writers establish goals that include the purpose, the audience, and the role of the writer.
Revising Multiple drafts, getting feedback, detecting and correcting errors.
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Cognitive Approaches to Teaching Writing
Metacognition: Knowledge of planning and organization and being receptive to feedback in order to become a good writer.
Effective Writing Strategies: Prewriting Planning, revising, and editing Summarization Sentence combining
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Social Constructivist Approaches to Teaching Writing
Create a social context that encourages writing.
Meaningful student-teacher conferences that promote writing about personal experiences.
Shared rich peer collaboration and family/peer connections produce new insights.
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Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas
Controversy inMath Education
DevelopmentalChanges
Mathematics
Some ConstructivistPrinciples
Technology andMath Instruction
Cognitive Processes
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Grades 3–5 Multiplicative reasoning, equivalence, and computational fluency
Pre-K–Grade 2 Count past 20, add/subtract single digits
Developmental Changes in Mathematics
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Grades 6–8 Algebra and geometry, quantitative life solutions
Developmental Changes in Mathematics
Grades 9–12 Students should experience algebra, geometry, statistics, probability, and discrete mathematics
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Constructivist Principles for Teaching Mathematics
With appropriate prior knowledge, make students
stretch their minds to solve problems
Make math curriculum socially interactive
Make math realistic and interesting
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Crack the CaseThe Constructivist Math Classroom
1. What are the issues in this case?
2. The students in first and second grade seem to be flourishing in this curriculum, whereas the older students are struggling. Why might this be? Tie your answer to a constructivist principle.
3. How should the teachers address parental concerns regarding the new curriculum?
4. How should they address the concerns of the algebra teacher?
5. What can the teachers do to help their students at this point?
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Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas
Science
Science EducationConstructivist
Teaching Strategies
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Strategies for Teaching Science
Promote scientific thinking Address misconceptions Develop inquiry skills Teach science content Allow exploration of everyday
science problems
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Enter the Debate
Should teachers emphasize the scientific process or scientific facts in science instruction?
PROCESS FACTS
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Learning and Cognition in the Content Areas
What Is Social Studies?
Social Studies
Constructivist Approaches
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Social Studies Themes(National Council for the Social Sciences, 2000)
IndividualDevelopment/
Identity
Social Studies
People, Places, and
Environments
Power, Authority,
Governance
Production,Distribution,
ConsumptionScience,
Technology,and Society
Time, Continuity, and Change
Culture
Civic Ideals and Practices
Global Connections
Individuals, Groups, and Institutions
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Reflection & Observation
Reflection: How has working with others
affected your learning experiences? Why?