zeller eduard -socrates-and-the-socratic-schools.pdf
TRANSCRIPT
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Digitized
by
the Internet
Archive
in
2011
with
funding from
University
of Toronto
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AUTHORISED
ENGLISH
TRANSLATION
OF
BE.
ZELLBE'S
WOEK
ON THE
PHILOSOPHY
OF
THE
GREEKS
The
PRAE-SOOBATIO
SCHOOLS,
Being
a History
of
Greek
Philosophy
from
the
Earliest
Period
to the
Time
of
SOCKATES.
Translated
with
the Author's
sanction.
Crown
8vo.
[In
pre;paration.
II
SOCRATES
and
the
SOCRATIO
SCHOOLS.
Translated
by
the
Eev.
Oswald J.
Keichel,
M.A.
New Edition,
revised.
Crown
8vo. price
lOs.
Qd.
Ill
ARISTOTLE
and
the
ELDER
PERI-
PATETICS.
Translated
with
the
Author's
sanction.
Crown
8vo.
[In
preparation.
IV
The
STOICS,
EPICUREAITS,
and
SCEPTICS.
Translated
by
the
Rev.
Oswald
J.
Eeichel,
M.A.
Crown
Svo
price
14s.
V
PLATO
and
the
OLDER
ACADEMY.
Translated
by
Sarah
Fbances
Alleyne
and
Alfbed
Goodwin,
M.A.
Fellow
and
Lecturer
of
Balliol
College,
Oxford.
Crown
Svo.
price
IBs.
London,
LONGMANS
&
CO.
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Lately
published, in
cro-wn 8vo.
price I85.
PLATO AND
THE
OLDER
ACADEMY.
Translated with
the Author's
sanction
from
the German
of
D.
EDUARD
ZELLER,
By SARAH FEANCES
ALLEYNE
and
ALFRED
GOODWIN,
M.A.
Fellow and
Lecturer
of
Balliol
College,
Oxford.
THE
ACADEMY.
'
The
compliment
of translation
is
well
deserved
by the
patient
erudition
and
masterly
arrangement
of the
original,
which
is
an
indis-
pensable
aid
to
the readers
of
Plato
and
Aristotle.
Of
this
translation
it can be
said that in
all
essential
respects
it
may
be
relied
on
as an
equivalent of
Zeller's
book.'
EDUCATIONAL
TIMES.
'
The
work must become
indispensable
to the
student
of
Plato.
It
consists
of sixteen chapters, in
which Plato's
life, the
order
of
his
writ-
ings, the character of
his
Philosophy,
his
Physics,
his Ethics,
and
his
Religion
are
treated with great
detail and
minuteness.
It is,
of course
impossible in
these pages
to do
more with
so vast a work
not
vast,
however,
in
bulk,
being
a
book of
600 pagesthan
to
call
attention
to
it, and,
if
possible, to
give some idea
of
its
style.'
SATITRDAY
REVIEW.
In
all
its
departments
Dr.
Zeller's
book is
both
comprehensive
and trustworthy.
He
seems to
have
said
the last
word
on
Greek
philo-
sophy
;
and
his volumes
are
among
those
monuments of
nineteenth-
century
German
research which make
one
wonder
what
will
remain
for
the
scholars
of the twentieth century
to
do. He brings
to
his
task the
two essential
qualities
vast
learning,
and the
power of
moving
at
pleasure in the
rarefied atmosphere of
abstractions
It
is evident
that
jNIr.
Goodwin,
to
whom
this
part
of
the
undertaking
fell,
had
no
sinecure
in
his work of
translation
and
verification.
He has gone
bravely through
with it, however, and both
his
work
and that
of
Miss
Alleyne,
who
translated
the text, leave
almost nothing
to
be desired.'
GUARDIA]>3 .
'
This
is a
translation
of
Dr. Eduard Zeller's
Plato
und
die dltere
Akade'tnie,
a work
of
great value
to
students of Plato,
but hitherto
only
in
part accessible to
English
readers.
The
text
has
been
admirably
translated
by
Miss
Alleyne,
who
has proved
herself fully
competent
to
deal
with the
philosophical terminology of the German original,
and
to
execute a
translation
which
does
not, like
some
translations,
proclaim
itself as such
by
an
un-English structure of its
phrases
and
sentences.
Copious
notes
and
references
have been
added
by
Mr.
Goodwin,
Fellow
of
Balliol College,
who shares
with
Miss
Alleyne
the
responsibility
of
the
work. The
value
of
Dr.
Z.sller's work has
been amply
acknowledged
by
Professor
Jowept
in the Preface to the second edition
of
his Plato
;
and
this
translation
of
it
will
be a
great
boon
to
many students
of
Plato
who (as
its
Authors
suggest
in
their
Preface)
are less
familiar
with
German
than
with
Greek.
London,
LONGMANS
& CO.
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SOCEATEg
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LONDON
:
IMilNTIiD
BY
SPOTTLSWOODE
AND
CO.,
XEW-STUEET
SQUAUE
AND
PARLIAMENT
STREET
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NSLATED
OOLS
FROM
miE
Tli/RD
GERMAN EDITION OF
V
^
D^
E.^'ZELLER
BY
OSWALD
J.
REICHEL,
B.C.L.
&
M.A.
VICAR
OP
SPERSHOLT,
BERKS
.SECOXD AND
ENTIRELY
NEW
ED[TION
LONDON
LONGMANS,
GREEN,
AND
CO.
1877
All
I
iijh Is rttirr
Cfii
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>;
INSTITUTE
OF
^^mmi
STUDIES
TORONTO
5,
CANADA.
^A2
301S32
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PEEFACE
In
offering
to
the
English
reader a new
edition
of
that part of Dr Zeller's
Philosophie
der
Griechen
which treats
of
Socrates
and
the
imperfect Socratic
Schools, the
translator
is
not unaware
of the diffi-
culties of
the
task
which he has undertaken.
For if,
on the one
hand,
such
a
translation
be too
literal, the
reader may find
it more
difficult
to
understand
than
the original,
and
expend
a
labour
in
disentangling
the
thread
of
a
sentence
which
were better spent
in
grasping
its
meaning.
If,
on
the
other
hand,
too
much
freedom
be
allowed,
the charge may
be
justly
preferred,
that
the
rendering
does
not
faithfully
re-
present
the
original.
The
present
translator
has
en-
deavoured
to steer
a
middle
course
between
these
two
extremes,
aiming
at reproducing
the
meaning
of
Dr
Zeller's
work,
whilst reducing
the
sentences,
where
it
seemed
necessary,
by
breaking
them
up.
In
order
to avoid
inaccuracies,
he has
once
more
care-
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vi
PREFACE.
fully
gone
over
the
whole,
so
that
what
is
now
offered
as
a
second
edition
is
really
a
new
translation
from
the third
Grerman
edition.
The
writer
is
well
aware
how
imperfectly
he
has
been
able
to realise
his
own
standard
of
excellence
;
but
believing
that
there
is
a large
class
of
students
who find
it
a work
of
toil
to
read
Dr
Zellek's
work
in
the original,
he
submits
this
attempt
to meet
their wants,
soliciting
for
it
a
gentle
criticism.
Glenfriaes,
Torquay
May,
1877.
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CONTENTS
PART
I.
THE
GENERAL
STATE
OF
CULTURE
IN
GREECE.
CHAPTER
I.
THE INTELLECTUAL
DEVELOPMENT
OF
GREECE
IN
THE
FIFTH
CENTURY
B.C.
PAGE
Introduction.
The
problem
proposed to
philosophy .
2
A.
The
problem
solved
by political events
1.
Political unsettledness
2
2.
Athens
a
centre of
union
3
B.
The
problem
solved by
literature
1. The
Tragedians.
jEschylus
Sophocles
Euri-
pides
.
.
.
. . . . . .
4
2.
Didactic
Poetry.
Simonides
Bacchylides
Pin-
dar
21
3. The
Historians.
Herodotus
Thucydides
. .
24
4.
Comed)^
Aristophanes
29
C.
The
problem solved
by
new
forms
of religious
worship
.
32
.^7
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viii
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
II.
CHARACTER
AND
PROGRESS
OF
GREEK
PHILOSOPHY
IN
THE
FIFTH
CENTURY
B.C.
I'AGK
38
A.
Distinction
of
Socratic
from
pre-Socratic
Philosophy
1.
Knowledge
substituted
for
tradition
. .
.
38
2.
Study
of
conceptions
substituted
for
study
of
nature
...
on
>y
B.
Importance
of
the
doctrine
of
conceptions
.
.
.40
1.
Definition
of
a
conception
4j
2.
Theory
of
conceptions
expanded
.
.
.
.42
C.
Distinction
of
Socratic
from
post-
Aristotelian
Philosophy
43
1.
Knowledge
believed
to
be
possible
.
.
.
.
44
2.
Morality not
pursued
independently
...
45
D.
The
Socratic
Philosophy
developed
1.
Socrates
i-.
2.
Plato
'
'
'48
3.
Aristotle
j^q
4.
Difficulty
caused
by
Socratic
Schools
...
50
PART
II.
.SOCRATES.
CHAPTER
III.
THE
LIFE
OF
SOCRATES.
A.
Youth
and
early
training
....
59
B.
Active
life
*
.
'
.
*
ei
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CONTENTS.
ix
CHAPTER
TV.
THE
CHARACTER OF SOCRATES.
PAGE
A.
Greatness
of
the
character
of
Socrates
....
70
B.
Greek
peculiarities
in his character
74
C.
Prominent
features in
his
character
....
77
D.
The
^aiii6viov
82
1.
False
views
of the
hai}x6viov
.....
82
2.
Kegarded by Socrates as
an
oracle
. .
.
.
84
ii.
Limited
in its application
.....
90
4.
Correct
view of
the
Saifxdfiop .
. .
.
94
CHAPTER
Y.
SOURCES
AND
CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE
PHILOSOPHY OF
SOCRATES.
A.
Xenophon and
Plato
considered
as
authorities . .
98
B.
General
point
of
view
of Socrates
104
G.
Theory
of
knowledge
of
conceptions
considered
.
.109
D.
Moral
value
of
this
theory
113
E. Its subjective
character
116
CHAPTER YI.
THE
PHILOSOPHICAL
METHOD
OF
SOCRATES.
A.
Knowledge
of
ignorance
the
first
step
.
.
.
,
121
B.
Search for
knowledge
the
next
Eros
and
Irony 124
C. Formation
of
conceptions the
third
step
.
,
.
128
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CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
yil.
SUBSTANCE
OF
THE
TEACHING
OF
SOCRATES
ETHICS.
PAGE
A.
The
subject-matter
restricted
to
Ethics
.
.
.
.
134
B.
Virtue
is
knowledge
the
leading
thought
of
the
Socratic
Ethics
140
C.
The
Good
and
Eudaemonism
1.
Theoretically
Virtue is
knowledge
about
the
Good
147
2.
Practically
the
Good
determined
by
custom
or
utility
148
3.
Inconsistency
of
Socratic
Morality
. .
.151
D.
Particular
Moral
Eolations
160
1.
Personal
independence
.....
161
2.
Friendship
. .
.
.
.
,
. ,
163
3. The
State
165
4.
Universal philanthropy I70
CHAPTEE
VIII.
SUBSTANCE
OF
THE
TEACHING
OF
SOCRATES,
CONTINUED.
NATURE
GOD
MAN.
A.
View of
Nature
172
B.
Notion of
God
and
the
Worship
of
God
.
.
.
.
175
1.
Language
about
the
Gods taken
from
popular
use .
175
2.
God
conceived
as the
Keason
of
the
world
.
.
176
3. The
Worship
of
God
I77
C.
Dignity
and
Immortality
of
man
]
78
CHAPTER
IX.
XENOPHON
AND
PLATO.
SOCRATES
AND
THE
SOPHISTS.
A.
Value of
Xenophon
as an
authority
1.
Xenophon
in
harmony
with
Plato
and
Aristotle
.
181
2.
Schleiermacher's
objections
refuted
. . .
183
B.
Importance
of
Socrates
for the
age in
which
he lived
.
185
C.
Relation
of
Socrates
to
the
Sophists
187
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CONTENTS. xi
CHAPTER
X.
THE
TRAGIC
END
OF
SOCRATES.
PAGE
A.
Circumstances
connected
with his
trial and
death
1.
The
Accusation
193
2.
The
Defence
196
3.
The
Sentence
198
4.
His
Death
200
B.
Causes
which
led
to
his
sentence 202
1.
The
Sophists
innocent 202
2.
Personal
animosity
only
partially
the cause
.
.
205
3.
Political
party-feeling
only partially
involved
.
210
4.
The
teaching
of
Socrates
generally believed
to
be
dangerous
........
213
C.
Justification
of the sentence
220
1.
Unfounded
charges
brought
against Socrates
. .
220
2.
The
views
of Socrates
subversive
of
old
views
of
authority
political life
religion
. .
.
226
3.
Eolation borne by his views to
cot
emporary views
231
4.
Result of
his
death
235
PART III.
THE
IMPERFECT
FOLLOWERS
OF
SOCRATES.
CHAPTER
XI.
THE SCHOOL OF
SOCRATES
POPULAR
PHILOSOPHY.
XENOPHON
j
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xii
CONTENTS.
CHAPTEK
XII.
THE
MEGARIAX
AND
THE
ELEAN-ERETRIAN
SCHOOLS.
PAGJi
The
Megarians
A.
History of the
School
249
B.
Their Doctrine
255
1. Being- and
Becoming
.
.
.
.
.
_
259
2.
The
Good
262
C.
Eristic
264
1.
Euclid
265
2. Eubulides
.........
268
3.
Alexinus
.....
. .
268
4.
Diodorus
on
Motion
Destruction
the
Pogsible
269
5.
Philo.
The
Possible
Hjrpothetical
sentences
Meaning
of
words
,
.
.
.
.
.
273
6.
Stilpo.
Subject
and
Predicate
the
Good
Cvnic
Morality
........
275
The
Elean-Eretrian
School.
A.
History
of
the
School
279
B.
Doctrine of
the
School
281
CHAPTER
XIII.
THE
CYNICS.
A.
History
of the
0311108
.......
284
B.
Teaching
of
the
Cynics
.......
291
1.
Depreciation
of
theoretical
knowledge
. .
291
2. Logic
295
C.
Cynic
theory
of Morality
3Q2
1.
Negative
conditions
Good
and
Evil
.
.
.
301
2. Positive
side
Virtue
3Xq
3.
Wisdom
and
Folly
.
.
.
.
313
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CONTENTS.
D.
Practical
results
of
Cynic
teaching
....
1.
Renunciation
of
Self
2.
Renunciation
of
Society.
Family
Life
Civil
Life
Modesty
.....
3.
Renunciation
of
Relig-ion
E.
Cynic
influence
on
Society
Xlll
PAGK
314
31.5
311>
327
331
CHAPTER
XIV.
THE
CYRENAICS.
A.
History
of
the
Cyrenaics
.
.
.
.
.
.337
B.
Teaching
of
the
Cyrenaics
344
1.
General
position
34g
2.
Feelings
the
only
object
of
knowledge
.
.
.
347
3.
Pleasure
and
pain
352
4.
The
Highest
Good
.
.
.
.'. .
354
5.
Modified
form
of
the
extreme
view
.
.
. 35f>
C.
Practical
Life
of
the
Cyrenaics
361
D.
Relation
of
their
teaching
to
Socrates
....
369
1.
Relation
of
their
philosophy
369
2.
Points
of
resemblance
......
375
E.
The
later
Cyrenaics
376
1.
Theodorus
3jg
2.
Hegesias
3gQ
3.
Anniceris
.......
383
CHAPTER
XV.
RETROSPECT.
A.
Inconsistencies
of
the
imperfect
Socratic
Schools
.
.
386
B.
These
Schools
more
closely
related
to
Socrates
than
to
the
Sophists
3g-
C.
Importance
of
tliese
Schools
389
J'^^^^^
'.
.
.
393
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PAET
I.
THE
GENERAL
STATE
OF
CULTURE
IN
GREECE.
CHAPTER
I.
THE
INTELLECTUAL
DEVELOPMENT
OF
GREECE
IN
THE
FIFTH
CENTURY.
The
intellectual
life
of
Oreece
had
reached
a
point
chap.
towards
the
close
of
the
fifth
century,
in
which
the
^
choice
lay
before
it
of
either
giving
up
philosophy
altogether,
or
attempting
a
thorough
transformation
upon
a
new
basis.
The
older
schools
were
not
indeed
wholly
extinct
;
but
all
dependence
in
their
systems
had
been
shaken,
and
a
general
disposition
to
doubt
had
set
in.
From
the
Sophists
men
had
learnt
to
call
everything
in
question
to
attack
or
defend
with
equal
readiness
every
opinion.
Belief
in
the
truth
of
human
ideas,
or
in
the
validity
of
moral
laws,
had
been
lost.
Not
only
enquiries
respecting
nature,
which
had
engaged
the
attention
of
thinkers
for
upwards
of
a
century
and
a half,
had
become
distasteful,
but
even
philosophy
itself
had
given
place
to
a
mere
superficial
facility
of
thought
and
expression
and
the
acquisition
of
attainments
useful
0.
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Chap.
I.
Prohlem
proposedto
2)hilosophy
in
the
fifth
century.
A.
The
prohlem
solved by
political
events.
(1)
Po-
litical
unsettled-
ness.
STATU
OF
CULTURE IN
GREECE.
only for
the
purposes
of social
life.
Yet this
state
of things
naturally
suggested the
need
of
a
new
method,
which
would
avoid
the
defects
and
one-
sidedness of
previous
systems by
a
more
cautious
treatment
of
scientific
questions.
The
way
thereto
had not
only been
indirectly
prepared
by
the
clear-
ing
away
of
previous
speculation,
but the very
instrument
of
research had
been sharpened
by
the
quibbles
and
subtleties
of sophistry
;
ample
material,
too,
for
the
erection
of a
new
structure
lay
to
hand
in the
labours
of
preceding
philosophers.
Moreover,
by
the
practical
turn which the Sophistic
enquiries
had
taken,
a
new
field
of
research
was
opened
up,
the
more
careful
cultivation of
which gave promise of a
rich
harvest
for
speculative
philosophy.
Would
a
creative
genius
be
forthcoming, able
to
make use of
these
materials,
and
to
direct thought into
a
new
channel?
Before
this
question Grreek philosophy
stood
at
the
time
when
Socrates
appeared.
The
answer
was
determined
in
great
part
by
the
course
which
political
circumstances,
moral
life,
and
general
culture
had
taken.
Between
these
and
philo-
sophy
the
connection
is
at
all
times
close
;
yet
lately,
in
the
case
of
the
Sophistic
teaching,
it
had
been
more
than
ever
apparent.
The
most
sweeping
changes
had
taken
place
in
the
fifth
century
in
Greece.
Never
has a nation
had
a
more
rapid
or
miore
brilliant
career
of
military
glory in
union
with
high
culture
than
had
the
Greeks.
Yet
never
has
that
career
been
sooner
over. First came
the
great
deeds
of
the
Persian
war,
then the rich bloom of
art
1
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ILLUSTRATED
BY
POLITICS.
3
of
the
age
of
Pericles ;
following
immediately
that Chap.
internal
conflict
which
wasted
the
strength
and
'
prosperity
of
the
free states
of
Greece
in
unhallowed
domestic
quarrels, which sacrificed anew the
indepen-
dence
so
hardly won
from
the foreigner, undermined
her freedom,
threw her
moral notions into
confusion,
and
irretrievably
ruined the
character
of her
people.
A
progress which
elsewhere required centuries
was
in
her
case
compressed
within
a
few
generations.
When
the
pulse
of
national life
beats
so
fast,
the
general
spirit
must be
exposed to a quick
and
susceptible
change
;
and when so
much that is
great
happens
in
so
short
a
time, an
abundance
of
ideas is
sure
to
crop
up,
awaiting only
a
regulating
hand
to
range
them-
selves
into
scientific
systems.
Of greatest importance
for
the future
of
philo-
(2)
Athens
sophy
was
the
position won
by
Athens
since
the close
u}iion
and
of
the
Persian
war.
In that
great
conflict
the
con-
^*i^^'^y-
sciousness
of
a
common brotherhood
had dawned
upon
the
Hellenes
with a
force
unknown
before.
All
that
fancy had
painted in the
legend
of
the
Trojan
war seemed
to
be
realised
in actual history
Hellas
standing as
a
united nation
opposed to
the
East.
The
headship
of
this
many-membered
body
had
fallen in
the
main
to Athens,
and herewith
that
city
had become
the
centre of
all
intellectual
move-
ments,
'the
Prytaneum
of
the wisdom
of
Greece.'
This
circumstance
had
a
most
beneficial
effect
on
the
fm-ther
development
of philosophy.
No
doubt
a
*
So
called
by
Hippias
in
Plato,
Prot.
337,
D.
B
2
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STATE
OF
CULTURE
IN
GREECE.
Chap.
I.
B.
The
lyrohlem
solved
hy
literature.
(1)
The
trage-
dians.
tendency
may
be
noticed
in
the
several
schools
to
come
forth
from
their
isolation
;
it
maybe
seen
in
the
natural
philosophers
of
the
fifth
century that
an
active
inter-
change
of
thought
was
being
carried
on
between
the
East
and
theWest
of
Grreece
; and
now
that
the
Sophists
had
begun
to
travel
from
one
end
to
the
other
of
the
Hellenic
world,
to
carry
to
Thessaly
the
eloquence
of
Sicily,
to Sicily
the
doctrines
of
Heraclitus,
these
various
sources
of
culture
could
not
fail
gradually
to
flow
together
into
one
mighty
stream.
Still
it
was
of
great
importance
that
a
solid
bed
should
be
hollowed
out
for
this
stream
and
its
course
directed
towards
a
fixed
end.
This
result
was
brought
about
by
the
rise
of the
Attic
philosophy.
After
that,
in
Athens,
as
the
common
centre
of
the
Grrecian
world,
the
various
lines
of
pre-Socratic
enquiry
had
met
and
crossed,
Socrates
was
able
to
found
a
more
comprehensive
philosophy;
and
ever
afterwards
Grreek
philosophy
continued
to
be
so
firmly
tied
to
Athens,
that
down
to
the
time
of
the
New
Academy
that
city
was
the
birthplace
of
all
schools
historically
important.
It
was even
their
last
place
of
refuge
before
the
final
extinction
of
ancient
philosophy.
To
make
clear,
by
means
of
the
literary
remains
we
possess,
the
change
which
took
place
in
the
Greek
mode
of
thought
during
the
fifth
century,
and
to
estimate
the
worth
and
extent
of
the
contributions
yielded
to
philosophy
by
the
general
culture
of the
time, the
great
Athenian
tragedians
may
be
first
appealed
to.
For
tragedy
is
better
suited
than any
other
kind
of
poetry
to
arouse
ethical
reflection,
to
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ILLUSTMATED
BY
TRAGEDIANS.
pourtray
the
moral
consciousness
of
a
people,
and
to
Chap.
express
the
highest
sentiments
of
which
an
age,
or
^
t
least
individual
prominent
spirits
in
an
age,
are
'
capable.
Every
deeper
tragic
plot
rests
on
the
con-
flicting
calls
of
duty
and
interest.
To
make
clear
the
origin
of
the
plot,
to
unfold
the
action
psycho-
logically,
to
produce
the
general
impression
intended,
the
poet
must
bring
these
two
points
of
view
before
us,
allowing
each
to
advocate
its
cause
in
lively
speech
,
and
counter-speech
:
he
must
go
into
the
analysis
of
moral
consciousness,
weigh
what
is
right
and
what
is
faulty
in
human
action,
and
expose
it
to
view.
As
a
poet
he
will
do
this,
always
having
regard
to
the
particular
case
before
him.
Still,
even
this
he
cannot
do
without
comparing
one
case
with
another,
without
going
back
to
general
experience,
to
the
generally
received
notions
respecting
right
and
wrong
in
short,
to
general
moral
conceptions.
Hence
tragic
poetry
must
always
give
a
lasting
impetus
to
scien-
.
tific
speculation
on
moral
conduct
and
its
laws,
affording,
too,
for
such
reflection
ample
material
itself,
and
that
to
a
certain
extent
already
prepared,
and
inviting
partly
use,
partly
correction.
^
Moreover,
masmuch
as
moral
convictions
were
in
the
case
of
the
Greeks,
as
in
the
case
of
other
nations,
originally
bound
up
with
religious
convictions,
and
inasmuch
as this
connection
particularly
affects
tragedy
owing
to
the
legendary
subjects
with
which
it
deals,
it
' On
this
'point
compare
the
vol.
viii.
137,
ed. 1870-
vol
excellent
remarks
of
Grote,
vii.
7,
ed
1872
'
Hist,
of
Greece,
P.
II.
c.
67,
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STATE
OF
CULTURE
IN
GREECE.
Chap,
follows that
all
that
has
been
said
respecting
the
^
connection between
tragedy
and
principles
of
morality
applies
also
to
the
connection
between
tragedy
and
principles of
theology
:
nay
more,
in
exactly
the
same
way
tragedy must
busy
itself
with
the
nature
and
state of men whose
deeds
and
fate
it
depicts.
In
all
these
respects a
most
decided
and
thorough
change
in
Grreek
thought
may
be
observed
in the
three
generations,
whose
character
finds
such
fit-
ting
expression
in
the
three
successive
tragedians,
iEschylus,
Sophocles,
and
Euripides.
Without
going
so
far
as to
attribute
to
the
poets
themselves
every
word
which
they
put
into
the
mouths
of
their
heroes,
still
the
general
tone
of
their
sentiments
may
be
gathered
partly
from
their
general
treatment
of
the
materials,
partly
from
their
individual
utterances,
with no
lack
of
certainty.
{a) Ms- In
^schylus
there
is
an
earnestness
of
purpose,
a
chylm.
depth
of
religious
feeling,
an
overwhelming
force
and
majesty,
worthy
of
a
man
of
ancient
virtue,
who
had
himself
taken
part
in
the
great
battles
with
the
Persians.
At
the
same
time
there
is
a
something
bitter
and
violent
about
him,
which
a
time
of
heroic
deeds
and
sacrifices,
of
mighty
capabilities
and
in-
spiriting
results,
could
neither
soften
down
nor
yet
dispense
with.
The
spirit
of
his
tragedies
is
that
of
an
untamed,
masculine
mind,
seldom
moved
by
softer
feelings,
but
spell-bound
by
reverence
for
the
gods,
by
the
recognition
of
an
unbending
moral
order,
by
resignation
to
a
destiny
from
which
there
is
no
escape.
Never
were
the
Titan-like
defiance
of
I
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ILLUSTRATED BY
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unbridled
strength,
the
wild
fury
of passion and
Chap.
frenzy,
the
crushing
might
of
fate,
the paroxysms
of
'____
divine
vengeance,
more thrillingly
painted than by
^schylus.
At
the
bottom
of
all
his
sentiments lies
reverence
for
the divine
powers
;
yet
these are
grouped
almost monotheistically
together,
in
his vast vision,
as
one
almighty
power. What
Zeus
says happens ; his
will
always
comes to
pass,
even
though
it
escape
the
notice of
men
;
^
no mortal
can
do aught
against
his
will
;
^
none
can
escape the
decision
of heaven,
or
rather
of
destiny,^
over
which
Zeus
himself
is
power-
less.'*
In
face
of
this
divine
power
man feels
himself
weak
and frail
;
his
thoughts
are
fleeting
as
the
shadow
of
smoke
;
his
life
is
like
a
picture
which
a
sponge
washes out.^
That
man
mistake
not his
.
position,
that he
learn
not
to
overrate
what is
human
,^
that
he
be not
indignant
with
the
Grods
when
in affliction,^
that his
mind
soar
not
too
high,
that
the
grain
of
guilt
planted
by
pride grows
to a
harvest
of tears,-
such is the
teaching
which,
with
glowing
words,
flashes
on us
in
every
page of the
poet.
Not
even
^schylus,
however,
was
able
to grasp
these
ideas
in
their
purity,
or
to
rise
above
the
con-
tradiction
which
runs not
only
through
Grreek
tragedy,
but
through
the
whole
of
the
Grreek
view
of
life.
On
'
Suppl.
598 ; Agamemnon,
1327.
H85.
6
Niobe, Fr.
155,
(154).
^
Prometh.
550.
'
Fragm.
369
Dindorf.
Sto-
^
Pers.
93
;
Fragm.
299
Din-
ha-us. Serm,
108,
43,
attributes
dorf
(352
Nauck.).
the
words to
Euripides.
*
Prometh.
511.
8
p^j-g^
320.
*
Fragm.
295
(390)
;
Agam.
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STATE
OF
CULTURE
IN
GREECE,
Chap,
the
one
hand,
even
he
gives
utterance
to
the
ancient
belief
in
the
envy
of
heaven,
which
is
so
closely
con-
nected
with
the
peculiarity
of
natural
religion
;
sick-
ness
lurks
under
the
rudest
health
;
the
wave
of
fortune,
when
it
bears
man
highest
on
its
crest,
breaks
on a
hidden
reef;
would
the
man
on
whom
fortime
smiles
escape
ruin,
he
must
voluntarily
throw
away
a
part
of
what
he
has
;
^
even
fate
itself
ordains
guilt,
when
bent
on utterly
destroying
a family.^
On
the other
hand,
^schylus
never
tires
of
insisting
on
the
connection
between
guilt and
punishment.
Not
only
in
the
old
stories
of
Niobe
and
Ixion,
of
the
house
of
Laius
and
of
that of
Atreus,
does
he
paint
with
telling
touches
the
unavoidable
natm^e
of
divine
vengeance,
the
mischief
which
follows
in
the
wake
of
pride,
the
never-dying
curse
of crime
;
but
also
in
the
unexpected
result
of
the
Persian
expedition
he
sees
a
higher
hand,
visiting
with
punishment
the
self-exaltation
of
the
great
king,
and
the
insults
offered
to
the
gods
of
Grreece.
Man
must
suffer
^
according
to
his
deeds
;
God blesses
him
who
lives
in
piety
without
guile and
pride,
but
vengeance,^
though
it
may
be
slow at
first,
suddenly
overtakes
the
transgressor
of right;
some
Dike
strikes
down
with
a
sudden
blow,^
others
she
slowly crushes
;
from
generation
to
generation
the
curse
of
crime
gathers
strength,
likewise
virtue
and
happiness
^
descend
on
Agam.
1001
;
compare
the
^
Agam.
1563
;
Choeph.
309
;
story
of
Poly
crates
in
Herodo-
Fr.
282.
tus,
iii.
40.
Eumen.
530
;
Fr.
283.
2
Niobe,
Fr.
160
;
blamed
by
*
Choeph.
61.
PlatOy
Kep.
380,
A.
c
Agam.
750.
I
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ILLUSTRATED
BY
TRAGEDIANS.
children
and
children's
children
;
the
Furies
rule
over
Chap.
the
destiny
of
men, avenging
the
fathers'
sins on
the
^'
sons,'
sucking
the
criminal's
life-blood,
stealthily
clinging
to his
feet,
throwing
round
him
the
snares
of madness,
pursuing
him
with
punishment
down
to
the
shades.2
Thus
severely
and
clearly
through
all
the plays
of
^schylus
runs
the
thought
of
divine
justice
and
of
implacable
destiny.
All
the
more
remarkable
on
that
account
is
the
vigour
with
which
the
poet
breaks
through
the
fetters
which
this
view
of
the
world
imposes.
In
the
Eu-
menides,
these
moral
conflicts,
the
play
of
which
^schylus
can
so
well
pourtray,^
are
brought
to
a satis-
factory
issue,
the
bright
Olympic
Groddess
appeasing
the
dark
spirits
of
vengeance,
and
the
severity
of
the
ancient
bloodthirsty
Justice
yielding
to
human
kind-
ness.
In
the
Prometheus,
natural
religion
as
a
whole
celebrates
its
moral
transfiguration
;
the
jealousy
of
the
gods
towards
mortals
is
seen
to
resolve
itself
into
mercy
;
Zeus
himself
requires
the
aid
of
the
Wise
One,
who,
for
his
kindness
to
men,
has
had
to
feel
the
whole
weight
of
his
wrath
;
yet,
on
the
other
hand,
the
unbending
mind
of
the
Titan
must
be
softened,
and
Zeus'
rule
of
might
be
changed
by
willing
submission
into
a
moral
rule.
What
the
poet
places
in
the
legendary
past
is
in
reality
the
history
of
his
own
time
and
of
his
own
mind,
^schylus
stands
on
the
boundary
line
between
two
periods
of
culture,
and
the
story
he
tells
of
the
miti-
'
Eum.
830.
Choeph.
896:
Eum.
198.
2
Eum.
264,
312.
566.
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1^
STATE
OF
CULTURE
IN
GREECE.
Chap,
g-ation
of
ancient
justice,
and
of
the
new
rule
of
the
'-
Grods,
was
repeated
in
another
way,
the
sternness
of
the
generation
of
Marathon
giving
place
to
the
cheerful
beauty
of the
age
of
Pericles.
Q))
Sopho-
I'o
the
spirit
of
this
new
age
Sophocles
has
ek\^.
given
the
most
fitting
expression.
Agreeing
as
he
does
in
principle
with
his
predecessor,
his
poems,
nevertheless,
convey
a very
different
impression.
The
I
keynote
of
the
poetry
of
Sophocles
is
likewise
reve-
rence
for
the
Gods,
whose
hand
and
laws
encompass
human
life.
From
them
come all
things,
even
mis-
fortune
;
^
their
never-decaying
power
no
mortal
can
withstand
;
nothing
can
escape
its
destiny
;
^
from
their
eyes
no
deed
and
no
thought
can
be
hid
;
^
their
eternal
laws,^
created
by no
mere
human
power,
dare
no
one
transgress.
Men,
however,
are
weak and
frail,
mere
shadows
or
dreams,
a very
nothing,
capable
only
of
a
passing
semblance
of
happiness.^
No
mortal's life
is
free
from
misfortune,^
and
even
the
happiest
man
cannot
be
called
happy
before
his
death
;
^
nay,
taking
all
things
into
account,
which
the
changing
day
brings
with
it,
the
number
of
woes,
the rarity of
good fortune,
the
end
to
which
all
must
come, it
were well
to
repeat
the
old
saying,
'
Not
to
have
been born is
the
best
lot,
and
the
next
best
is
to die
as
soon
as
may
be.'
^
The^
highest
practical
:
wisdom
is,
therefore,
to
control
the
wishes,
to mode-
1
Ajax,
1036
;
Trach.
1278.
Fr.
12,
616,
860.
-
Antig.
604,
951
;
Fr.
615.
Ant.
611
; Fr.
530.
3
Electra,
657.
'
(Ed.
E.
Trach.
1, 943
;
Fr.
4
(Ed.
Rex,
864
;
Ant.
450.
532,
583.
^
Ajax,
125;
(Ed.
E.
1186;
(gd.
Col.
1215.
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11
rate
the desires,
to
love
justice,
to
fear
God,
to
be
Ciim'.
resigned
to
fate. That
man should
not
exalt
him-
.
self
above
human
measure,
that
only
the
modest
man
is
acceptable
to the Grods,^
that
it
is
absurd
to
seek
a
higher
instead
of being
content
with
a
moderate
lot,
that
arrogance
hurries
on
to
sudden
destruction,
that
Zeus hates
the
vaunts
of
a
boastful
tongue,^
all
this
Sophocles
shows
by
the
example
of
men
who
have
been
hurled
from
the
summit
of
fortune,
or
who
have
been
ruined
by
recklessness
and
overbearing.
He,
too,
is
impressed
by
the
thought
of the
worth
of
virtue
and
of divine
retribution.
He
knows
that
uprightness
is
better
than
riches,
that
^
loss is
better
than
unjust
gain,
that
heavy
guilt
entails
heavy
punishment,
but that
piety
and
virtue
are
worth
more
than
all
things
else,
and
are
rewarded
not
only
in
this
world,
but in
the
next
;
^
he
even
declares
that it
is
more
important
to
please
those
in
the
next
world
than
those
in
this.^
He
is
more-
over
convinced
that
all
wisdom
comes
from
the
Gods,
and
that
they
always
conduct
to
what is
right,^
albeit
men
may
never
cease
from
learning
and
striving
after
it.^
He
bids
them
to
commit
their
griefs
to
Zeus,
who
from
heaven
above
looks
down
and
orders
all
things,
and
to
bear
what
the
Gods
send
with
resignation,^
and
in
this
belief
is
neither
puzzled
Ajax,
127,
758
;
(Eel.
Col.
^
Fr.
834,
227,
809, 865
;
in
1211
;
Fr.
320,
528.
the
unintelligible
06ia
riyi^pci
(Ed.
R.
873
;
Ant.
127.
probably
there
is
a
eeiauoTpa.
'
Fr.
18,
210,
1
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12
STATE
OF
CULTURE
IN
GREECE.
Chap,
by
the
good
fortune
of
many
bad
men,
nor
yet
by
'.
the
misfortunes
of
many
good
ones.^
The
same
thoughts
had
inspired
the
poetry
of
^schylus,
and
yet
the
spirit
of
the
drama
of
Sopho-
cles
is
a
very
different
one
from
his.
Sophocles
can
show
a
higher
artistic
execution,
a
fuller
dramatic
handling,
a
more
delicate
delineation
of
the
inner
life,
a
more
careful
unravelling
of
action
from
cha-
racters
and
of
characters
by
means
of
actions,
a
better
^
proportioned
beauty,
a
clearer
and
more
pleasing
H
language
;
whereas
for
tempestuous
force,
for
wild
exultation,
for
majestic
view
of
history,
^schylus
is
unrivalled.
Nor
is
the
moral
platform
of
the
two
tragedians
quite
the
same.
Both
are
penetrated
with
reverence
for
the
divine
powers;
but
in
^schylus
this
reverence
is
combined
with
a horror
which
has
first
to
be
set
aside,
and
with
an
antagonism
which
has
to
be
overcome
before
it
can
come
up
to
the
trustful
resignation
and
the
blissful
peace
of
the
piety
of
Sophocles.
The
power
of
fate
seems
with
^schylus
much
harsher,
because
less
called
for
by
the
character
of
those
whom
it
reaches
;
the
reign
of
Zeus
is
a reign
of
terror,
mitigated
only
by
degrees,
and
man
must
perish
if
the
Deity
enter
into
too
close
relations
with
him.^
Both
poets
celebrate
the
victory
of
moral
order
over
human
self-will
;
but
in
iEschylus
the
victory
is
preceded
by
severer
and
more
dreadful
struggles.
Moral
order
works,
with
him,
as
a stern
'
Fr.
104.
lo
in
the
Prometheus,
espe-
2
Compare
the
character
of
cially
v.
887,
&c.
I
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13
md
fearful
power,
crushing
the
refractory
;
whereas,
Chap.
Niih
Sophocles,
it
completes
its
work
with
the
quiet
^'
jertainty
of
a
law
of
nature,
awakening
rather
pity
or
human
weakness
than
terror.
That
conflict
of
the
)ld
bloodthirsty
justice
with
the
new,
round
which
heEumenides
of
^schylus
play,
Sophocles
has
left
)ehind;
with
him
justice
is,
from
the
very
begin-
ling,
harmoniously
united
with
mercy,
and
the
most
-ccursed
of
all
mortals
finds
in
the
'
(Edipus
Colo-
leus
'
reconciliation
at
last.
His
heroes,
too,
are
of
different
order
from
those
of
his
predecessor.
In
Eschyius
moral
opposites
are
so
hard,
that
human
epresentatives
of
them
do
not
suffice
him
;
hence
he
rings
the
Grods
themselves
into
the
battle-field
:eus
and
the
Titans,
the
daughters
of
Night
and
the
enizens
of
Olympus
;
whereas
the
tragedy
of
Sopho-
les
moves
entirely
in
the
world
of
men.
The
former
eals
by
preference
with
violent
natures
and
uncon-
rolled
passions
;
the
strong
point
of
the
latter
is
to
epict
what
is
noble,
self-contained,
tender
;
strength
1
by
him
generally
coupled
with
dignity,
pain
with
Jsignation.
Hence
his
female
characters
are
so
)ecially
successful.
Eschyius
paints
in
a
Clytcem-
3stra,
the
demoniacal
side
of
woman's
nature
in
all
s
repulsiveness.
Sophocles
in
an
Antigone
pour-
ays
pure
womanhood, knowing
'
how
to
love,
but
^
3t
to
hate,'
^
and
putting
even
hatred
to
shame
by
the
iroism
of
her
love.
In
short,
the
poetry
of
Sopho-
es
sets
before
us
the
sentiments
of
an
epoch
and
a
>
Ant.
523.
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14
STATE
OF
CULTURE
IN
GREECE.
Chap,
people
which
having, by
most
successful
efforts,
risen i
'
to
a
happy
use of
its powers,
and
so to fame
and
position,
enjoys
existence,
and
which
has
learned
to
look
on
human
nature
and
all that
belongs to
it
in
a
cheerful spirit,
to
prize its
greatness,
to
mitigate its
sufferings
by
wise
resignation,
to
bear its weaknesses,
to
control
its
excesses
by
custom
and
law.
From
him, as
from
no
other
poet,
the
idea
is
gathered
of
a
beautiful
;'
natural
agreement
between
duty
and
inclination,
be-
j
tween freedom
and
order,
which
constitutes
the
moral
ideal
of
the
Grreek
world.
{c)
Euri-
Only
some
four
Olympiads
later
comes
Euripides.
jm
es.
Yq^ what
a
remarkable
change in
ethical tone and
is
view of
life
is
apparent
in
his
writings
As an
artist,
Euripides
is
far
too
fond
of
substituting
calculations
for
the
spontaneous
outcome
of
the
poet's
mind,
criti-
cal
reflection
for
admiring
contemplation.
By
means
of
particular
scenes
of
an
exciting
and
terrifying
character,
by
chorus-songs
often
loosely
connected
with
the
action
of
the
play,
by
rhetorical
declama-|
tion
and
moralising,
he
seeks
to
produce
an
effect
H
which
might
be
gained
in
greater
purity
and
depth
;
from
the
unison
of
the
whole.
That
harmony
between
the
moral
and
the
religious
life
which
commended
itself so
agreeably
to
us
in
Sophocles,
may
be
seen
in
I'
^
a
state
of
dissolution
in
the
plays of
the
younger
poet.
Not
that
he
is
deficient
in
moral
maxims
and| ;;
religious
thoughts.
He
knows
full
well
that
piety
and
the
virtue
of
temperance
are
the
best
things
for
man
;
that
he
who
is
mortal
must
not
be
proud
of
advantages
nor
despair
in
misfortune
;
that
he
can
do
'
I
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iry
nothing
without
the
Gods
;
that
in
the
long
run
the
Chap.
?ood
man
fares
well
and
the
bad
fares
ill;
that
a
^__
modest
lot
is
preferable
to
fitful
greatness
;
^
that
the
poor
man's
fear
of
God
is
worth
more
than
the
osten-
tatious
sacrifices
of
many
a
rich
man
;
that
virtue
and
:ntelligence
are
better
than
wealth
and
noble
birth.'^
He
discourses
at
length
of
the
benefits
conferred
by
;he
Gods
on
men
;
^
he
speaks
right
well
of
their
ighteous
and
almighty
rule,^
and
he even
traces
)ack
human
guilt
to
their
will.^
However
numerous
such
expressions
may
be
in
lis
writings,
still
they
do
not
contain
the
whole
of
lis
view
of
the
world,
neither
is
the
ethical
pecu-
iarity
of
his
poetry
to
be
found
in
them.
Euripides
las
sufficient
appreciation
of
what
is
great
and
Qorally
beautiful,
to
be
able
to
paint
it
when
it
omes
before
him
in
a
true
and
telling
manner.
For
11
that,
as
a
pupil
of
philosophers,^
as
a
kindred
spirit
'
Bacch.
1139.
lo
Schl.
Hip-
Zei.j.krs
Pliilosopliie
der
Grie-
olyt.
1100.
Kirchh.
Fr.
77,
chen,
vol.
i.
790,
3.
For
the
0,
257,
305,
355,
395,
507,
576,
traces
thereof,
which
are
prin-
21,
942,
1014,
1016,
1027
ci
pally
found
in
some
oAhe
^^^?r*
o^^
fragments,
compare
lUn-
-
Fr.
329,
53,
254,
345,
514, tu^o^s
Euripides
Restitut
s
.
1
,o^
10^'
118,
139.
Anaxagorasi
buppi.
1J7.
however,
does
not,
like
Euri-
* Troad
880
;
Hel.
1442.
pides,
make
Earth
and
Ether
ompare
tlie
concluding
verses
but
Air
and
Ether
come
first
r
tins
piece,
wliich
also
occur
after
tlie
original
mixino-of
all
:
the
end
of
the
Andromache
things.
The
well-know^ii
and
id
Lacchie.
Fr.
797,
832,
875, beautiful
passage
(Fragment
fV-
1
i.o-r
902)
commending
the
investi-
6
Th?'?if
^ .V
-^'''^'^''
'^^'^
contemplates
with
Ihe
testimony
of
the
an-
innocence
the
eternal
order
of
ents
respecting
the
connec-
immortal
nature,
is
referred
to
on
between
Euripides
and
Anaxagoras.
Compare
also
Fr
naxagoras
has
been
quoted
in
7.
Younger
men,
like
Prodicu^
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16
STATE
OF
CVLTUBE
IN
GREECE.
Chap,
to
the
better
Sophists,
he
is
too
far
removed
from
the
\
older
lines
of
thought
to
be
able
to
give
himself
freely
and
with
full
conviction
to
the
traditional
faith
and
morality.
His
sober
understanding
feels
the
improbability
and
unseemliness
of
many
legends,
and
the
artistic
spirit
has
not
such
an
exclusive
hold
on
him
that
he
can
overlook
this
for
the
sake
of
the
ideas
they
embody,
or
for
their
poetic
worth.
The
fortunes
of
men
do not
seem
to
him
to be
directly
the
revelation
of
a higher
power,
but
rather
to
be
proximately
the
result
of
natural
causes,
of
calcula-
tion,
of
caprice,
and
of
accident.
Even
moral
prin-
ciples
appear
wavering.
If,
on the
whole,
their
\
authority
is
admitted,
still
the
poet
cannot
conceal
from
himself
that
even
an
immoral
course
of
conduct
has
much
to
say
in
its
defence.
The
grand
poetic
way
of
contemplating
the
world,
the
moral
and
reli-
gious
way
of
looking
at
human
life,
has
given
place
to a
sceptical
tone,
to
a
decomposing
reflection,
to
a
setting
forth
of
plain
natural
facts.
^schylus
brought
the
Eumenides,
all in
the
uncouth
guise
of
antiquity,
yet
with
most
fearful
effect,
on
to
the
stage
;
whereas
the Electra
of
Euripides
says
to
her
brother,
or
rather
the
poet
himself
says,
that
they
are
mere
fancies of
his
imagination.^
WTiilst
Iphi-
geneia
is
preparing
to
sacrifice
the
captives,
she
re-
flects
that
the
goddess
herself
cannot
possibly
require
this
sacrifice,
and that
the
story
of
the
feast
ofi
and
Socrates,
Euripides
may
have
known,
but
cannot
have^
been
their
pupil.
Orest.
248, 387.
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17
Tantalus
is
a
fable.^
Likewise
in
the
Electra
2
the
Chap.
tragic
chorus
doubts
as
to
the
wonder
of
the
change
}'
In
the course of
the
sun.
In
the
Troades,^
Hecuba
riuestions
the
story
of
the
judgment
of
Paris,
and
ex-
plains
the
assistance
of
Aphrodite
in
carryino-
off
Helen
to
mean
the
attractive
beauty
of
Paris.
In
^he
Bacchse,^
Teiresias
gives
an
insipid,
half-natural
explanation
of
the
birth
of
Bacchus.-^
The
Gods,
lays
Euripides,^
have
no
needs,
and
therefore
the
tories
which
impute
to
them
human
passions
cannot
)0ssibly
be
true.
Even
the
general
notions
of
divine
engeance
give
him
offence.
This
he
will
not
regard
-s
a
punishment
for
particular
acts,
but
rather
as
a
miversal
law.^
In
other
instances,
the
actions
and
ommands
of
the
Gods
are
held
up
to
blameblame,
30,
for
the
most
part,
not
called
for
by
the
character
f
the
acting
persons
and
go
unpunished
in
the
3quel,
so
that
it
necessarily
appears
as
the
poet's
w'n
conviction
;
whence
he
concludes
at
one
time
lat
man
need
not
disturb
himself
because
of
his
lults,
since
the
Gods
commit
the
same
; at
another
me,
that
the
stories
about
the
Gods
cannot
be
ue.
The
prophetic
art is
held
in
equally
low
estima-
on
by
Euripides.
The
opportunity
is
seized
in
the
;
Iphig.
Taur.
372.
that
God
cares
only
for
great
3
ofio
f^l'P^^^'
leaving
unimportant
^
,':,.^*
things
to
chance.
vxag.
M)\).
Orest.
277.
409-
Hpro ^^^v
'
Here.
Fur.
1328.
339,
654.
'
Here.
Fur.
'
Fr.
508,
with
which
the
Here
Fur
1301
ring
(Fr.
964)
is
connected,
C
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28
STATE
OF
CULTURE
IN GREECE.
Chap.
Helen,
^
to
prove,
on
highly
rationalistic
grounds,
^'
that
it
is
all
a
lie
and
deceit.^
With
these legends
and
rites,
however,
belief
in
the
Gods
is
most
thoroughly
interwoven.
No
wonder,
therefore,
that
the
poet
often
puts
into
the
mouths
of
his heroes
statements
respecting
the
existence
of
the
Grods,
which
would
sound more
natural
coming
from Pro-
tagoras
than
from
men
and
women
of the
legendary
I
past.
Tal
thy
bins
raises the
question
whether
there
are
Grods,
or
whether
Chance
guides all
things
;
^
another
doubts
their
existence,''
because
of the unjust
distribution
of
good
and bad
fortune
;
Hecuba
in
her
prayer
wonders
what
the
deity
really
is, whether
j
Zeus,
or
natural
necessity,
or the
spirit
of
mortal
beings
;
^
Hercules
and
Clytsemnestra
leave
it
open
whether
there
are
Gods,
and
who
Zeus
is
;
^
even the
Ether
is
explained
to
be
Zeus.^
So
much
at
least
these
utterances
prove
that
Euripides
had
wandered
far
away
from
the
ancient
faith
in
the
Gods.
Allow-
ing
that
he
is
sincere
when
he
says
that
only
a
fool
can
deny
the
deity
and
give
credence
to
the
deceitful
assertions
of
philosophy
respecting
what
is
hidden,
still
his
attitude
appears
to
have
been
prepondera-
tingly
sceptical
and
critical
towards
the popular
faith.
Probably
he
allowed
that
there
was
a God
1
743.
5
Troad.
877.
2
Sophocles,
Antig.
1033,
Here.
Fur.
1250
;
Iph.
Aul.
makes
Cleon
attack
the
pro-
1034;
Orestes,
410,
and
the
phet,
but
his
accusations
are
fragment of
Melanippe
Fr.
refuted
by
the
sequel.
Not
so
483.
with
Euripides.
'
Fr.
935,
869.
3
Hel.
484.
Fr.
905,
981.
*
Fr.
288
;
compare
Fr.
892.
fe
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ILLUSTRATED
BY
TRAGEDIANS.
19
certainly
he
attached
no
value
to
the
legendary
Chap.
notions
respecting
the
dods;
holding
that
the
^__
essence
of
God
could
not
be
known,
and
assuming
the
oneness
of
the
divine
nature
either
by
glossing
over
or
by
plainly
denying
the
ruling
Pantheism.
i
Nor
did
the
popular
ideas
respecting
the
state
after
death
fare
better
at
his
hands.
Naturally
enough,
he
makes
use
of
them
when
a
poet
can
use
them,
but
then
it
is
also
said,
that
we
know
not
how
it
is
with
another
life,
we
only
follow
an
unfounded
opinion.
In
several
places
Euripides
expresses
the
opinion,^
pointing
partly
to
Orphic-Pythagorean
tra-
ditions,
and
partly
to
the
teaching
of
Anaxagoras
md
Archilaus,3
that
the
spirit
returns
at
death
to
)he
ether
whence
it
came
'
apparently
leaving
it
an
)pen
question,
whether
at
all,
or
to
what
extent,
consciousness
belongs
to
the
soul
when
united
with
-he
ether.^
That
the
sphere
of
morals
did
not
Fr.
904
says
the
ruler
of
sciousness
(yt,d,a-n
^eduaro.^
11
things
IS
now
called
Zeus,
after
it
has^
unked
with
tl
^
ow
Hades,
which
would
point
immortal
Ether
From
th^
D
the
opinion
tiiat
the
popular
he
deduces
the
belief
in
retr
-
Dr
the
one
God
Helios
and
(Fr.
689,
compare
Fr
452
8S()^
.polio
ai-e
Identified
(Fr.
781,
whether
on
the
whole
life
^s
1)
according
to
the
tradition
not
a
death
and
death
a
life
ilippolyt.
192.
Troades,
638,
it
is
stated
ihnt
J
Compare
Zeller^s
Philoso-
the
dead
m'an
is
feelit
ei
8%t'
S^'Atr'
'^'''
'
PP-
^ike
an
unborn
child;
in
Fr.'
J8,
430,
822
846.
536
that
he
is
a
nothin-
earth
/Suppl.
532,
the
genuineness
and
a
shade;
Fr
734
anrpp
'
xth,
Hel.
1012
M.836.
tality
of
fame;
and
in
the
'He
says
in
the
Helen
:
The
Heraclid.
591,
he
leaves
it nn
nl
ot
the
dead
no
longer
lives,
open
questionVhet
her
tL
c
lad
It
yet
It
has
an
eternal
con-
have
feelings
or
not
-
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20
STATE
OF
CULTURE IN
GREECE.
Chap,
remain
unaffected
by
these
doubts may be gathered
'
from
the
general
character of
his
tragedies
more
definitely
than
from
those
particular
utterances
which
in
some
measure sufficed
to give offence
even
to
his
cotemporaries.^
The tragic
movement
in
Euripides,
unlike
that conflict
of
moral forces which
^schylus
and
Sophocles knew how
to
depict with
such
deep
feeling, lies
rather
in personal
passions,
arrange-
ments,
and
experiences.
His
heroes
have not that
ideal
character which
makes
them types of
a whole
class.
Hence,
in
most
cases,
that higher
necessity,
which
called
for
our
admiration
in
the case
of
^schylus and Sophocles,
is
not
active in
the de-
\
velopment
of
the
Euripidean drama,
but the final
result is
brought
about
by
some external
means,
either by
divine
interposition
or
by
some
human
cunning.
Thus,
rich as
he
may
be
in
poetic
beauties,
successful
in painting
individual
characters,
experienced
in
knowledge of human life
and human
weaknesses,
thrilling
in
many
of
the
speeches
and
scenes
in
his tragedies
;
yet
most undeniably
he
has
come
down
from the moral and
artistic
height
of
his
two
great
predecessors,
by
introducing
into
traged