year 11 geography 2019 extreme natural events – hurricanes · st. cuthbert’s college geography...

St. Cuthbert’s College Geography Department 2019 1

Name:

Year 11 Geography 2019

Extreme Natural Events – Hurricanes

By the end of the unit I will be able to explain: - Why places are vulnerable to hurricanes / tropical cyclones / typhoons - How the natural processes operate to produce hurricanes - How natural and cultural environments are vulnerable to hurricanes - The effects of hurricanes on the natural and cultural environments - How different groups have responded to hurricanes

Hurricane Maria devastated a number of Caribbean countries in 2017. It is regarded as the worst natural disaster on record to affect those islands.

When: September 2017

Fatalities: 3057 people died as a result of this hurricane Economic cost: nearly $US92 billion in damages (that is nearly $NZ142 billion)

One of the most intense storms on record world-wide.


Vocab list

Vulnerability Natural and cultural characteristics which either increase or decrease risk to an

extreme natural event.


What are Extreme Natural Events?

An extreme natural event is one that is caused by nature and has large impacts on the environment and on peoples’ lives. An extreme natural event (ENE) is defined as the occurrence of a significant natural event happening from when it starts to develop till the time when people stop responding to it. ENEs, because of their size (magnitude) and/or duration make them extreme. ENEs are said to become Natural Hazards when they have the potential to affect people and property, or cultural resources. When large scale loss of life or property damage occurs, an Extreme Natural Event is said to become a Natural Disaster. This relationship can be remembered using a Venn-diagram.

Highlight the extreme natural events from the list below: Beside each disaster write down the main cause(s) of the disaster

Oil Spill

Cyclone

Bush Fire

Tsunami

Nuclear explosion

Landslide

Plane Crash

Hurricane

Volcanic Eruption

Earthquake


INTRODUCTION TO EXTREME NATURAL EVENTS

For the following extreme natural events, complete the table on how significant the event was in terms of damage to property, loss of human lives and injuries. Find the answers using a search engine of your choice.

Year of the ENE and location

Amount of damage to property

Loss of human lives

Injuries to people

1931 China Floods

2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami

2011 Christchurch EQ

2011 Cyclone Yasi

1970 Huascaran avalanche (Peru)

1931 Napier Earthquake

1970 Huascaran avalanche (Peru)

2008 Sichuan Earthquake

1883 Krakatoa – volcanic eruption

2009 Melbourne Bushfires

2016 Kaikoura earthquake

1997 Sumatran Fires


THE GLOBAL PATTERN OF EXTREME NATURAL EVENTS Extreme Natural Event:


1. Working in pairs choose ONE type of ENE from the list on page 6

2. Find at least 10 examples of your chosen event from around the world (as many different locations as possible). Wikipedia is a good place to start.

3. Locate and name these different extreme natural events on the world map on page 7. There are atlases

in the cupboard by the door, or you can use Google Earth.

4. Read through the power point on MyCollege ‘Global Pattern of ENE’. Consider the patterns and why some areas are more vulnerable to types of ENE than others. Answer the questions on page 8 and 9.

5. Complete the activities on the last slide of the power-point on page 9.


‘Global Pattern of Extreme Natural Events A country/area can be more vulnerable to an extreme natural event BEFORE and AFTER the event takes place because of particular natural and cultural characteristics about that location. An extreme natural event cannot be prevented but how people respond to and prepare for it before it occurs and, in the hours, days, weeks and even years after it occurs can either increase or decrease the effects of the event. Characteristics that can increase the vulnerability of an area include:

Natural Cultural

Location Population Climate Economy

Relief (shape of the land) Government Using the PPT1. Global Pattern and Vulnerability of ENEs (found on MyCollege) complete the following questions: What ENE’s will low-lying areas be more vulnerable to? What ENE will different areas of the world be more vulnerable to because of climate? E.g. tropical, dry areas What areas of the world are more vulnerable to extreme natural events because of the population density? Why? What countries/regions across the globe will be more prepared and be able to respond with resources and skilled people after an ENE? Why? Describe the pattern of drought across the globe and what might make those areas vulnerable to drought?

Describe the pattern of earthquakes/volcanic eruptions across the globe and what might make those areas vulnerable to earthquakes/volcanic eruptions?


Compare this with the map showing the location of earthquakes around the world - how is the pattern different? Where are the “deadliest” earthquakes concentrated? Why?

Describe the pattern of flood hazard across the globe and what might make those areas vulnerable to floods? Referring to the map showing: World Flood risk Mortality rates (slide 13) - Why are there likely to be more deaths in particular areas of the world? (Give 2-3 different reasons) What factors and/or circumstances make an area more vulnerable to the effects of an Extreme

Natural Event?

Use the following paragraph structure to cover 2 natural and 2 cultural factors: Paragraph 1- A natural factor that can make an area more vulnerable to an extreme natural event is……. An example of this is……. Paragraph 2- Another natural factor is…. Paragraph 3- A cultural factor that can increase or decrease the vulnerability of an area….. For example,…… Paragraph 4- Another cultural factor…….


Hurricanes, Tropical Cyclones

and Typhoons


So what is a hurricane? Tropical cyclone? Typhoon? Hurricanes are large, swirling storms. They produce winds of 119 kilometres per hour or higher. Winds from a hurricane can damage buildings and trees. Hurricanes form over warm ocean waters and sometimes they strike land. When a hurricane reaches land, it pushes a wall of ocean water ashore. This wall of water is called a storm surge. Heavy rain and storm surge from a hurricane can cause flooding. Once a hurricane forms, weather forecasters predict its path. They also predict how strong it will get. This information helps people get ready for the storm. There are five types, or categories, of hurricanes. The scale of categories is called the Saffir-Simpson

Hurricane Scale. The categories are based on wind speed.

• Category 1: Winds 119-153 km/hr - faster than a cheetah • Category 2: Winds 154-177 km/hr - as fast or faster than a baseball pitcher's fastball • Category 3: Winds 178-208 km/hr - similar, or close, to the serving speed of many professional tennis players • Category 4: Winds 209-251 km/hr - faster than the world's fastest rollercoaster • Category 5: Winds more than 252 km/hr) - similar, or close, to the speed of some high-speed trains

What’s the difference between a hurricane, a typhoon and a cyclone?

The short answer is that there is none. They are all organized storm systems that form over warm ocean waters, rotate around areas of low pressure, and have wind speeds of at least 119 km per hour. The reason for the three names is that these storms are called different things in different places. Scientists often use “tropical cyclone” as a generic term, while “hurricane,” “typhoon,” and “cyclone” are regional terms. A tropical cyclone is a generic term used by meteorologists1 to describe a rotating, organized system of clouds and thunderstorms that originates over tropical or subtropical waters and has closed, low-level circulation. The weakest tropical cyclones are called tropical depressions. If a depression intensifies such that its maximum sustained winds reach 39 miles per hour, the tropical cyclone becomes a tropical storm. Once a tropical cyclone reaches maximum sustained winds of 119 km per hour or higher, it is then classified as a hurricane, typhoon, or tropical cyclone, depending upon where the storm originates in the world. In the North Atlantic, central North Pacific, and eastern North Pacific, the term hurricane is used. The same type of disturbance in the Northwest Pacific is called a typhoon. Meanwhile, in the South Pacific and Indian Ocean, the generic term tropical cyclone is used, regardless of the strength of the wind associated with the weather system. We are going to use the term Hurricane throughout this topic as our case study is Hurricane Maria which struck islands in the Caribbean in September 2017. 1 A meteorologist is a weather forecaster.


Hurricane-level storms that occur in the northern Atlantic Ocean and northeast Pacific Ocean are called hurricanes, while those in the Northwest Pacific are called typhoons. Hurricanes may hit the Caribbean, the Gulf of Mexico, and/or the east coast of the United States—and also can occur in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. Typhoons occur in the Northwest Pacific and may hit Vietnam, the east coast of China, and/or Japan, among many other locations. So if one term or the other sounds more familiar to you, it’s probably because of where you live. In other parts of the world, these storms are called severe tropical cyclones, severe cyclonic storms, and tropical cyclones. This can get confusing, but the key similarity is that they all gain their power from tropical warmth. In the South Pacific Ocean, for instance, it’s a hurricane if it occurs east of 160 degrees E and a severe tropical cyclone if it occurs west of 160 degrees E. To avoid confusion, most scientists use “tropical cyclone” as a general term (one which also includes tropical depressions and tropical storms) no matter where the storm occurs. Luckily, unless you’re a professional meteorologist, chances are you won’t have to worry about terminology – although it might serve you well to know the vocabulary when you’re listening to a dangerous weather report! The following diagram shows the locations about where hurricanes form. What do you notice about the areas where hurricanes usually develop; the paths they follow and the times of the year when they are prevalent on a region?


We are going to look at Hurricanes occurring in this area

The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) is aspecializedagencyoftheUnitedNations,WMOisdedicatedtointernationalcooperationandcoordinationonthestateandbehaviouroftheEarth’satmosphere,itsinteractionwiththelandandoceans,theweatherandclimateitproduces.


The deadliest, the most destructive, the costliest, the longest lasting and the hurricane that travelled the greatest distance.

Tropical cyclones that cause extreme destruction are rare, although when they occur, they can cause great amounts of damage or thousands of fatalities. The 1970 Bhola cyclone is considered to be the deadliest tropical cyclone on record, which killed around 300,000 people, after striking the densely populated Ganges Delta region of Bangladesh on November 13, 1970. Its powerful storm surge was responsible for the high death toll. Elsewhere, Typhoon Nina killed nearly 100,000 in China in 1975 due to a 100-year flood that caused 62 dams including the Banqiao Dam to fail. The Great Hurricane of 1780 is the deadliest North Atlantic hurricane on record, killing about 22,000 people in the Lesser Antilles. A tropical cyclone does not need to be particularly strong to cause memorable damage, primarily if the deaths are from rainfall or mudslides. Tropical Storm Thelma in November 1991 killed thousands in the Philippines, although the strongest typhoon to ever make landfall on record was Typhoon Haiyan in November 2013, causing widespread devastation in Eastern Visayas, and killing at least 6,300 people in the Philippines alone. In 1982, the unnamed tropical depression that eventually became Hurricane Paul killed around 1,000 people in Central America. Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Katrina are estimated to be the costliest tropical cyclones to impact the United States mainland, each causing damage estimated at $125 billion. Harvey killed at least 90 people in August 2017 after making landfall in Texas as a low-end Category 4 hurricane. Hurricane Katrina is estimated as the second-costliest tropical cyclone worldwide, causing $81.2 billion in property damage (2008 USD) alone, with overall damage estimates exceeding $100 billion (2005 USD). Katrina killed at least 1,836 people after striking Louisiana and Mississippi as a major hurricane in August 2005. Hurricane Maria is the third most destructive tropical cyclone in U.S history, with damage totalling $91.61 billion (2017 USD), and with damage costs at $68.7 billion (2012 USD), Hurricane Sandy is the fourth most destructive tropical cyclone in U.S history. The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 is the deadliest natural disaster in the United States, killing an estimated 6,000 to 12,000 people in Galveston, Texas. Hurricane Mitch caused more than 10,000 fatalities in Central America, making it the second deadliest Atlantic hurricane in history. Hurricane Iniki in 1992 was the most powerful storm to strike Hawaii in recorded history, hitting Kauai as a Category 4 hurricane, killing six people, and causing U.S. $3 billion in damage. Other destructive Eastern Pacific hurricanes include Pauline and Kenna, both causing severe damage after striking Mexico as major hurricanes. In March 2004, Cyclone Gafilo struck north eastern Madagascar as a powerful cyclone, killing 74, affecting more than 200,000, and becoming the worst cyclone to affect the nation for more than 20 years. The most intense storm on record was Typhoon Tip in the north-western Pacific Ocean in 1979, which reached a minimum pressure of 870 hectopascals and maximum sustained wind speeds of 310 km/h. The highest maximum sustained wind speed ever recorded was 346 km/h in Hurricane Patricia in 2015, which is the most intense cyclone ever recorded in the Western Hemisphere. In addition to being the most intense tropical cyclone on record based on pressure, Tip was the largest

cyclone on record, with tropical storm-force winds 2,170 kilometres in diameter. Hurricane John is the longest-lasting tropical cyclone on record, lasting 31 days in 1994. Before the advent of satellite imagery in 1961, however, many tropical cyclones were underestimated in their durations. John is also the longest-tracked tropical cyclone in the Northern Hemisphere on record, which had a path of 13,280 km. Cyclone Rewa of the 1993–94 South Pacific and Australian region cyclone seasons had one of the longest tracks observed within the Southern Hemisphere, traveling a distance of over 8,920 km during December 1993 and January 1994.


Hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic hurricane season is the period in a year when hurricanes usually form in the Atlantic Ocean. Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest. However, each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May is the least active month, while September is the most active. In the Northern Atlantic Ocean, a distinct hurricane season occurs from June 1 to November 30, sharply peaking from late August through September; the season's peak of activity occurs around September 10 each season. This is the norm, but in 1938, the Atlantic hurricane season started as early as January 3. Tropical disturbances that reach tropical storm intensity are named from a pre-determined list. On average, 10.1 named storms occur each season, with an average of 5.9 becoming hurricanes and 2.5 becoming major hurricanes (Category 3 or greater). The most active season was 2005, during which 28 tropical cyclones formed, of which a record 15 became hurricanes. The least active season was 1914, with only one known tropical cyclone developing during that year. The Atlantic hurricane season is a time when most tropical cyclones are expected to develop across the northern Atlantic Ocean. It is currently defined as the time frame from June 1 through November 30, though in the past the season was defined as a shorter time frame. Study the graph below and answer the following questions:

1. In which months, are hurricanes most likely to occur in the Atlantic region?

2. Suggest three possible reasons why hurricanes might occur at this time.


Some background on Puerto Rico (Hurricane Maria (2017) Puerto Rico consists of the main island of Puerto Rico and various smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, Mona, Desecheo, and Caja de Muertos. Of these five, only Culebra and Vieques are inhabited year-round. Mona, which has played a key role in maritime history, is uninhabited most of the year. There are many other even smaller islands most of which are uninhabited. The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico has an area of 13,800 km2, of which 8,900 km2 is land and the rest is ocean. The maximum length of the main island from east to west is 180 km, and the maximum width from north to south is 64 km. The island is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called "La Cordillera Central" (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta 1,340 m, is located in this range. Another important peak is El Yunque, one of the highest in the Sierra de Luquillo at the El Yunque National Forest, with an elevation of 1,065 m. Puerto Rico has 17 lakes, all man-made, and more than 50 rivers, most originating in the Cordillera Central. The climate of Puerto Rico is tropical. Temperatures are warm to hot year round, averaging near 29 °C in lower elevations and 21 °C in the mountains. Easterly trade winds pass across the island year round. Puerto Rico has a rainy season which stretches from April into November. The island has an average temperature of 29 °C throughout the year, with an average minimum temperature of 19 °C and maximum of 30 °C. Daily temperature changes seasonally are quite small in the lowlands and coastal areas. The temperature in the south is usually a few degrees higher than the north and temperatures in the central interior mountains are always cooler than those on the rest of the island. The most populous city is the capital, San Juan, with approximately 371,400 people based on a 2015 estimate by the Census Bureau. The estimated population of Puerto Rico as of July 1, 2018, was 3,195,153 a 14.24% decrease since 2010. Puerto Ricans have been citizens of the United States since 1917, and enjoy freedom of movement between the island and the USA. As it is not a state, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress. According to the 2010 Census, the number of Puerto Ricans living in the United States outside of Puerto Rico far exceeds those living in Puerto Rico. Emigration exceeds immigration. As those who leave tend to be better educated than those that remain, this accentuates the drain on Puerto Rico's economy. Puerto Rico experiences the Atlantic hurricane season, similar to the remainder of the Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic oceans. On average, a quarter of the country’s annual rainfall is contributed from tropical cyclones. A cyclone of tropical storm strength passes near Puerto Rico, on average, every five years. A hurricane passes nearby the island, on average, every seven years. In the busy 2017 Atlantic hurricane season, Puerto Rico avoided a direct hit by the Category 5 Hurricane Irma on September 6, 2017, as it passed about 100 km north of Puerto Rico, but high winds caused a loss of electrical power to some one million residents. Almost 50% of hospitals were operating with power provided by generators. A short time later, the devastating Hurricane Maria made landfall on Puerto Rico on Wednesday, September 20, near the Yabucoa township at 6:15 am local time as a high-end Category 5 hurricane with sustained winds of 250 km/h, powerful rains and widespread flooding causing tremendous destruction. The island's electrical grid was largely destroyed, with repairs expected to take months to complete, provoking the largest power outage in American history. Recovery efforts were somewhat slow in the first few months, and over 200,000 residents had moved to the mainland State of Florida alone by late November 2017.


FQ1: Explain the factors that make an environment vulnerable to a hurricane

Natural characteristics could include:

Location – Is the area coastal? Is the area we are looking at in the tropics? Is the area relatively isolated so reaching the area for rescues might be difficult? Relief – Is the land prone to flooding? Is the land flat? Could landslides occur that may affect mountainous areas because of heavy rain?

Cultural characteristics include:

Warning Systems – Are there appropriate warning systems in place to allow people to evacuate coastal areas or areas potentially affected by the hurricane? Population – Is the area more densely populated areas that might mean more people will suffer more casualties and death? Economy – Is the economy of the area well equipped to deal with disasters and have enough money to respond more quickly? Are they are low income country or a high income country? Government – Is the government stable so it will have better provisions to deal with an extreme natural event? Infrastructure – Is there strong infrastructure is able to withstand damage? Are the communication networks well developed to allow people to evacuate before an extreme natural event?

This focus question looks at the reasons why some environments are more likely to be affected by a hurricane than others. It looks at the natural and cultural (man-made) reasons why the islands in the Caribbean were all vulnerable to the effects of Hurricane Maria (2017)


Discuss as a class how these different factors might have made the area around the Gulf of Mexico/Caribbean vulnerable to hurricanes.

Hurricane Maria affected all parts of this region with Puerto Rico most affected in 2017.


Factors increasing vulnerability to hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico/Caribbean area Natural characteristics

Location – Warm sea temperatures Puerto Rico lies between the Equator and the Tropic of Cancer. This area experiences warm tropical climates and warm ocean temperatures. Hurricanes develop over warm water. The water must be at least 26.5 °C (80 °F). The warm water provides the energy for increased evaporation of water from the ocean surface. The average water temperature is around 27°C (80°F) and varies very little throughout the year. The Caribbean Sea is the source of the Gulf Stream, with this tropically warmed current reaching right across the Atlantic.


Location – where tropical storms form

When an area is located in a region where tropical storms form they are more vulnerable or susceptible to a hurricane. Hurricanes only form over the ocean. This is because they need warm water to provide them with the energy they need. Once a hurricane moves over the land it begins to die as it has lost its source of energy. Tropical cyclones form near the equator but not right on it. This is because the tropical cyclone needs the spin of the Earth, called the Coriolis force and this is not powerful enough at zero degrees latitude (equator). Most hurricanes begin as storms. 5 – 15 degrees north or south of the Equator. Puerto Rico lies just north of this latitude at 18 °N so is vulnerable to the effects of a hurricane.

A tropical storm is an intense low pressure weather system, that can last for days to weeks within the tropical regions of our planet. A tropical cyclone is a rotating, organized system of clouds and thunderstorms that originates over tropical or subtropical waters and has a closed low-level circulation. Tropical cyclones rotate counter clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. The Caribbean is one such area where tropical storms form. Puerto Rico lies in the region where tropical storms often form.

Tropical storms form whenever sea temperatures rise above 26.5 °C. The suns heat passes through our atmosphere and warms the ocean water throughout the summer. Because the sea is constantly moving and heat is redistributed to deeper parts of the ocean this takes quite some time (this is why hurricanes occur in late summer - when sea temperature is at its highest). This causes the seas temperature to rise to 27°C and above, which encourages evaporation and the rising of air and water vapour up through the atmosphere in thermals As these thermals rise the temperature drops (approximately 1°C per 100m) causing the water vapour to condense into droplets. This helps to form huge cumulonimbus (big fluffy and tall) clouds. Latent heat 2is released during condensation fuelling the storm further. Eventually these droplets will collide with one another, become bigger and fall as rain.

Because the air has risen in the centre of this storm, an area of low atmospheric pressure exists at the surface. The Earth's atmosphere acts to balance this out as air rushes from surrounding high pressure areas to the centre of the storm. This creates the high winds in the storm, and the lower the pressure gets in the centre of the storm relative to the pressure surrounding the storm, the stronger the winds will become.

The whole storm slowly migrates across oceans towards land, and because of the Earth’s rotation or spin (known as the Coriolis force or effect, the whole storm starts to spiral around a central more calm point, known as the eye. 2 Latent heat is the heat required to convert a solid into a liquid or vapour, or a liquid into a vapour, without change of temperature.


Relief

The relief (or shape of the land) is also significant in determining the vulnerability of a place to a hurricane. Places such as coastal areas are likely to suffer the most as often the hurricane is at its most intense when it hits the land. Island nations, such as Puerto Rico are vulnerable indeed due to the island nature as well as the relatively flat coastal land which means that it will be affected by strong winds and heavy rain once the storm hits the island. The island is mostly mountainous with large coastal areas in the north and south. The main mountain range is called "La Cordillera Central" (The Central Range). The highest elevation in Puerto Rico, Cerro de Punta 1,340 m, is located in this range. The map below shows the elevation of the island with much of the area being less than 100 metres above sea level. (on the map below colour in the area of the island that is less than 100 metres) How might low lying land make an area more vulnerable to a hurricane?

In addition, you can also see that the island has much higher elevation in the centre of the island reaching a height of 1340m above sea level. (on the map below colour in the area of the island that is greater than 700 metres) How might steep land make an area more vulnerable to a hurricane?


Cultural characteristics

Warning Systems allow people to evacuate coastal areas or areas affected by a hurricane. In general, hurricanes are easy to track as meteorologists are always creating weather reports for the public and for the maritime/aviation industry. Ahead of a hurricane, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) typically deploys a network of temporary storm-tide sensors along the immediate coast in the projected path of the storm. These sensors record the depth of the storm tide throughout the event, and comparison of the maximum storm tide at nearby sensors provides insight into the range of water levels experienced along a particular stretch of coastline.

In those areas not covered by the storm tide sensor network, the USGS often performs surveys of visible high-water marks in the immediate aftermath of the storm. High-water marks are created when small, light debris carried along the top of the water is deposited on vertical surfaces like walls and doorways, and as with storm tide sensors, they provide data about the maximum water height at a given location.

The National Weather Service also performs post-storm damage surveys that include findings regarding storm surge, maximum inundation (flooding), and wave height, if available.

Most hurricanes follow a similar pattern forming between 5 – 15 degrees north or south of the Equator then tracking in a “hook” shape. The diagram below shows the average projected shapes for the 2017 hurricane season in the Caribbean region. Hurricane Maria began its journey starting as a tropical storm (see below) and quickly growing into a Category 5 hurricane. The US met office originally didn’t think that the storm would be as severe as it turned out to be.

Maria wasn’t originally tracking as a significant storm – the notice in the papers and on TV (16 September) said that Maria would only reach a Category 3 storm so people in Puerto Rico did not start to prepare for the hurricane.


However, the hurricane grew much faster than was predicted and developed very quickly into a Category 5 hurricane. It eventually arrived in Puerto Rico on Wednesday morning (6.00am), September 20 in 2017.

Forecasting the storm proved tricky. Local forecast models under-predicted the storm’s rapid intensification two days before it struck Puerto Rico. And global models failed to predict Maria’s formation until just before it became a tropical storm. However, beginning with the storm’s second official forecast, every advisory warned it would become a major hurricane with winds topping at least Cat 3 intensity by the time it reached Puerto Rico, giving the island 84 hours advance warning.

How can social media such as Facebook and twitter be used to help people in an area vulnerable to an ENE? How might these two twitter posts (the day before Hurricane Maria struck Puerto Rico) have helped locals in San Juan?


Population density and numbers

The greater the number of people living in an area makes a place more vulnerable to an extreme natural event. For example, as the population of the region was relatively sparse when the Kaikoura earthquake struck in 2016 there were few injuries and only two deaths. Places with more densely populated areas will suffer more casualties and death – this is the case with the Christchurch earthquake in 2011 (185 people died with many more injured) and the Napier earthquake in 1931 (256 people died). In Puerto Rico, 2975 people were killed as a result of Hurricane Maria (the official total was only 64 for quite a while). The reasons for this were many but the storm was just over 200km in width which means that the storm completely overwhelmed the island (as it is only 64km north to south). The capital city of San Juan was devastated with damage mostly due to the fact that the Hurricane covered the whole island as it made its way north west across the main island (see map and satellite photograph on the next page).

Hurricane Maria’s path across the main island:

Hurricane Maria covered the whole island!


Economy and Government type

The economy of a country and the stability of the government when an extreme natural event strikes a place can have an influence on the vulnerability of how a place can respond. High income countries, or areas of countries, are (generally) better equipped to deal with disasters and will respond more quickly than countries where the incomes tend to be much lower. Puerto Rico is generally a fairly high income country with a GNI per capita of $US32000 (placing them about 32nd in the world). From this we would awesome that Puerto Rico would be well placed to provide a quick response to a disaster such as Hurricane Maria. Puerto Rico is a self-governing commonwealth in association with the United States. The chief of state is the President of the United States of America. The head of government is an elected Governor. There are two legislative chambers: the House of Representatives, 51 seats, and the Senate, 27 seats. Puerto Rico has authority over its internal affairs. United States controls: interstate trade, foreign relations and commerce, customs administration, control of air, land and sea, immigration and emigration, nationality and citizenship, currency, maritime laws, military service, military bases, army, navy and air force, declaration of war, constitutionality of laws, jurisdictions and legal procedures, treaties, radio and television--communications, agriculture, mining and minerals, highways, postal system; Social Security, and other areas generally controlled by the federal government in the United States. Puerto Rican institutions control internal affairs unless U.S. law is involved, as in matters of public health and pollution.

Infrastructure

The level of development and infrastructure across Puerto Rico should have meant that the region was able to communicate well with the affected people and evacuations could be undertaken less than 24 hours after the event. The infrastructure across the country including roads, power system, phone networks and sewage systems had been neglected for many years and this affected the response. The Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA), already struggling with increasing debt, had seen budget cuts as well as the loss of 30 percent of its work force since 2012. With the median age of the power plants at 44 years, an aging infrastructure across the island made the electric grid more susceptible to damage from storms. Inadequate safety mechanism also plagued Puerto Rico's electric company, and local newspapers frequently reported on its poor maintenance and outdated control systems. The island's water system was already in substandard conditions prior to hurricanes Maria. It was reported that seventy percent of the island had water that did not meet the standards of the 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act. Massive rains from Hurricane Maria brought catastrophic flooding, washing out bridges and inundating entire neighbourhoods. The island’s infrastructure, already shaky after years of neglect, was devastated. With no power, running water was cut off for much of the population. Communications to and from Puerto Rico were nearly impossible for days. Airports were shut down, delaying recovery efforts, since supplies had to be airlifted or shipped in. And the US Federal Emergency Management Agency, charged with disaster relief, was already stretched thin after historic storms earlier last summer in Texas and Florida. The result was the longest major power outage in U.S. history, and many communities on the island were left without running water for months. Toilets couldn’t flush; there was no water for showers, baths, or washing clothes. People had to rely on bottled water, but supplies were limited. Useless electric stoves had to be replaced with propane ones. Without refrigeration, food rotted and vital medicines spoiled. Only those with gas-powered generators could ward off darkness after dusk—for a few brief hours. All the modern conveniences we take for granted were left behind. Power was restored to the island on Feb 19th 2018 – five months after the storm struck. Even after power and water were restored across the island, people are still dealing with the storm’s effects.


Accessibility

The issue of accessibility hampered the island and made it more vulnerable when the hurricane struck. Relief efforts were unable to reach Puerto Rico for some days. Puerto Rico closed all three of its international airports in the wake of Hurricane Maria, which slammed into the island.

Luis Muñoz Marin Airport (SJU) was significantly damaged. SJU is the island’s main international airport and is served by all of the large US carriers including American, Delta, Frontier, JetBlue, Southwest, Spirit and United. Radio Isla 1320 shared four images from the airport revealing a flooded terminal and a runway full of debris — with entire window panes knocked out of their frames.

Fernando Luis Ribas Dominicci Airport (SIG), San Juan’s smaller airport, got hit hard as well, with private aircraft ripped apart and flipped over from Maria’s 155 mph winds.

The hurricane closed airports which made it very difficult for rescuer workers to get into San Juan to assist in the helping of affected residents.


The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) noted that millions of water bottles meant for victims of Hurricane Maria have been left undistributed at an airport in Puerto Rico for more than a year.

CBS News journalist David Begnaud reported that FEMA acknowledged that millions of water bottles were brought to the island in 2017 in the wake of the hurricane and that it turned them over to the "central government."

David Begnaud said that “the water was kept in an area that was pretty hard-hit during the storm and could have used all the water they could have gotten."

Water stockpiled at one of the badly hit airports in Puerto Rico

Being prepared

Normally, in island nations such as those in the Caribbean (and indeed anywhere where hurricanes occur) there are ready supplies of water, food and shelter so than when an emergency strikes the location affected are ready and well prepared.

The Federal Emergency Management Agency’s plans for a crisis in Puerto Rico were based on a focused disaster like a tsunami, not a major hurricane devastating the whole island. The agency vastly underestimated how much food and fresh water it would need, and how hard it would be to get additional supplies to the island.

And when the killer storm did come, FEMA’s warehouse in Puerto Rico was nearly empty, its contents rushed to aid the United States Virgin Islands, which were hammered by another storm two weeks before. There was not a single tarpaulin or cot left in stock.

FEMA had thousands fewer workers than it needed, and many of those it had were not qualified to handle such major catastrophes. FEMA had to borrow many workers from other agencies to help it manage the immense demand for essentials, from hotel rooms to drinking water, in the aftermath of the storms.

Although FEMA distributed 35 million meals in Puerto Rico, the report says the agency took longer than expected to secure supplies and lost track of much of the aid it delivered and who needed it.


This all happened as a result of some disorganisation amongst FEMA plus the fact that 2017 was one of the worst hurricane seasons in history. The three big hurricanes of 2017 — Harvey, Irma and Maria — are now three of the five costliest hurricanes in U.S. history. The storms brought widespread death and destruction to Texas, Florida, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.


Complete the following table to show how Puerto Rico was vulnerable to Hurricane Maria:

Hurricane Maria 2017

(Puerto Rico)

Natural

Location (warm sea temperatures)

Location (on the globe)

Geography (consider the shape of the land, height of land above sea level)

Cultural

Warning systems

Population (the number of people in an area, wealth of the population, age and ethnicity)

Economy and Government

type (consider aspects such as GNI per capita, average income, wealth of the government)

Infrastructure (airports, roads, buildings, water, sewerage)

Being prepared


Exam Question: Draw a fully annotated map to show how natural factors increased the vulnerability of the environments during your extreme natural event

Complete the map below to show at least 3 examples of natural factors that made the environments vulnerable to Hurricane Maria in 2017. Make sure you label the different places in this environment, use a key and clearly annotate the map with SPECIFIC case study details and remember your FACKTS.

Title:

Key:


Summary of Weather – Fill in the Gaps

A synoptic chart is the name for the type of map you see on the TV or in newspapers. It is a

summary of the state of the atmosphere at level. The lines on a weather map are called

and these join together to show areas of equal atmospheric . The

closer together the isobars, the it is. If the lowest number is in the middle circle this is

a low pressure or . Often low pressures mean weather. If the highest

number is in the middle circle, this is a high pressure or . Often high pressures mean dry,

sunny weather. A flow of air coming from a specific location is called an . They are named

according to where they have come from and each has its own characteristic and humidity.

• A air-mass consists of air flowing from the tropics (WARM)

• A air-mass consists of air flowing from polar regions (COLD)

• A air-mass is one flowing over a large sea area ( )

• A air-mass is one flowing over a large land area (DRY).

The air-masses reaching in the Caribbean / Gulf of Mexico are maritime tropical (mostly hot and wet climates)

WORDS:

continental sea air-masses polar windier anticyclone

temperature depression isobars pressure

moist weather wet and windy


Looking Inside a hurricane.


Hurricane Maria — the strongest hurricane to hit Puerto Rico in more than 80 years — destroyed homes, roads, and bridges; knocked out power across the entire island; and triggered heavy flooding. Residents have lived through food and water shortages, water-related disease outbreaks, generators running out of fuel, hospitals and schools closed due to extensive damage, and in the immediate aftermath, lack of access to the banking system.


The diagram above shows the inside of a hurricane with one side of a hurricane being a mirror image of the other.

The eye acts like a tiny anticyclone in the middle of the hurricane. At the centre is the eye, an eerily peaceful, calm and clear region that’s generally between 10-15km in diameter. Circling the eye is what’s known as the hurricane’s eyewall, a ring of dense, towering vertical clouds that swirl around the eye. The heaviest rains and strongest winds are found inside the eyewall. The outermost region is characterised by what are known as spiral rain bands, heavy showers that trace an inward spiral toward the storm’s centre.

Maria’s “pinhole” eye measured roughly 6 km in diameter. That suggested danger to the thousands of meteorologists watching it from around the world. A smaller-than-normal eye is particularly catastrophic because it can cause a hurricane to gather more force and pick up higher wind speeds, according to the National Weather Service.

This effect is due to centrifugal force; when a hurricane’s wind is forced to spin around the eye in a tighter circle, the sharper curvature causes the wind to rotate faster, while the wind’s momentum wants to pull it in a straight line.

Just as riders on a playground carousel feel more pressure trying to push themselves off as the ride spins faster, the hurricane gains more force as it spins around its pinhole eye. That means Hurricane Maria gained even more speed. Wind speeds in Hurricane Maria reached 282km/h more than that of a Category 5 hurricane.


Very strong winds (up to 320kph) in the tubular eye wall rotate around the eye in a counter-clockwise direction. They drag up warm, moist air from the ocean below. As the air rises it cools and condenses, releasing latent heat energy. Cumulus wall clouds up to 15km high develop and torrential rain falls.

Maria made landfall in Yabucoa, Puerto Rico as a strong category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 249 km/h. As the centre of the storm moved west-north westward over south-eastern PR into the interior and north-western PR, widespread hurricane force winds spread all over mainland PR along with extremely heavy rainfall that produced major to catastrophic flooding and flash flooding, especially across the northern half of Puerto Rico. Maria’s centre moved over the coastal waters off north western Puerto Rico early that afternoon. Even though hurricane force winds started to diminish once the system moved offshore, tropical storm force winds continued well into the evening and overnight hours across mainland Puerto Rico. Away from the eye wall in any direction, winds rain and cloud cover becomes less intense. There is a Catherine wheel effect on the outer edges as warm moist air is drawn up. The air is sucked up in the eye wall. The surface of the ocean is also pulled up. It normally swells 5-20m, a phenomenon called storm surge. Hurricane force winds also generate very large waves that are greatest towards the centre of the cyclone.

In addition to wind, Maria generated dangerous storm surge and huge amounts of rain as it barrelled through the Caribbean. Storm surge reached 3 metres along the coast and 1metre and 2 metres farther inland near Yabucoa, Maunabo and Patillas. As it moved north, Maria also sent a storm surge far to the west, pushing water one to two metres above ground along the North Carolina coast.

Rainfall was widespread, triggering brutal mudslides. Puerto Rico’s inland area was “reduced to an immense field of debris,” in parts as it was pounded with 60 cm (600mm) of rainfall. One location in Puerto Rico recorded 120cm3 (1200mm) during the storm.

3 Auckland’s average rainfall per year is about 1211mm – so this storm was huge!


Once the eye has passed over a particular place the whole pattern occurs again although in the reverse order.

On the diagram below locate and label the following: - Storm surge

- Area of very strong winds and rain,

- Area of rapidly rising moist air in the eye wall,

- Area of less intense cloud, wind and rain


FQ2: Explain the processes that produce hurricanes

What words could you use to explain a process instead of saying first, second, third?

What words could you use to show a relationship between each stage instead of saying “this causes”?

Stage1 Stage2 Stage3

Geographic Concept: Process

A series of related events that maintain or modify the environment

This focus question involves looking at the series of events and the stages that occurred in the formation of Hurricane Maria.


How do Hurricanes form? How did Hurricane Maria form? (add in specific details for Hurricane Maria and a diagram to assist your understanding) Hurricanes only form over the ocean. This is because they need warm water to provide them with the energy they need. Once a hurricane moves over the land it begins to die as it has lost its source of energy. The water temperature must be at least 26.5 degrees for a hurricane to form; water this warm is found in the tropics between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Hurricanes form near the equator but not right on it. This is because the hurricane needs the spin of the Earth, called the Coriolis force and this is not powerful enough at zero degrees latitude. Most hurricanes begin as storms 5 – 15 degrees north or south of the Equator. As the earth spins anything moving on the surface is Deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere. This lag creates the Coriolis effect. The Coriolis effect spins air coming into a hurricane in an anti-clockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and the reverse in the Southern hemisphere. In the Atlantic region occur mostly between the months of April and June when it is very hot. Moisture rising off the warm sea starts to form clouds. If the winds are slight, a mass of cloud can start to build up over one area. As the water vapour rises, the air pressure falls and more air is “pulled in” to fill the gap. The air rises above the tropical ocean, like steam from a kettle and is replaced by cooler surface air being pulled into the growing depression. Under the influence of the Coriolis effect, the incoming air is deflected to the right and the clouds start to spin anti-clockwise.


As the moisture rises, it cools and the water condenses out as rain, This releases latent heat which warms and expands the surrounding air so the cloud grows in size and, as the warm air is lighter than cold air, the pressure drops even further. More air is then sucked up in a continuous cycle. This is known as a tropical depression. The cloud becomes wider and deeper and the maximum speed is around 90km/h. The storm itself becomes more organised and becomes to be more circular in shape. When this happens meteorologists will give it a name and start to track it more closely. If conditions stay stable then the process builds and builds until wind speeds are 119 km/h. Hurricanes can be about 500 km across. Size however, does Indicate destructive power. Hurricanes begin to form where there is a zone of Low Pressure near the Equator. This is called the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone. For a hurricane to develop it also needs a jet stream which sucks up the air into the upper atmosphere. As the air rises, clouds form and heavy rain falls. The hurricane keeps feeding off heat energy from the sea until it reaches the land when the energy that the hurricane received from the ocean disappears.


Just like when you are baking a chocolate cake you need the following ingredients: butter, eggs, sugar, flour, baking powder, cocoa and so on. If you leave out the baking powder then it does not rise, or if you leave the sugar out it tastes a little dodgy a hurricane is the same – you need all the ingredients to occur at the same time or the storm will not develop into a hurricane.

List down all the “ingredients” for a hurricane

Method


Task 1: Plan

1. Study the question asked to make sure you understand what exactly is being asked. 2. Write down all of the key points from the topic you have studied that answers the question, then

organise them into a logical order. 3. Identify facts and examples that you could use to explain each of your key points.

Task 2: Write an introduction

1. State how a key concept is relevant to the question. 2. Turn the question into a statement. 3. List all of the key ideas you will write about. 4. Write a judgment statement linking to the question e.g. Which process was the most important in

producing Hurricane Maria?

Use the following starter sentences to help you: The geographic concept of process is important to the formation of the Hurricane Maria in 2017 was produced by a sequence of natural events. These included ……………., ……….and ……………………………. The most significant process was ………. because …….. Task 3: Write the first paragraph on the key point that ……………… was the first process that contributed to the Hurricane Maria in 2017 Remember that each paragraph should focus on the key point only. Remember that your paragraph should be structured according to SEXD S Warm ocean water is the most important process that contributed to the formation of

Hurricane Maria in 2017. E The warm water in the Atlantic Ocean reached 26.5 °C in September which lead to all the

conditions being met for the development of Hurricane Maria. In fact the water temperatures were warmer than this

X The water temperatures around Puerto Rico during September 2017 were ……. D

The diagram below shows where……

Task 4: Write 4-5 more paragraphs using the other key points listed in your plan, remembering that each point you listed in your plan = one paragraph. Task 5: Write a conclusion

1. Write an evaluative statement linking to the question e.g. what processes formed the Hurricane Mariia in 2017?

2. Show how the processes were linked together

Use the following starter sentences to help you: The major processes involved in the formation of the ……………… were …………………. , ………………………………… and …………………………. Each process interacted with another causing the sequence of events that resulted in the destruction of important infrastructure, loss of businesses, landslides and …...

Essay: Explain the natural processes that produce your chosen extreme natural event


FQ3: Explain the effects that hurricanes have on the natural environment

How Hurricanes Impact the Natural Environment Ravaged homes and submerged streets are the images most often seen on the news after a hurricane strikes, but coastal ecosystems—both on land and at sea—experience their own forms of devastation as well. Coastal erosion Storm surge, waves, and winds can destroy wetlands and erode dunes and beaches, which provide critical habitat and important nesting grounds for a wide variety of wildlife species. The storm surge reached between three metres along the coast and one to two metres farther inland near Yabucoa, Maunabo and Patillas. The storm changed the landscape; Maria’s waves clawed away at the sand, reducing the width of the broad, flat beach by approximately 90 percent. But it wasn’t just that the familiar landscape disappeared it also left much of the coastline defenceless. “The beach works as a buffer of all the energy from the swells and the storm waves,” said geologist Maritza Barreto. Without it, the community becomes more vulnerable to storms.

Estuaries serve as important buffers against storm damage. When coastal waters rise during a storm, also

called storm surge, a marsh estuary can easily absorb the extra water with minimal damage to the environment. (NOAA)

Geographic Concept: Change

Involves any alteration to the natural or cultural environment. Change can occur in different places. Change can also happen over time. Change is a normal process in

both natural and cultural environments. It occurs at varying rates, at different times and in different places.


Saltwater/freshwater intrusion When seawater surges into wetlands, bays, and estuaries, the onslaught of salt can harm freshwater marsh grasses and plants as well as crabs, minnows, and other marine life. When saltwater washes over land, it can harm or even kill bottomland forests and coastal trees unaccustomed to the uptick in salinity. The opposite can happen, as well: Heavy rains can cause freshwater to flood into coastal basins, decreasing the salinity (saltiness) of the waters and making life difficult for the species that depend on them. This happened in many parts of Puerto Rico. Underneath the northern coast of Puerto Rico lies a karst (limestone) aquifer, a geologic formation of limestone where, over time, rain dissolves the rock to form tiny fractures, streaming rivulets, and giant caves (like the Waitomo Caves!). When rain falls, that maze of spaces collects and stores generous supplies of water. “It’s a unique geologic environment,” says Ingrid Padilla, a professor of water resources engineering at the University of Puerto Rico. “It’s highly complex and very difficult to simulate.” The hurricane brought sea water into this karst aquifer meaning that the fresh water was no longer safe for human consumption. Forest destruction Hurricane-force winds can uproot trees and bushes or strip them of their leaves, seeds, fruit, berries, and branches, damaging entire wooded ecosystems. This can not only create short-term food shortages for species, but also change the face of an entire area. Once a forest canopy is damaged, a once cool, damp, and shady area may become a sun-filled, hot, and dry space—effectively creating new habitat for some invasive species while destroying ideal conditions for other, longer-term inhabitants. In the rugged central mountains and the lush northeast, Maria unleashed its fury as fierce winds completely defoliated the tropical forests and broke and uprooted trees. Heavy rainfall triggered thousands of landslides that mowed over swaths of steep mountainsides. In April 2018, a team of NASA scientists travelled to Puerto Rico with airborne instrumentation to survey damages from Hurricane Maria to the island’s forests. “From the air, the scope of the hurricane’s damages was startling,” said NASA Earth scientist Bruce Cook, who led the campaign. “The dense, interlocking canopies that blanketed the island before the storm were reduced to a tangle of downed trees and isolated survivors, stripped of their branches.” The team measured changes in the height and structure of the Puerto Rican forests. The damage was palpable. Forests near the city of Arecibo on the northern side of the island grow on limestone hills with little soil to stabilize trees. As a result, the hurricane snapped or uprooted 60 percent of the trees there. In the northeast, on the slopes of El Yunque National Forest, the hurricane trimmed the forests, reducing their average height by one-third. The storm inflicted serious damage on 20 to 40 million trees. Some species were hit harder than others, and in the aftermath of the onslaught, the makeup of Puerto Rico’s lush ecosystems has likely been permanently altered. Mangrove forests were also damaged significantly. 60 percent of the mangrove forests analysed were heavily or severely damaged.


Watch this video clip about of Nasa’s Surveys Hurricane Damage to Puerto Rico’s Forests – make notes to help your understanding: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HJAbGZsIjJo


Landslides and Mudslides Rainfall was widespread, triggering brutal mudslides. Hurricane Maria caused landslides across the island and in some municipalities there were more than 25 landslides per square kilometre. The rain and surge also helped fuel unprecedented flooding, especially in the northern parts of Puerto Rico, the report said. The entire valley around the island’s longest river, La Plata, flooded, which lead to landslides. Hurricane Maria triggered over 40,000 landslides, a truly remarkable number. As the diagram above shows, these landslides were concentrated in the upland areas of Puerto Rico, with five distinct clusters of very high landslide occurrence. This level of landsliding is unprecedented in Puerto Rico.

Describe the pattern of landslides caused by Hurricane Maria (2017) using the maps above.


Impact on coral reefs When Hurricane Maria tore through the Caribbean, they not only wreaked havoc on land, but also devastated ocean ecosystems. Coral reefs off Puerto Rico suffered severe injury during the storms, say scientists who travelled there in late November 2017 to assess the damage—the first step in understanding the reefs' recovery.

Some coral colonies lost branches. Others were cloaked in harmful algal growth. Many—weakened by the hurricane—were left with ghostly, feather-like strands of bacteria hanging off open wounds where bits of coral had been scraped off. Researchers also observed sites where whole coral colonies, akin to individual trees in a forest, had been swept away by the fury of the storms.

"Hurricanes generate huge waves. The effect is like sandblasting—the waves carry sand and debris, such as bits of broken coral, onto the reefs, striking them over and over again," says Howard Lasker, PhD, professor of geology in the UB College of Arts and Sciences.

Scientists said damage varied by location. In shallow waters, the damage lived up to our expectations of very bad news. However the deeper water corals were less affected by the hurricane.

Before and after Hurricane Maria


Impact on species

Powerful hurricanes leave a lasting legacy, and in Puerto Rico humans were not the only ones devastated by Hurricane Maria. UConn professor of ecology and evolutionary biology Michael Willig is part of an international team that has spent the past 30 years studying elements of the ecosystem in hurricane-prone Puerto Rico, and how that ecosystem responds to weather-driven disturbances. During the study, Willig has documented population data and number of species for invertebrates, such as snails. While he has noticed decreases in snail populations after hurricanes over the years, nothing was as striking as the drop in numbers after Maria hit. When the researchers compared recently collected data to those collected after Hurricane Georges in 1998, they found a 60 per cent decrease in the total snail population caused by Maria – a 20 per cent larger decrease than after Georges. Willig says species on Caribbean islands such as Puerto Rico have evolved to cope with hurricanes. Historically, one major storm would make landfall in the forest every 30 years or so. Yet, these plot twists are becoming more frequent and more intense.

The Iguaca is the last living native parrot species of Puerto Rico. Deforestation from agriculture brought the population to its knees, but as forests have reclaimed much of the land over the past 50 years, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s Iguaca Aviaries have been working to restore their numbers by breeding and releasing the parrots into the wild.

The island’s two Iguaca aviaries have reported a substantial number of deaths in the wild due to Hurricane Maria. In the forests of Río Abajo, in western central Puerto Rico, about 100 of the roughly 140 wild parrots survived; in El Yunque National Forest in the eastern part of the island, only three of the 53 to 56 wild parrots are known to have pulled through


The natural environment refers to anything that has been created by nature. A hurricane is a powerful force that may change, impact or affect different parts of the natural environment. On the photographs below annotate them to show the impacts that Hurricane Maria had on the natural environment.


Exam Question: Draw a fully annotated map to show how your chosen extreme natural event has caused changes to the natural environment

Complete a diagram below to show at least four ways that the natural environment was changed by Hurricane Maria in 2017. Make sure you label the different areas in this environment, use a key and clearly annotate the map with SPECIFIC case study details and remember FACKTS.

Title:

Key:


Essay: Fully explain the effects of your named extreme natural event on the natural environment

Task 1: Plan Study the question asked to make sure you understand what exactly is being asked. Write down all of the key points from the topic you have studied that answers the question, then organise them into a logical order. Identify facts and examples that you could use to explain each of your key points.

Task 2: Write an introduction

State how a key concept is relevant to the question List all of the key ideas you will write about Write a judgment statement linking to the question e.g. Which effect on the natural environment was the most significant?

Use the following starter sentences to help you: The geographic concept of change is important to the effects of the Hurricane Maria on the natural environment because the power of hurricanes causes many changes to ……………. , ………………………… and ………………… The most significant change was …………………….. that occurred in ………………….. Hurricane Maria caused both short term and long-term changes to the natural environment. Task 3: Write the first paragraph on the key point that was the most significant effect/change on the natural environment. Remember that each paragraph should focus on the key point only. Remember that your paragraph should be structured according to SEXD

S …………… was one of the most significant ……………………impacts of Hurricane Maria in 2017.

E Locations close to the ……….. included………… These areas were the most severely impacted by ………. because ……...

X What example might you talk about?

D What kind of diagram could you use?

Task 4: Write 4-5 more paragraphs using the other key points listed in your plan, remembering that each point you listed in your plan = one paragraph. Task 5: Write a conclusion

Write an evaluative statement linking to the question e.g. What was the most significant impact/change of the hurricane? Make sure you refer to a geographic concept.

Use the following starter sentences to help you:

Hurricane Maria had both short-term impacts and long-term impacts and caused changes to the natural environment. The most significant change was……………………and the most significant long-lasting impact is likely to be ……………………..


FQ4: Explain the effects that hurricanes have on the cultural environment

Potential Effects on the Cultural Environment

Communication Networks People

Towns/ Cities Transport Networks

Shops Factories/ Industry

Churches & Heritage Buildings Buildings (Commercial & Residential).

Infrastructure (Roads, Power Lines, Water Supply & Sewerage). Social Activities

Employment Economic Activities (Banking, Trade, Tourism, Agriculture etc.).

Community Facilities (Church, School etc.)


The 2017 hurricane season in the Caribbean/USA region was the most destructive on record. According to the report, nearly five million people registered for FEMA assistance last year, exceeding the combined total from four previous major hurricanes.

Hurricane Maria was one of the most destructive hurricanes of all time in terms of its effect on the cultural environment.

• Thousands of homes suffered varying degrees of damage while large swaths of vegetation were shredded by the hurricane's violent winds.

• The hurricane completely destroyed the island's power grid, leaving all 3.4 million residents without electricity.

• Communication systems were destroyed with radio stations being unable to broadcast. • Agricultural crops were destroyed • Nearly 3000 people were killed and many thousands more were killed. • Sewage treatment plants were destroyed leaving human waste floating around in rivers. • Airfields were closed and it was a few days before the airports opened and then initially only

for relief efforts.


Economic Effects

Effect Specific Evidence

Cost of damage Total losses from the hurricane are estimated at upwards of $US91.61 billion (maybe up to $US159), mostly in Puerto Rico, ranking it as the third-costliest tropical cyclone on record. Damage = immediate effects on buildings and infrastructure - Slips blocked the main route in and out of the capital city San Juan. Damage to infrastructure, such as water supplies and sewerage systems, has hurt the tourism industry and increased costs generally. Losses = long term affects like loss in production in following months (such as tourism and agriculture) Employment Economic output, as well as income, typically declines more sharply than employment in the immediate wake of major disasters and disruptions—for example, a manufacturer, wholesaler, or restauranteur that has to shut down for a week or two is unlikely to lay off most or any of their workers but will lose income from the closure. The graph below shows the impact that Hurricane Maria had on employment levels in Puerto Rico (and other areas) – note that employment levels declined initially and then started to increase again.


Damage to industry e.g. fishing, tourism and agriculture

Fishing:

The impact to Puerto Rico is estimated at $15.4 million in damages to fishing operations and businesses and revenue losses of $5.1 million. It’s estimated that 174 jobs were lost in the short term.

In Puerto Rico, commercial fishing vessels accounted for 35% of damages and 60% of lost revenue.

* Between 2010 and 2015, fishermen in Puerto Rico landed, on average, about 2.4 million pounds of finfish and shellfish with dockside revenues of $8.6 million per year.

Even the sea bottom was changed by Maria. The reefs and seagrass beds where the local fishermen caught snapper, conch and lobster were smothered with sand and silt and, in some places, appliances and debris washed out to sea after the storm surge receded. That meant that divers, must go farther out into deeper, unprotected and thus more dangerous waters, and even then the catch is often meagre. Tourism: Overall, Travel & Tourism contributes 15.2% of the Caribbean’s GDP and 13.8% of employment. However, in many Caribbean countries, the sector accounts for over 25% of GDP – more than double the world average of 10.4%. The hurricane season resulted in an estimated (loss) in 2017 of 826,100 visitors to the Caribbean, compared to pre-hurricane forecasts. These visitors could have generated US$741 million and supported 11,005 jobs. Six months after Hurricane Maria hit, more than 50 percent of travellers said media coverage negatively impacted their view of Puerto Rico as a destination. World Travel and Tourism Council shows that the amount of time travellers stay away from a destination can be longer after a natural disaster (up to 23.8 months) than after a terrorist attack (13 months) or public health event (21.3 months). But in Puerto Rico’s case, the recovery began rapidly with tourists coming back relatively quickly.


Agriculture: Hurricane Maria greatly affected Puerto Rico's agriculture. Approximately 80 percent of the territory's agriculture was lost due to the hurricane, with agricultural losses estimated at $780 million. Coffee was the worst affected crop, with 18 million coffee trees destroyed, which will require about five to ten years to bring back at least 15% of the coffee production of the island.

Damage to buildings and infrastructure

The most significant damage as a result of Hurricane Maria was to infrastructure. With no power, running water was cut off for much of the population. Communications to and from Puerto Rico were nearly impossible for days. Airports were shut down, delaying recovery efforts, since supplies had to be airlifted or shipped in. On September 26, 2017, 95% of the island was without power, less than half the population had tap water, and 95% of the island had no cell phone service. On October 6, a little more than two weeks after the hurricane, 89% still had no power, 44% had no water service, and 58% had no cell service. One month after the hurricane, 88% of the island was without power (about 3 million people), 29% lacked tap water (about 1 million people), and 40% of the island had no cell service. Three months after the hurricane, 45% of Puerto Ricans still had no power, over 1.5 million people. Fourteen percent of Puerto Rico had no tap water; cell service was returning with over 90% of service restored and 86% of cell towers functioning. Infrastructure - Power Hurricane Maria’s winds uprooted much of Puerto Rico’s energy infrastructure. The hurricane completely destroyed the island's power grid, leaving all 3.4 million residents without electricity. More than 80 percent of the island’s power lines were knocked down by the storm.


It was only a matter of time before Puerto Rico experienced a major outage given that the island’s power grid suffered for years under poor funding, neglect, and outdated hardware.

But the blackout lingered for months because of a failure to properly prepare and adequately respond at all levels of government.

The Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority, opted to sign piecemeal repair contracts after the storm already struck, including hiring a little-known, barely experienced private contractor in a deal fraught with allegations of corruption.

While bureaucrats bickered, the island’s residents were soon shrouded in the largest blackout in US history and the second-largest in the world on record. Without electricity, Puerto Ricans sweltered under a heat wave. Food spoiled. Lights went out. Gasoline fumes filled the streets as generators rumbled to deliver sparks of power. After 328 agonizing days, power was finally officially restored to the whole island in August 2018. But the situation is still fragile. Many of the repairs are meant to be temporary, and the island’s power lines, generators, and substations remain vulnerable to another storm. Without refrigeration, food rotted and vital medicines spoiled. Only those with gas-powered generators could ward off darkness after dusk—for a few brief hours.


Infrastructure - Water

Many communities on the island were left without running water for months. Toilets couldn’t flush; there was no water for showers, baths, or washing clothes.

People had to rely on bottled water, but supplies were limited.

Across the island, taps stopped running and floodwaters rushed in, covering cars and houses. Padilla, the water engineering professor, remembers the water seeping in under her door being white and brown. Water quality was severely affected and it took months for it to return to normal. Infrastructure – Phone network Ninety-five percent of cell networks were down, with 48 of the island's 78 counties networks being completely inoperable. Eighty-five percent of above-ground phone and internet cables were knocked out.


Infrastructure – Roads

Tons of manmade debris and millions of pounds of foliage clogged the streets and waterways, and threatened to produce an acute trash and pollution crisis in the months following the hurricane. People living in the mountainous areas of Puerto Rico (Rio Abajo) were disconnected from the city after the connecting bridge collapsed. For a while, their only way across the river in their town was a zip line they made out of cable. They now have to walk a longer route as they wait for a new bridge to be completed – still waiting two years on.

About 20 bridges in the town of Utuado were wiped out by the storm (see photograph below). Broken roads and knocked down homes are also still visible around town.


Infrastructure – Buildings damaged More than 60,000 homes in Puerto Rico were left without roofs after the hurricane. In September 2018 (a year after the hurricane), there were still tens of thousands of families living under the blue tarps.

Houses and businesses were flooded across the country making day to day living difficult and putting at risk people’s health.


Two years on many damaged shopping centres and businesses have yet to reopen, and the jobs they provided hang in limbo. It’s a similar picture in the critical tourism industry. Operators of some key resorts are hastening repairs to reopen for the 2019 summer season, the second since Maria.


Social Effects

Effect Specific Evidence

Loss of life and injury

Loss of Life The deaths of 64 people were initially directly attributed to the hurricane by the government of Puerto Rico. In the immediate months following Maria, the initial death toll relayed from the Government of Puerto Rico came into question by media outlets, politicians, and investigative journalists. Scores of people who survived the hurricane's initial onslaught later died from complications in its aftermath. Catastrophic damage to infrastructure and communication hampered efforts to accurately document the total loss of life. As result of this in August 2018, the official death toll was updated from the initial 64 to an estimated 2,975 (nearly 50 times the total) by the Governor of Puerto Rico.

The government's initial number was for those killed directly by the hurricane, crushed by collapsing buildings, drowned or hit by flying debris.

But the new report also counted those who died in the six months following the storm as a result of poor healthcare provision and a lack of electricity and clean water. Repeated power cuts also led to an increased number of deaths from diabetes and sepsis. Injury from Hurricane Maria Numbers of people injured in the Hurricane are difficult to ascertain. But certainly many people were hurt by flying debris, injured when buildings collapsed.

Evacuation of people

Evacuation to Shelters The heavy rainfall caused life-threatening flash floods and mudslides. The Governor of Puerto Rico said “Although it looks like a direct hit with major damage to Puerto Rico is inevitable, I ask for America’s prayers,” adding the government has set up 500 shelters. Puerto Rico’s public safety commissioner Hector Pesquera issued a dire warning to the island’s residents as the storm approached: “You have to evacuate. Otherwise, you’re going to die. I don’t know how to make this any clearer.”


Migration to Florida (after the hurricane) Hurricane Maria provoked a mass exodus from Puerto Rico that has only recently begun to slow down. Tens of thousands of Puerto Ricans have joined relatives on the US mainland, moving to states like Florida and New Jersey. Many have no plans to return. New data from the Puerto Rico Institute of Statistics shows that a net total of 150,000 people left the island in the year 2018. That’s about twice the average migration from the previous two years, when roughly 90,000 Puerto Ricans left, mostly to escape Puerto Rico’s economic crisis. Central Florida remains their top destination.

Effect on education

After Hurricane Maria struck many schools (167) were closed, some temporarily (and others permanently). These closures disproportionately affected children living in low-income communities however the storm was not all to blame for the permanent closures. But child psychologists say the decision to close the schools ― which stripped thousands of children of familiar social circles, adult figures and safe spaces ― represents a major new loss in the mounting trauma that Puerto Rican kids have faced since Maria.

Nearly 12,000 children from Puerto Rico were enrolled in the state’s public schools in Florida after their families fled Puerto Rico between December 2017 and February 2018 — a 12 percent increase from the same period the year before. Nearly 2,300 students displaced from Puerto Rico have entered New York schools since the October 2017, with 559 of them in Rochester — the most of any district in the state, according to records obtained from the state Education Department.

Effect on health

More than an inconvenience, the power outage triggered a health care crisis. Vital medical equipment like dialysis machines couldn’t run. Medicines like insulin went bad. Perhaps most critically, water pumps shut off. That forced some residents to drink from contaminated sources.


Sanitation networks failed, helping feed a leptospirosis outbreak. Humans can get leptospirosis through direct contact with water, soil or food contaminated with animal urine. It's most common in warm climates. Food was also in short supply and needed to be delivered.

** Leptospirosis = > High fever, headache, bleeding, muscle pain, chills, red eyes and vomiting are some symptoms. Without treatment, leptospirosis can lead to kidney and liver damage and even death. Antibiotics clear the infection.

Emotional and psychological trauma

As with any disaster Hurricane Maria has taken a toll on the mental health of the Puerto Rico community.

Even after power and water are restored across the island, people will still be dealing with the storm’s effects. “The storm takes away the foundations of society. Everything you thought gave you certainty is gone,” says psychologist Domingo Marqués, 39, an associate professor at Albizu University in San Juan. “You see people anxious, depressed, scared.” Marqués estimates that 30 to 50 percent of the population is experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, or anxiety.

Crisis managers at a mental health hotline near San Juan, receive 500 to 600 calls a day from people around the island in varying stages of desperation. Some callers just want to talk about their loss of home or income or family members who have fled to the mainland U.S.


Watch the following clip on the Mental Health Crisis following Hurricane Maria (13minutes)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DNEwkwXlCAU


Draw a series of fully annotated map or diagram(s) to show how your chosen extreme natural event has caused changes to the cultural environment. Use the resources on the previous pages.

For this question you should use simple diagrams and annotate them with case study specifics. You must use a key to keep your diagrams simple and make sure you give your diagram a descriptive title.


Exam Question: Effects on the Natural and Cultural Environment

Read the geographic concept below.

Geographic Concept: Change

Involves any alteration to the natural or cultural environment. Change can occur in different places.

Change can also happen over time. Change is a normal process in both natural and cultural environments. It occurs at varying rates, at different times and in different places.

During an extreme natural event, change can be unpredictable or erratic, and can occur quickly or over a period of time.

Natural Features Cultural Features Landforms

Soils Slopes

Coastline Rivers

Vegetation

Shops and factories Churches and other buildings

Infrastructure Social activities

Employment Economic activities

Fully explain the effects of your named extreme natural event on one natural feature AND one cultural feature from the table above. In your answer, include specific relevant evidence from:

- the geographic concept above - your extreme natural event case study (studies)

You may include a combination of notes, maps and annotated diagrams to support your answer. Natural feature: ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________


______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Cultural Feature: ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________


FQ5: Explain how different groups responded to Hurricane Maria

Responses before, during and after the Hurricane Maria (2017):

Immediate Response – this occurs during the event and immediately after the event. Hurricane Maria was a deadly Category 5 hurricane that Puerto Rico in September 2017. It is regarded as the worst natural disaster on record to affect Puerto Rico. Maria was the thirteenth named storm of the year, eighth consecutive hurricane, fourth major hurricane, second Category 5 hurricane, and deadliest storm of the hyperactive 2017 Atlantic hurricane season. At its peak, the hurricane caused catastrophic destruction and numerous fatalities across the north-eastern Caribbean, compounding recovery efforts in Puerto Rico already struck by Hurricane Irma a few weeks previously. The hurricane struck Puerto Rico in the early morning after a relatively short notice that the hurricane was on its way. The structure of the storm had changed with the storm increasing in diameter and strength. Normally hurricanes are easy to track and predict how intense (strong) they might be but Hurricane Maria was different. Between the 17th and 20th September the forecast on the strength of the hurricane changed many times. It went from being a Category 2 or 3 storm on the 17th and 18th September to being a Category 5 storm (the strongest) by the 19th and 20th!

The stages of response can be considered by time and divided into: Immediate Response – this occurs during and immediately after the event. Emergency Response – this occurs hours to days after the event and sometimes even before the event Disaster Recovery Period – a few days to 1 week after Rehabilitation – Weeks to months after Planning Period – months – 1 or 2 years after the event


This tweet from the National Weather service was sent out on the 19th September to give warning about the strength of the storm – just over 24 hours prior to the storm hitting.

The day before the hurricane struck residents in the capital city San Juan cleared store shelves of water and other supplies. Millions of Puerto Ricans are hoping to survive what could be the most powerful storm to ever hit the island. Maria could be the first Category 4 or 5 hurricane to make landfall in Puerto Rico in more than eight decades. Survivors indicated that the flood waters rose at least 1.8 m within 30 minutes of the hurricane hitting Puerto Rico, with flood waters reaching a depth of 4.6 m in some areas. Some tourists from California told her that the hostel they are staying at moved them to an interior room when they were unable to find flights home.

Comment on how useful social media is on informing the public of a disaster such as this.

This forecast just hours before Hurricane Maria struck was published for all of those involved in search and rescue. No-one had been expecting the storm to be so big, so intense and so destructive. The relatively short notice had a part to play in how different groups responded to the events.


Gov. Rosselló (the Governor) declared a state of emergency. “No generation has seen a hurricane like this since San Felipe II in 1928,” Puerto Rico Gov. Ricardo Rosselló said Tuesday. “This is an unprecedented atmospheric system.”

And US President Donald Trump issued an emergency declaration for Puerto Rico to aid with federal assistance. What did this emergency declaration allow the country to do? The Puerto Rico Convention Centre in the capital San Juan prepared to accept thousands of residents as the worst of the storm was felt.

**** Social media can be extremely helpful during a disaster. Apps deliver weather updates, public service announcements and directions to the nearest gas station that still has fuel. People can use Facebook or Twitter to call for help when they’re cut off from roads or lose power, and emergency managers use them to organize and deliver food and medical supplies. Strong networks are invaluable for anyone weathering the stress of a major disaster. However, Aldrich’s research suggests that a person who sees others in her immediate, close network staying in place may opt not to evacuate, when heeding warnings from public officials would be a better, albeit less natural, choice.

Emergency Response – this occurs hours to days after the event. Hurricane Maria — the strongest hurricane to hit Puerto Rico in more than 80 years — destroyed homes, roads, and bridges; knocked out power across the entire island; and triggered heavy flooding. Local people – At first light local people checked on their neighbours and loved ones. Civil Defence/FEMA – Local responders meet and draw up initial assessment of major building issues they are aware of, roads they have come across that are damaged etc. Direct Relief (a relief organisation working in Puerto Rico) reached out to health partners across the island to determine the status of their facilities, staff, and patients. The organization also worked with contacts at Puerto Rico’s Emergency Operations Centre to gather and fulfill lists of specifically requested medicines and medical supplies. The centre requested that all donations go through their official channels, which Direct Relief was uniquely positioned to handle through its pre-existing representative agent for product clearances and coordination with the Department of health. The Federal Emergency Management Agency has said it did not have a “phasing” plan in place for getting resources to Puerto Rico when Hurricane Maria devastated the island in September 2017. They had zero cots, zero tarps and an almost negligible stockpile of food and water, its limited contents depleted during another storm two weeks earlier. In short, FEMA was badly underprepared for one of the worst disasters to strike Puerto Rico.


The Defence Department had troops and equipment already assisting authorities in the region that has seen two other powerful hurricanes, Irma and Jose, previous to Maria. More than 2,000 people were rescued once military relief reached the town 24 hours after the storm. At least eight people died from the flooding, while many were unaccounted for. Many members of the Puerto Rico National Guard’s 783rd Support Maintenance Company began recovery efforts just one day after the storm, and others joined shortly after. Their initial mission was to inspect the facilities of their armoury, but local firefighters in the Toa Baja community alerted them about civilians in need of rescue. The size of the unit’s military trucks enabled them to rescue people and transport them through the flooding water and mud as high as 2.5 metres in pitch-black darkness while it was still raining. Many of these soldiers left their families behind and didn’t have communication with them for weeks. Their focus was ensuring their rescue mission was complete.


Mercy Corps is focused on providing assistance to these vulnerable and underserved populations, who are most likely to be missed in broader relief efforts. This includes the elderly — many of whom depend on welfare or social security — along with people with disabilities and those living in remote rural areas. In the immediate aftermath of the hurricane, Mercy Corps partnered with World Central Kitchen, a non-profit founded by celebrity chef José Andrés, to deliver more than 25,000 meals to hard-hit communities. Together with local organizations, Mercy Corps distributed nearly $300,000 in emergency cash so people could buy what they needed most — items like water, food and other essential supplies. Cash is a fast and flexible way to help people after crisis and supports local markets as they recover from the effects of Hurricane Maria.

Disaster Recovery period – a few days to one week afterwards. The US Armed Force goes by different mottos all leading to one conclusion; lead and protect the rights of the United States. “Always ready, always there. Whatever it takes. Honour, courage, commitment” (U.S. Armed forces mottos). This shows that each branch of the military takes an oath to protect citizens in trouble no matter how dangerous the situation. However, “Within seven days, the United States had 17 ships, 48 helicopters, 10,000 sailors, Marines and troops both afloat and ashore with 12 fixed-wing aircraft flying in.” (Richard Parker) It took the U.S. seven days to respond to the natural disaster. The amazing part about this is that despite the US having a huge military many people died because President Trump did not

send immediate help. Federal aid (from the USA) arrived on September 25 with the reopening of major ports. Eleven cargo vessels collectively carrying 1.3 million litres of water, 23,000 cots, and dozens of generators arrived. Full operations at the ports resumed on September 25, while the ports at San Juan had limited operations.


When it became clear to Javier Jiménez, the mayor of a north-western town called San Sebastián, that power wasn’t going to be restored right away after Maria, he decided to go rogue. He gathered a handful of brave (some might say reckless) city workers, along with a few retired employees willing to volunteer, and mobilized them to reconnect the 40,000-person town to the grid themselves. It was inordinately dangerous, but Jiménez felt that the greater risk was inaction. San Sebastián is about two hours from the capital, San Juan, and for many residents, particularly the elderly and the infirm, having electricity was a matter of life and death. “It was a state of emergency,” the mayor told me. “Nobody could’ve stood in my way.” Major League Baseball, in the USA, which has a large contingency of players from Puerto Rico, donated $1 million to help relief efforts. The league is also paying for doctors to travel there to provide assistance. On Wednesday, the Major League Baseball Players Trust announced that it will provide a grant to Operation Airdrop for the distribution of up to 1.5 million pounds of food, water and supplies to Puerto Rico. NBA player Carmelo Anthony, who is half Puerto Rican, has launched a crowdfunding campaign to help raise a million dollars for relief efforts. Dallas Mavericks owner and "Shark Tank" judge Marc Cuban lent his team plane to point guard J.J. Barea, the NBA's only active Puerto Rican player, to deliver emergency supplies in the wake of the hurricane. Help arrived from all around the world from groups like the Red Cross and UNICEF. IsraAID, a humanitarian group from Israel, was one of the first to arrive on the scene. Their emergency response team helped on multiple fronts. In addition to distributing supplies – such as basic hygiene items and water filtration systems – they also provided psycho-social support to help with post-trauma mental health issues. "The first few days following a disaster are crucial towards minimizing its long-term destructive effects," IsraAid said in statement. "The team is working with local partners and rapidly assessing the most acute needs. On October 4, 2017, Direct Relief delivered a critical shipment of nearly 16,000 doses of insulin to public health agencies in Puerto Rico, which was distributed to health clinics and hospitals treating patients with diabetes across the island. With refrigeration on the island limited, storing temperature-controlled medicines like insulin was a challenge. FedEx co-ordinated deliveries to multiple governmental agencies. Testing strips, needles, and syringes needed to manage diabetes were also shipped to the island. Pharmacists at Florida Medical Centre taught patients tricks to preserve their insulin, including how to use ice packs and cold water to keep it cool.


Rehabilitation – Weeks to months after The Corps of Engineers worked closely with the Federal Emergency Management Agency at the request of the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority to help at the Guajataca Dam, which collapsed after the impact of Hurricane Maria. The Corps of Engineers conducted spillway stabilization, waterline reconnection, channel reinforcement and stabilization work at the slope and spillway, and water gate repairs. The photo below shows the dam full after all the rainfall from the Hurricane Maria.

Latin rapper Pitbull sent his private plane to Puerto Rico to transport cancer patients to the mainland U.S. so they could continue to get life-saving chemotherapy treatments. "Thank God we're blessed to help," he told CNN. "Just doing my part." Pop star and actress Jennifer Lopez, who has been helping publicize the devastation through social media and press conferences, is the daughter of Puerto Ricans and has many family members on the island. The 48-year-old pop star rushed down to Puerto Rico to locate her family, two of whom had been unaccounted for. But after six long days of searching, she finally found her Aunt Adela and Uncle Tomas. Distribution of supplies by the National Guard.


Planning Period – months – 1 or 2 years after the event

The planning period is the one we are now in:

As of January 2019, the Department of Housing and Urban Development has allocated nearly $20 billion in grants to aid Puerto Rico's reconstruction. However, many people feel that this amount is insufficient, and worry it will not help the day-to-day lives of ordinary affected Puerto Ricans. Watch the two YouTube clips and make notes:

Rebuilding Dominica after Hurricane Maria

Rebuilding Puerto Rico after Hurricane Maria Find out what else has happened in this region to plan for the prevention of such a disaster happening in the future. Add to the history road on the next page.


Timeline of Responses to Hurricane Maria

Recovery Period

Emergency Responses

Rehabilitation Period

Planning Period


Colour-code the responses below by using the key, to the group of people who would most likely be responsible for carrying it out. Key:

Local Community Local/national government and related agencies International Aid agencies /NGO’s e.g.: Red Cross Governments

Give aid of money, equipment, materials, man-power for repairs, and specialist teams.

Improve warning systems as well as systems of communication and emergency plans for the future

Give instructions of health and safety hazards

Declare a civil emergency/state of emergency

Evacuate Rebuild houses, buildings, agriculture

Provision of emergency food and shelter

Provide training in disaster assessment to prepare for the future

Provide donations and support

Assess damage of personal property.

Assess damage of infrastructure

Clear bridges and roads


Exam question: Responses

When an extreme natural event occurs, people respond to it in various stages. Refer to the diagram below, summarizing some of the human response at each stage when answering the question below. Choose TWO human responses from the diagram above. For each human response you must: explain the stage it occurs in and, use evidence from your case study (studies) Human response one: ________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________


______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ Human response two: ________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________


Are hurricanes getting stronger – and is the climate crisis to blame? As the Atlantic season nears, we look at whether destructive weather events are getting worse – and how they get their names

by Oliver Milman,

What is a hurricane, exactly?

A hurricane is a large rotating storm that forms over tropical or subtropical waters in the Atlantic. These low pressure weather systems draw upon warm water and atmospheric moisture to fuel their strength and will gather pace if not slowed by patches of dry air, crosswinds or landfall.

“They are very tall towers of winds that move at the same speed, sometimes 60,000ft tall,” says Jim Kossin, a scientist at the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. “If they are unmolested by wind shear or run over land they will continue on their merry way.”

Storms are given names once they have sustained winds of more than 39mph. Hurricanes are gauged by something called the Saffir-Simpson hurricane wind scale, which runs from one to five and measures speed.

Once a storm gets to category three it is classed as a major hurricane, with winds of at least 111mph and enough force to damage homes and snap trees. Category five storms, of at least 157mph, can raze dwellings, cause widespread power outages and result in scores of deaths.

This strongest class of hurricanes includes Hurricane Katrina, which caused the inundation of New Orleans in 2005, and Hurricane Maria, which flattened much of Puerto Rico in 2017.

How do they differ from typhoons and cyclones?

Both hurricanes and typhoons are tropical cyclones – the only difference is the location where they occur. In the Atlantic, the term “hurricane” is used, while “typhoon” is used in the Pacific. In the South Pacific and Indian Ocean, the term “tropical cyclone” is often deployed.


Why is there a hurricane season?

Almost all hurricanes develop once the northern hemisphere approaches summer, with the hurricane season running from 1 June to 30 November. The season peaks between August and October.

This is because wind shear, which can disrupt hurricanes, dies down during summer, while the temperature of the oceans rise and the amount of moisture in the atmosphere increases. These conditions are ideal for spawning hurricanes.

The season isn’t strictly defined, however. “It can start earlier,” says Jennifer Collins, a hurricane expert at the University of South Florida. “Recall 2016, when Hurricane Alex (a storm that rattled Bermuda) formed in January.”

What has happened with hurricanes in recent years?


It’s been a punishing past few years for people living in the path of hurricanes in the US and Caribbean. Last year there were an above-average 15 named storms, including Hurricane Florence, which brewed off the west African coast before barrelling into North Carolina, plunging much of the state into darkness and dumping up to 76cm of rain in places, resulting in flooding that killed dozens of people.

This was followed by Hurricane Michael, the first storm to make landfall in the US as a category five event since 1992. The 160mph storm obliterated the town of Mexico Beach in Florida, caused more than 70 deaths and racked up an estimated $US25bn in damage.

These disasters came in the wake of the 2017 hurricane season, which caused a record $282bn in damage. Hurricane Harvey unloaded 33tn gallons of water on Texas, the astonishingly strong Hurricane Irma, which reached a top speed of 177mph, ravaged Florida and several thousand people died in Puerto Rico after Hurricane Maria, another category five storm, tore across the island.

The misery in Puerto Rico, in particular, is ongoing, with the US government strongly criticised by local elected officials for a sluggish and insufficient response to the catastrophe.

Does this mean that hurricanes are getting stronger and more damaging?

While the overall number of hurricanes has remained roughly the same in recent decades, there is evidence they are intensifying more quickly, resulting in a greater number of the most severe category four and five storms.

The proportion of tropical storms that rapidly strengthen into powerful hurricanes has tripled over the past 30 years, according to recent research. A swift increase in pace over a 24-hour period makes hurricanes less predictable, despite improving hurricane forecasting systems, and more likely to cause widespread damage.


The devastation unleashed by recent hurricanes has led to warnings that premiums may rise as insurers face ballooning claims. A record $US135bn was paid out by insurers in North America in 2017, mostly as a result of hurricane damages. “We have a new normal,” says Ernst Rauch, a senior executive at insurance company Munich Re. “We must have on our radar the trend of new magnitudes.”

Is the climate emergency to blame?

A range of factors influence the number of hurricanes smashing into land, from localised weather to periodic climatic events such as El Niño. Prior to 2017, the US had experienced a hurricane “drought” that had stretched back to Hurricane Wilma in 2005.

But there is a growing evidence that the warming of the atmosphere and upper ocean, due to human activity such as burning fossil fuels, is making conditions ripe for fiercer, more destructive hurricanes.

“The past few years have been highly unusual, such as Irma staying strong for so long, or the hurricane in Mozambique that dumped so much rain,” says Kossin. “All of these things are linked to a warming atmosphere. If you warm things up, over time you will get stronger storms.”

The climate emergency is tinkering with hurricanes in a variety of ways. More moisture in the air means more rain, while storms are intensifying more quickly but often stalling once they hit land, resulting in torrential downpours that cause horrendous flooding.

Rising sea levels are aiding storm surge whipped up by hurricanes – one study found that Hurricane Sandy in 2012 probably wouldn’t have inundated lower Manhattan if it occurred a century previously because the sea was a foot lower then. According to the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the maximum intensity of hurricanes will increase by about 5% this century.


The expanding band of warmth around the planet’s tropical midriff also means a larger area for hurricanes to develop, resulting in fierce storms further north than before, such as Florence. In the Pacific, this change means typhoons’ focal point is switching from the Philippines towards Japan.

Researchers are currently attempting to ascertain if climatic changes will help bend the path of hurricanes enough that more will charge in the direction of the UK in the future.

“This has implications for places that have historically been unaffected by tropical cyclones,” says Collins, who added these newly-hit areas are likely to suffer a significantly higher risk of structural damage than traditional hurricane zones.

“We are already seeing effects of climate change,” says Collins. “While there is not consensus on the frequency of hurricanes in a warmer world, there is a consensus that the hurricanes are becoming more intense, and hence their impact will be worse.”

Are people adapting to these changes?

The forecasting of hurricanes has become a fine art, with scientists able to predict with sharp accuracy the anticipated path and ferocity of hurricanes. In the US, affected states have refined systems for warnings and evacuations and have a hefty federal agency, FEMA, to plough billions of dollars into patching up shattered towns and lives.

But planning is often haphazard, with flooded houses repeatedly rebuilt in the same locations despite the morphing risks posed by the climate crisis. The concreting of Houston’s green spaces removed key sponges for Harvey’s water, which sloshed into people’s homes. Meanwhile, natural buffers to hurricanes, such as mangroves and coral reefs, are being stripped away around the world as a result of coastal development, pollution and warming waters.

There are more people in harm’s way, too – in the south-eastern US, for example, coastal populations grew by more than 50% from 1980 to 2003. Climate change adaptation rules have been scrapped by Donald Trump’s administration, making it easier to build critical infrastructure in risky coastal areas.

“Coastal towns and cities are not currently prepared for the changes already occurring and will continue to occur,” says Collins. “We know that there are areas that are prone to flooding. We need to not rebuild on these areas, and build on higher ground.

Damage to homes in the town of Jeremie, Haiti, after the arrival of Hurricane Matthew in 2016.

Photograph: Logan Abassi/AFP/Getty Images

“Those who deny scientific findings in favour of magical thinking and other such fallacies will only leave the world a more unstable and dangerous place for future generations to come.”


The situation is even starker for poorer Caribbean nations that will increasingly rely upon international help to deal with stronger hurricanes and rising sea levels.

Hurricane Maria devastated the island of Dominica, leaving just 5% of the country’s buildings intact. Its prime minister, Roosevelt Skerrit, who lost his own roof in the storm, subsequently told the UN that he had come “straight from the front line of the war on climate change”.

“We as a country and as a region did not start this war against nature,” a visibly shaken Skerrit says. “We did not provoke it. The war has come to us.”

What next?

Researchers have been poring over ocean temperatures and other data to ascertain what’s in store for the 2019 hurricane season, which starts on 1 June. US officials will unveil their best guess on Thursday in Washington.

Meteorologists at Colorado State University have predicted there will be a slightly below-average Atlantic season of 13 named storms, five of which will become hurricanes. This prediction rests on the presence of a mild El Nino – a natural climatic event that periodically warms the Pacific Ocean, a process that tends to suppress the development of Atlantic hurricanes.

There is still plenty of uncertainty in these early predictions. “Early forecasts can be a but sketchy,” says Kossin. “In general, it looks like it will be around average. But we will have to see.”

Source: Guardian, Mon 20 May 201

Achievement Standard AS91007 Subject Reference Geography 1.1

Title Demonstrate geographic understanding of environments that have been shaped by extreme natural event(s)

Level 1 Credits 4 Assessment External

This achievement standard involves demonstrating geographic understanding of environments that have been shaped by extreme natural event(s). Achievement Criteria

Achievement Achievement with Merit Achievement with Excellence

• Demonstrate geographic understanding of environments that have been shaped by extreme natural event(s).

• Demonstrate in-depth geographic understanding of environments that have been shaped by extreme natural event(s).

• Demonstrate comprehensive geographic understanding of environments that have been shaped by extreme natural event(s).

Notes

1 Demonstrate geographic understanding typically involves:

• describing aspects of how extreme natural event(s) shape environments • including supporting evidence. Demonstrate in-depth geographic understanding typically involves: • explaining aspects of how extreme natural event(s) shape natural and cultural environments • including detailed supporting evidence. Demonstrate comprehensive geographic understanding typically involves: • fully explaining aspects of how extreme natural event(s) shape natural and cultural environments

using geographic terminology and concepts, and showing insight • integrating detailed supporting evidence.

2 Geographic understanding refers to an understanding of how natural environments and people

interact and the consequences of that interaction.

Extreme natural event(s) refers to one type of naturally occurring hazard that has a major impact on people’s lives, such as: earthquakes, floods, tsunami, landslides, tropical cyclones.

Supporting evidence refers to specific, relevant information from different environments.

Environments refer to either different places that are affected by one type of extreme natural event or different places that are affected by a single extreme natural event.

Integrating refers to relevant examples being woven throughout the evidence to support explanations.

3 Aspects are selected from:

• natural and cultural characteristics (features) of the environments that make them vulnerable to the extreme natural event(s)

• natural processes that operate to produce the extreme natural event(s) • effects of the extreme natural event(s) on the natural environments • effects of the extreme natural event(s) on the cultural environments • how different groups of people have responded to the effects of the extreme natural event(s).

year 11 geography 2019 extreme natural events – hurricanes · st. cuthbert’s college geography...

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