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Chapter 18: The West on the Eve of a New World Order
Critical Thinking: In what ways were the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the 17th century English revolutions alike? IN what ways were they different?
The French Revolution: demolished the institutions of the old regime and established a new order based on individual rights, representative institutions, and a concept of loyalty to the nation, rather than the monarch
Toward a New Heaven and a New Earth: An Intellectual Revolution in the West
Scientific Revolution: effected mainly the elites
18th century- expanded to more of population through Enlightenment
The Scientific Revolution overturned ideas that had been in place
since the Middle Ages
Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy
Geocentric Theory- dominant theory of the Catholic Church…Ptolemaic Model
Nicolaus Copernicus- Polish-mathematician…heliocentric theory…Sun as center of universe..planets in circular orbits
Johannes Kepler: German mathematician and astronomer…orbits were elliptical rather than circular
Galileo Galilei: used a telescope to prove the heliocentric theory…published The Starry Messenger, condemned by Catholic Church and forced to recant
Isaac Newton: wrote Principia…defined laws of motion…gravity…World-machine concept
Toward a New Earth: Descartes and Rationalism
Rene Descartes: it is necessary to doubt as far as possible all things…proof of existence? “ I think, therefore, I am”
Cartesian Dualism: absolute dualism between mind and matter…using mind or human reason and its best instrument, math, humans can understand the material world because it is pure mechanism, a machine that is governed by its own physical laws because it was created by God- the great geometrician
Rationalism
Europe, China, and Scientific Revolutions Not sure why the sci rev occurred in
Europe, and not in China
Background to Enlightenment Enlightenment: movement of intellectuals
who were impressed with accomplishments of Sci Rev
REASON- scientific method to life John Locke: argued every person was
born with a tabula rasa (blank mind)…people were molded by their
environment…Two Treatises on Government…natural rights- life, liberty, property
The Philosophes and their Ideas Philosophes: literary people and social
reformerso PARIS
Apply reason to everything
Montesquieu Charles de Secondat, the Baron of
Montesquieu…The Spirit of the Laws (1748)
Comparative study of govt…liked Great Britain
Separation of Powers: power should be a check to power
Used extensively in US Constitution
Voltaire Francois-Marie Arouet/ Voltaire Prolific author Ideal of religious toleration “Crush the infamous thing!”
Deism: build on Newtonian world-machine…implied the existence of a mechanic (God) who had created the universe…like a clock
Diderot believed Christianity was “absurd” Encyclopedia: 28 volumes
Toward a New “Science of Man” SOCIAL SCIENCES! Adam Smith- (1723-1790): founder of
economics…individuals should be free to pursue economic self-interest…state should not interfere…laissez-faire (leave it alone)…according to Smith, government only had 3 basic functions: protect society from invasion, defend its citizens from injustice, and keep up certain public works…consumer as “invisible hand”
The Later Enlightenment Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): 2
major works: Discourse on the Inequality of Mankind and The Social Contract…
entire society to be governed by its general will…Book Emile was about education of a young boy- in woods “commune with nature”…let child dictate their education according to what they were interested in…did not see gender equality
The “Woman Question” in the Enlightenment For centuries, male intellectuals claimed
the nature of women made them inferior to men and made male dominance of women necessary and right
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) Feminist, Vindication of the Rights of Women…arguing the hypocrisy of enlightenment double standards…why should women “obey” men, when it made them like a slave? Also, the Enlightenment was based on ideal of reason innate in ALL human beingso “Would men but generously snap our
chains, and be content with rational fellowship instead of slavish obedience, they would find us more
observant daughters, more affectionate sisters, more faithful wives, and more reasonable mothers- in a word, better citizens. We should then love them with true affection, because we should learn to respect ourselves; and the peace of mind of a worthy man would not be interrupted by the idle vanity of his wife…”
Culture in an Enlightened Age Baroque: power, grandeur, and
movement Rococo Art- grace, charm, and gentle
action…follow wandering lines of natural objects…highly secular
Ex: Antoine Watteau- lyrical views of aristocratic life…upper-class pleasure and joy
Ex: Versailles-combo of Rococo Art with Baroque Architecture
Famous architect- Johann Balthasar Neumann- Vierzehnheiligen
High Culture High Culture- literary and artistic culture
of the educated and wealthy ruling classes, popular culture- written and unwritten culture of the masses, most of which has traditionally been passed down orally.
Increase in written word, higher rate of literacy…ex: magazines and newspapers
Popular Culture Distinguishing characteristic: collective
nature Festivals
Economic Changes and the Social Order 18th century in Europe witnessed the
beginning of economic changes that ultimately had a strong impact on the rest of the world
New Economic Patterns Europe’s population began to grow
around 1750, and continued to increase steadily
Falling death rate…disappearance of bubonic plague, and improved diet…more plentiful food and better transportation of food supplies
“little ice age” dissipated cultivation of new vegetables: Potato and
Maize “Putting-Out”/ “Cottage Industry” for
textile production…early capitalism True global economy: patterns of trade
that locked Europe, Africa, the East and the Americas
Spain, Portugal, and the Dutch Republic became overshadowed by France and England in the 18th century
European Society in the Eighteenth Century Society still divided into the traditional
orders or estates determined by heredity Peasantry- 85% of Europe’s population Serfdom continued in Eastern Germany,
Eastern Europe, and Russia…peasants elsewhere were largely free
Nobles- 2-3% of European Population- had dominating role…tax exempt
Patrician oligarchies in the cities
Colonial Empires and Revolution in the Americas
Portugal continued to profit from Brazil Spain’s importance as a commercial
power declined in 17th century…drop in output of the silver mines and poverty of the Spanish monarchy
Rivals- Dutch, English, and French in Western Hemisphere
The West Indies British: Barbados, Jamaica, Bermuda…
French: Saint-Dominque, Guadeloupe, Martinique…plantations with African slaves…tobacco, cotton, coffee, sugar
Sugar Factories- large output, about 150,000 tons of sugar/year…high death rate of slaves…Saint-Dominique- first successful slave uprising in 1793
British North America
Spain had claimed all of North America, but largely ignored…”prescription without possession availeth nothing.”
1609- Henry Hudson “discovered” Hudson Bay/River for Dutch 1609…1664- English seized colony of New Netherland and renamed it New York
Jamestown- 1607-first permanent English Colony…settlers barely survived
Massachusetts Bay Colony…religious freedom for Puritans (Calvinists)
British North America- 13 colonies Part of mercantilism- colonies served two
main purposes- provide raw materials for the mother country, and a market for the mother country’s manufactured goods
French North America French in North America- 1534: Jacques
Cartier “discovered” Saint-Lawrence River and claimed Canada…Samuel de Champlain settled Quebec 1608
Canada run autocratically as a vast trading area…furs, leather fish, and
timber…thinly populated by French-Canadians
French lose Seven Year’s War (French and Indian War) and surrender Canadian lands to Britain in 1763
The American Revolution mid-18th century: increasing trade and
industry led to a growing middle class in Britain that favored expansion of trade and world empire
Prime Minister- William Pitt the Elder (1708-1778)…expanded the British Empire
Americans and British had different opinions for rule…18th century Britain- king or queen and Parliament shared power…Parliament appointed advisors to monarchy and had power to make laws, levy taxes pass budgets.
After Seven Year’s War- British policymakers sought to obtain new revenues from the colonies to pay for British army expenses in defending the
colonies, the colonists resisted…Stamp Act of 1765 led to riots
July 4, 1776- Second Continental Congress declared independence from British Empire…Declaration of Independence, penned by Thomas Jefferson…Enlightenment ideas “life, liberty, pursuit of happiness”o French sent aid to colonists…French
Navy blockade let to General Cornwallis’ surrender at Yorktown, VA 1781…Treaty of Paris (1783)- recognized independence of American colonies and granted the Americans control of the territory from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River
Birth of a New Nation Weak Articles of Confederation to
stronger US Constitution Federal Government separate from State
Governments 3 branches of government (legislative,
judicial, executive)
Constitution narrowly ratified with Bill of Rights (1st 10 Amendments)
Toward a New Political Order and Global Conflict
Philosophes believed in natural rights, privileges that should not be withheld from any person…equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech and press, and the right to assemble, hold property, and seek happiness
Enlightened despots/ Enlightened absolutism: Frederick II of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria
Prussia: the Army and the Bureaucracy Frederick the Great (1740-1786): one of
best-educated monarchs…invited Voltaire to his court for several years…king as “first servant of the state”…enlarged Prussian army…had best reputation, officers were members of nobility…
abolished use of torture except in treason and murder cases…maintained serfdom
The Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs Austrian Empire difficult to rule because
is was a sprawling conglomerate of nationalities, languages, religions, and cultures
Empress Maria Theresa (1740-1780)- made administrative reforms…enlargement and modernization of the armed forces
Joseph II (1780-1790)- far-reaching reform program…abolished serfdom, abrogated death penalty, religious toleration, all equal before law…however, alienated the nobility and the churcho Wrote his own epitaph “Here lies
Joseph II, who was unfortunate in everything that he undertook.”
Russia Under Catherine the Great Catherine II the Great (1762-1796)…
invited Diderot to Russia, but did not implement his suggested reforms…1785
gave nobles a charter that exempted them from taxes…Russian peasant uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev (1773)…he was captured, tortured, and executed…Catherine responded with even harsher restrictions against he peasantry…territorial expansion into Poland and the Black Sea…3 partitions of Poland- Russia gained about 50% of Polish land
Enlightened Absolutism Reconsidered Joseph, Frederick, and Catherine were all
primarily guided by a concern for the power and well-being of their states…heightened state power was used to create armies and wage wars to gain more power
Hereditary aristocracy- still most powerful class
Changing Patterns of War: Global Confrontation
Europe consisted of a number of self-governing, individual states that were
largely guided by the self-interest of the ruler
Seven Years’ War- fought on 3 continents…in Europe, British and Prussians fought the Austrians, Russians, and French…stalemate, ended in 1763
India- British, under Robert Clive, won out against the French…Treaty of Paris in 1763- French withdrew and left India to the British
North America (French and Indian War) Treaty of Paris…French ceded Canada and lands east of Mississippi to Britain..Spain transferred Florida to British, and French gave their Louisiana territory to Spanish
The French Revolution 1789- New Constitution for US, and the
beginning of the French Revolution French Revolution was very violent and
radical..attempted to reconstruct both a new political order, and a new social order
Social Structure of the Old Regime
Divided into 3 Estates 1st Estate: Clergy…1% of population,
controlled 10% of land…exempt from taille
2nd Estate: Nobility…2 % of population, controlled 25-30% of land…exempted from taille as one of many noble privileges
3rd Estate: Commoners…further divided with Bourgeoisie at top…inspired by Enlightenment
Opposition of elites to the old order led them to take drastic action against the monarchical old regime…Revolution had its origins in political grievances
Other Problems Facing the French Monarchy food shortages, rise in food prices,
unemployment Louis XVI (1774-1792) seemed apathetic
towards his role…wife Marie Antoinette from Austria…focused on frivolous things…didn’t have heirs right away, lambasted in press
Financial crisis, led to Louis XVI calling a session of the Estates-General (vote by order unpopular with 3rd estate)
From Estates-General to National Assembly opened at Versailles May 5, 1789 decided on vote by order June 17, 1789, 3rd estate locked out of
proceedings, met in and made Tennis Court Oath, declared themselves the National Assembly
Storming of the Bastille- July 14th 1789- symbolic beginning of French Revolution, celebrated as Bastille Day in France, and Andrew’s Bday in the US
Led to peasant uprisings throughout France
Destruction of the Old Regime National Assembly abolished the rights of
landlords and fiscal exemptions of nobles, clergy, towns, and provinces
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen: charter of basic liberties- proclaimed
freedom and equal rights for all men…meritocracy…”Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite”
Olympe de Gouges- Declaration of Rights of WOMAN and Female Citizen
Catholic Church was reformed…church lands were seized…Church seen as enemy of Revolution
1791: National Assembly completed a new Constitution- legislative body had power, but still a King of the French
Jacobins: a radical political club, that wanted more extreme reforms for France
June 1791- King Louis XVI and family attempted to flee to Austria, but were captured and brought back to Paris…put under house arrest
August 27, 1791- Austria and Prussia, fearing rebellion spreading to their countries, formed the Coalition Forces and attacked France
The Radical Revolution September 1792: newly elected National
Convention began…abolished monarchy and established a republic
January 21, 1793 King was executed by guillotine
Coalition forces grew against France: Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, Dutch Republic, and Russia
A Nation in Arms Executive committee of 12, led by
Maximilien Robespierre…Committee of Public Safety 1793-1794
Universal mobilization of the nation Raised an army of 650,000 and fought
back coalition forces Nationalism- “people’s wars”
Reign of Terror Revolutionary courts were set up to
protect the Republic from its internal enemies…via guillotine (the great equalizer)
City of Lyons defied the authority of the National Convention…1,880 citizens were executed…by guillotine and cannon fire
Equality and Slavery: Revolution in Haiti
Slavery was abolished in France in September 1791…but continued in French colonies because it was so lucrative
February 1794- National Convention abolished slavery in the colonies
Island of Saint-Domingue had already started rebelling under the ex-slave Toussaint L’Ouverture
1802 Napoleon reinstituted slavery, and sent an army to capture L’Ouverture…brought to France where he died in a French dungeon
January 1, 1804: Haiti announced its independence
Reaction and the Directory Reign of Terror intensified as Robespierre
became obsessed with purifying the body politic of all the corrupt
Robespierre turned on members of the Convention, including Georges Danton…eventually Convention had Robespierre arrested and beheaded on July 28, 1794
Replaced with a Directory- five directors that acted as executive authority
Government under the Directory (1795-99) corruption..relied on military to maintain power…led to a coup d’etat in 1799, led by Napoleon Bonaparte
The Age of Napoleon Dominated European history from 1799
to 1815 Officially ended the French Revolution
with his coup d’etat
The Rise of Napoleon born in Corsica in 1769…recently
annexed by France had a military education…led to a
commission as a lieutenant 1794: made Brigadier general by the
Committee of Public Safety After coup in 1799: Consulate established
with Napoleon as 1st Consul…also held plebecite to reinforce his position…made himself Consul for Life, then Emperor in 1804
Domestic Policies established peace with Roman Catholic
Churcho Concordat with Pope
Napoleonic Code Divorce was made harder for women
under new Civil Code, women lost many rights
Bureaucracy based on merit…government career open to talent was what many bourgeoisie had wanted before the Revolution
Losses: creation of new aristocracy, strong protection of property rights, and use of conscription for military
Napoleon’s Empire War with Third Coalition: Britain, Austria,
Russia, Prussia
The Grand Empire 1807-1812: Napoleon was master of
Europe…Grand Empire
o French Empireo Dependent Stateso Allied States
Dependent States- kingdoms under the rule of Napoleon’s relativeso Ex: Spain under brother: Joseph
Bonaparteo Allies included Prussia, Austria,
Russia, and Sweden Tried to destroy Old Order British defeated Napoleon at sea Battle of
Trafalgar (1805)…Admiral Horatio Nelson…red jacket, brown pants
Continental System…French blockade of Great Britain…failed
Guerilla warfare in Peninsular War- Spain/Portugal
The Fall of Napoleon 1812- Napoleon attempted to invade
Russia after they refused to support the Continental System…June 1812, Napoleon led Grand Army of 600,000 men into Russia…Russians implemented the
Scorched Earth Policy…retreat under heavy snows…only 40,000 arrived back in Poland in January 1813!
Napoleon exiled to Elba 1814, escaped when Louis XVIII proved to be unpopular (Louis XVII, son of Louis XVI, had died in prison after horrendous torture and neglect at age 10…Louis XVIII was brother of Louis XVI)
Napoleon slipped back into France and gained army back on his side…ruled for Hundred Days…Defeated at Waterloo (1815) and was exiled (again) to Saint Helena…died 6 years later