WUA EMPOWERMENT FOR IMPROVED

IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT IN CHHATTISGARH

Chhattisgarh Irrigation Development Project (CIDP)

Asian Development Bank and the State of Chhattisgarh

Eighth Assignment Report

of the

Irrigation Agriculture Development Specialist(International)

James A. Litsinger

9 August-7 September 2008

KBR-JPS ConsultantsOffice: Water Resources State Data Centre, Sihawa Bhawan Complex, Civil Lines,

Raipur (CG) – 492 001+91-771-5532115; Tele-Fax: +91-771-2445117

Table of contentsI. Project Update..................................................................................................................2II. Travels to CIDP Schemes...............................................................................................4III. ASA FFS training..........................................................................................................5IV. Plan for Hiring New NGO(s) for Agricultural Training...............................................7V. Plan for Rapid Adoption of Improved Rice Technology..............................................10VI. Village Level Seed Production....................................................................................13VII. Training Aides for COs in Kharif Rice......................................................................14VIII. Rabi Crop Plan..........................................................................................................15IX. Rabi Packages of Practices..........................................................................................18X. Conclusions...................................................................................................................19XI. List of Appendices.......................................................................................................20Characteristics of rabi crops..............................................................................................57Wheat.................................................................................................................................58Maize...............................................................................................................................67Sorghum.............................................................................................................................71Millets................................................................................................................................71Lathyrus or keshari............................................................................................................73Gram or chana....................................................................................................................74Lentil.............................................................................................................................78Green gram Moong............................................................................................................80Field Pea or Mutter............................................................................................................81Pigeon pea...................................................................................................................84Black gram or urd..............................................................................................................86Rapeseed and Mustard.......................................................................................................86Linseed or Flax.......................................................................................................91Soybean..............................................................................................................................94Groundnut..........................................................................................................................95Sunflower.........................................................................................................................101Safflower..........................................................................................................................104Sesame til.........................................................................................................................105Niger................................................................................................................................105Tomato...........................................................................................................................106Brinjal..............................................................................................................................117Chilli................................................................................................................................125Onion...............................................................................................................................126Garlic...............................................................................................................................129Cabbage...........................................................................................................................129Cauliflower......................................................................................................................134String bean.......................................................................................................................138Potato...............................................................................................................................138Bottle gourd.....................................................................................................................142Bitter gourd......................................................................................................................142Pumpkin...........................................................................................................................146Smooth gourd...................................................................................................................146Spinach............................................................................................................................147

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I. Project Update

The project is targeting 25 schemes, up from the six or the project is trying to hire COs for all these sites including SCOs who will manage one site themselves while supervising other COs on a regular basis. There are now 17 COs including 3 Senior COs (SCO). All of the former COs with agricultural training with only one exception (the CO in Pakanjore) have resigned with Abhishek the latest to go. In the first week of September five more COs and one new SCO were hired and undergoing training at the Data Center. The three senior COs (SCOs) are from Orissa and UP with one from CG. The newly hired COs and SCOs are now under orientation training in Geg. Some lack transport ability and language skills to communicate effectively with farmers. Two of the first batch of COs have been recommended for promotion to SCOs (Sanjay of Amakoni and Duryadhon of Bilaspur tank).

Dr. Sahu was able to travel to the schemes for three rounds since I left two with ASA trainers and one with Mr. Nandi. For example Dr Sahu has travelled to Kranti tank 3 times. He visits each of the sites once a month focusing on those with COs in station. He visited a few sites without COs and their experience was that it is not worthwhile to do so. For example when he visited Kandua tank and only the WUA president was able to visit with he and Mr Nandi. In Markatola tank in Kanker again only the WUA president and a few TC members showed up.

The 2008 kharif season has so far differed from 2006 and 2007 in that rainfall in July (which should have seen high rainfall frequency) was much lower. In many locations farmers, followed our instruction to transplant early and synchronously. Some farmers were able to establish their seedbed but not enough rain fell for them to puddle the soil. The monsoon began on time but rains stopped for about a month in July. As a result in a number of locations farmers delayed in transplanting and used old seedlings, as old as 45 days which will doom the crop to be low tillering and hence low yielding. In other schemes farmers only direct seeded dry using the biasi rainfed method. In such areas farmers perhaps would have been better served to have direct seeded wet with pregerminated seeds (lehi method). This method allows more spontaneity on the part of farmers respond to erratic rainfall. As of the end of July few

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schemes had sufficient water to irrigate even once. Rains came in August and as of the first week of September most tanks are full. There are some dry areas where rainfall has been 50-60% of normal such as Kranti with the least in Balar (only 30%) full. In fact in Balar no irrigated rabi crop will be attempted as the reservoir can only serve kharif rice production as rains taper off in September.

Package B has been promised a grant of $550,000 from our donor DfID to carry out our work, as our current grant was up as of 30 June. When the money arrives we can hire more experienced COs as we will be able to offer higher salaries. There are now 8 SCOs to be hired for the 25 schemes and 14 later on. COs eventually will number 100.

There have been some changes in the situation of the two DDAs Ashwani Kumar Banjara and Yeshavant Keram. They have now been given vehicles again as of a month ago and Ashwani is stationed in Raipur while Keram is in Bilaspur and serving Ambikapur. On a few occasions they have visited the training sessions. However they now hold office in Raipur as WRD holds control over the vehicle and does not allow them to go on their own as before.

A team meeting on 11 Aug was preceded by the team leader providing us with a memo describing the current status of kharif and rabi interventions. The follow-on meeting produced the following information. Most WUA presidents are not farmers and have no agricultural background. Most are businessmen, thus they often side with the WRD instead of the farmers. The team meeting was preceded by a meeting held by Satya for the consultants. The results of the ‘pre-meeting’ were presented to Wijay. ASA has been terminated and a new NGO is expected by Jan 15 2009, 5 months from now. Thus we will miss a whole crop year of training.

Wijay was disappointed with the progress of the project to date and the lack of farmers following PIM and the agriculture package of practices. He emphasized again that it is the chak and not the individual farmer that should be the focus of training. Discussion centered around the definition of a chak. A chak is the contiguous lands served by an outlet from a lateral canal and is the smallest unit of irrigation as the farmers receive their water at the same time from the same source. It normally is 25-50 acres in size. The farmers need to define where the field channels will be constructed from the turnouts in each chak now that

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there have been improvements in the canals. The focus now in PIM is on command area development. Two engineer consultants are to be hired to carry out this task in 15 schemes. Organizing farmer groups in each chak is now the primary task of PIM.

Also pointed out by the team leader is the need to think of using the IEC component of the project to carry out training. Wijay emphasized that CIDP is not here to undertake the role of the extension workers but should look at institutional level interventions. For example to improve farmer institutions to generate their own high quality seed rather than train individual farmers on the need. We need to make a plan for three years on how to do this. At the same time however we are expected to instruct all farmers to plant in unison by chak and use medium maturing varieties and follow our package of practices. I am not sure how such a goal can be achieved without training.

Sanjay also attended the meeting and in his area of M&E and it was pointed out that we need to combine this with MIS and have farmers introduce their own system of self evaluation and data collection in the WUAs using regular M&E indicators. For example how many farmers have adopted components and the full package of practices. Most of the activities of the COs however is in gathering such M & E information from the sites for Mr Nandi which is being treated as a PIM activity.

II. Travels to CIDP Schemes

Dr Sahu and I first travelled to Bilaspur city to meet the ASA trainers and then visit Pondiguma scheme to see the training activities as well as visit the CO Ms Geeta in Hathani village. Our purpose in all of the travels to schemes was to train the COs to be able to diagnose field problems and thus gain the respect of farmers so that they could be more effective in PIM activities and to train farmers on our rice package of practices and to plan for the rabi crop. It was raining so we were unable to see the fields but we talked to several farmers for over two hours. The next day we then went to Bilaspur tank and with the CO Duryodhan and Mr. Patel WUA president visited Kritmal and Kushwabahri villages to meet farmers and see fields. We then returned to Bilaspur city and went to Pondaria town to the Kranti scheme with two ASA training staff and met the CO Dilip Chandra in Verkona village and saw the ASA trainers

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hold a session with farmers. A trip to Amakoni followed where we visited Banjarbara hamlet with the CO Sanjay as the workers were still pouring concrete for the irrigation canals and later to Roda village to see the ASA varietal trials.

This was followed by a six day trip to Baikunthpur and Ambikapur where we met 3 SCOs and 4 COs for a tour of the Geg site together. This interaction between COs is of great value as many have not seen their peers in action and they learned much from seeing the other sites. We visited Kasra and Ogye villages with Ms Manju and Ms Kali to attend farmer meetings to go over field problems in kharif rice as well as plan for the rabi season. We then went to the Amhar tank in Rampur and Shindia villages for more farmer meetings with the CO Prem Narayan. The following day we ventured to Ghunghutta tank arriving at noon in Amhar village of Sonhet town to have a farmer meeting and after lunch moved to Bodhar village with the CO Ashwani Dewangon.

We three then moved to Ambikpur and with the SCO Swain arrived in Kumari village of the Darki tank for a meeting of the WUA with the president and TC members. The next day we went to the Jagganathipur scheme with SCO Swain to meet farmers and see their fields. After returning to Raipur we took a two day trip to Balar tank in Kasdole with the three COs Abha, Sandyia, and Milind Chandrakar. We first visited Pisid village for a farmer meeting and the next day to two more in Chandidh village and lastly in Chhachhi village.

The details of the day to day activities and visits to the CIDP schemes can be found in the Key Informant Interviews (Appendix I).

III. ASA FFS training

Remarkably ASA initiated training at all 25 of these schemes with only a total of nine trainers and three vehicles. Distances between sites meant that there was only time for a few hours at each site and a monthly schedule of visitation. Thus a given scheme would receive training in target villages only 4-5 times a season but as the trainings were ad hoc it is unlikely that the same farmers were trained each time. In Appendix II we see that it takes a month to make one round of the schemes in the Bilaspur region for the training team of three. In each of the three regions there is one vehicle and three trainers. In Bilaspur for example

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the sites of Bilaspur tank and Beherekar are each some 3-4 h from Bilaspur town which is the regional office. If there were to be weekly training this would have required posting COs locally and giving them motorcycles to get around to several clustered sites, with only one trainer conducting the training. The FFS method calls for two trainers to conduct classes for 4 hours each class, once a week for 16 weeks for the rice curriculum but less for rabi crops. It would have been a great feat even if the trainers had years of experience. Instead they were in a situation of being totally unfamiliar with FFS methodology (despite their CVs to the contrary) and many unfamiliar with rice agriculture (despite their CVs to the contrary).

First trainings began in late May followed by a few more in June with more in July. In the desire to serve all 25 schemes with only 9 trainers the FFS method has not been followed and the trainers have resorted to giving lectures to however many farmers were available each day. Some of the training was at night and did even did not take place in the field. In no case did the farmers grow a field of rice as their study plot and there was no attempt to train classes per se but whoever was around when the trainers arrived. In Appendix III we can see that the range of participants in each training session ranged from 7-32 where we designed the number to be the same 25 farmers each week. As a result we see that from 28 May to 15 July all 25 schemes were covered as required by the project. What was achieved by coverage was lost in terms of transfering knowledge to farmers. At best farmers received an orientation to the various topics discussed but did not have any practical time to learn by doing and to absorb the material. Therefore it is expected that they will not adopt much of it.

Lacking by ASA was a vision of what FFS training is all about. We recommended that ASA trainers visit the IFAD project site where ongoing FFS training occurs so that they could visualize the concept. But this did not happen. As trainers only gave lectures there was no time to conduct field trials and related activities such as pot trials to demonstrate concepts. For example to see if there is any benefit compared to untreated seed or to compare different nutrients recommended, fertilizer trials in pot trials would have been conducted by the farmers to see the contribution to the growth of rice by the various elements. Nor were any of the training aides that we developed used. All of these were outlined in the rice FFS curriculum that

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we developed. Being unfamiliar with FFS for all trainers and agriculture in many cases has led ASA to rely on extension methods used by RAEOs today which we know are not effective. Not even demonstration trials were able to be conducted. Another reason for this outcome was the short period of perparation that occurred due to the late mobilization in mid May that did not give ASA enough time to test components of the curriculum and properly select farmers. This last aspect was made impossible in schemes that had no previous CO input.

One result was that for each farmer there was only a lecture about every month that they could have attended thus several large topics were covered in a session such as SRI and fertilizer application, IPM, etc each of these would take more than one session.

Another aspect of FFS training was that farmers were to be trained in groups of five and have ample time to discuss new concepts. In short ASA trainers knew only one way to give agricultural training and they stuck to that rather than to learn new methods.

IV. Plan for Hiring New NGO(s) for Agricultural Training

Now that ASA has left there will be a need to hire a new NGO firm or firms. In this regard Dr. Sahu and I visited the Raipur office of the IFAD-funded Chhattisgarh Tribal Development Programme and requested the names of the NGOs in their program which were trained by PRDIS. PRDIS in turn was trained by FAO which is the center for farmer field school (FFS) programs worldwide thus they are well informed about FFS. There are many training programs which purport to follow FFS. For example the Directorate of Plant Protection in Chhattisgarh says it is conducting FFS training but with further inquiry the trainers lecture farmers in classrooms. Because this is done in a rural setting it is termed FFS. ASA although purporting to know FFS could not even describe it. In essence they lied on their CVs and should have been sacked that moment. We felt however that they could learn it only to be disappointed later to find that the adage you can’t teach an old dog new tricks applies here. I think they actually believed their ad hoc training approach was effective, but of course they would never allow an independent farmer survey be conducted to confirm. They were into the game of counting ‘trained’ farmers. However due to

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recent developments there is now hope to hire NGOs that have been conducting FFS in Chhattsigarh.

We met the officer in charge of the IFAD Tribal Development Program in the Raipur office Mr Anupam Trivedi Deputy Programme Director (tel 9425574927) on 23 Aug who, unfortunately, did not have any first hand experience with the FFS training program but promised to get us the names of the most relevant NGOs by the second week of September. It is curious why he did not know more about FFS but that is another matter.

The story is not over. Ambikapur is in the region covered by the IFAD project. On our trip to there we visited farmers in the Darki scheme and attended a meeting of the TC members chaired by the WUA president. During the meeting it became known to Dr Sahu that trainers from the IFAD project had given a FFS class in Kamari village of Rajpur town! One of the TC members in fact is a paid FFS trainer (called village facilitator). Mr Kameshwar Yadav who has a BA degree is from Silphilly village nearby but is now giving FFS training in Jagima and Tetpara villages. Training is from noon to 2 PM once a week and includes farmers from both villages, 50% of the trainees are always female. Mr Yadav goes to Ambikapur every Thursday for district level debriefing at the NGO office and is paid Rs2000/month but gives only one class a week. The NGO is called the Tribal Development Training Institute (TDTI). Probably the project has hired different NGOs for each district of the project. They even have a curriculum on wheat.

This was great news. We could use this basic model for our training program, in the first years, by first selecting sites for FFS training near to larger towns where the NGO could have an office. This would reduce transport costs of the type that ASA rung up having to service all 25 schemes. As the COs are essentially doing the same type of training ASA was doing at the chak level, we can use the COs to attempt to train all farmers and confine FFS training to only a handful of schemes, the number would be based on what the budget allows. The idea here is to demonstrate the technique and to evaluate if FFS trained classes improve the organization of each chak to meet WUA objectives. A different NGO could be in each town, say beginning with either Ambikapur, Bikunthpur, Raigarh, or Kasdole. All of these require only a short ride of less than an hour to move from town to village. We could also train half female and

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half male farmers. We obtained a copy of the IFAD rice curriculum but we would change the curriculum to coincide more with ours. We would not include SRI for example. We would have two trainers per class and extend the time to 3-4 hours each week and cover more technologies.

The FFS method outlined at the beginning of the project is the most thorough method of educating farmers rather than training them. The distinction between training and education is that you can train a dog to do a trick but the dog is not educated as it cannot react to different circumstances as we want farmers to be able to do. As it was explained that due to the Chhattisgarhi farmers’ minimal education and knowledge the lecture method of instruction is not very effective. Farmers need to learn by doing and as part of this the FFS curriculum is full of activities that are carried out by the farmer groups to achieve this learning process.

We have a mandate to train 200,000 farmers tilling 200,000 ha in 200 irrigation schemes within the framework of the project. The FFS cannot achieve this objective as it requires many more contact hours between trainers and farmers than the resources of the project has at its disposal.

It would be a mistake to totally eliminate the FFS approach from the project however so that what will be proposed is a hybrid of both the FFS approach the traditional farm demonstration approach. The FFS approach is attractive in that groups of farmers in one chak are trained not only to learn of how to implement agricultural technologies but also how to work together as from the many hours of training creates cohesive units of the 25 farmers that make up a class. Experience in places where FFS training has occurred the farmer class which remains intact throughout the three year training period creating the social bonds and trust necessary for solidarity and empowerment that this project aims at. It remains to be seen that trying to organize the WUA across villages can really achieve this. The attraction of FFS is that it has a proven record of achieving these desired outcomes and in addition becomes self replicating and sustainable as part of the FFS method farmers are trained as trainers. This means that after the project is completed the FFS training will carry on.

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In the case of the IFAD project area, we can work in the same villages as the IFAD project only trains 25 farmers in per village and then moves on. CIDP can train the other WUA members in the village. One critical difference exists between our approach and that of IFAD. They do not train farmer trainers emerging from each class thus lack self replicability that our CIDP plan embraces. In our plan one or two farmers from each class will be trained as a trainer to start their own classes. The IFAD project has permanent paid trainers who can be farmers but not a program to train more. After IFAD leaves it would be up to the local NGOs to get funding to continue to employ their trainers. They have few trainers however and we plan to have hundreds in each district. This is a crucial difference. IFAD therefore is under-utilizing their training staff and ability of generating new trainers in each class as is happening in other Asian countries, notably Indonesia.

In summary we are now hopeful that we can have the real FFS training in CIDP. This will mean employing a different strategy of a bottom-up approach of WUA formation by emphasizing first the chak and then amalagamating the chaks to form the WUA. This cannot happen overnight and in fact may take five years to make headway. On the other hand we have no guarantee that the top down approach will achieve functioning WUAs any faster. Both strategies can be pursued at the same time.

V. Plan for Rapid Adoption of Improved Rice Technology

Now that ASA is out and it is patently impossible to have formal training courses such as FFS cover all 200,000 farmers in the life of CIDP, this is a fact we have no control over. Even ASA’s ad hoc method would not even dent this total. Thus we need to revise our strategy as to how to educate all of our target group of farmers on the package of practices for rice. Basically the COs have to fill the role of ASA trainers even after we hire NGOs to introduce FFS. Once the chaks are identified in each scheme the farmers in each chak will become the farmer class.

The process of farm demonstration has been carried out by the COs since we began the on-farm small-plot trials in kharif 2007. These first trials of 36 m2 plots size were instituted to test the technology package under farmer management. These interventions were designed to be as inobtrusive as possible as if the technology were not

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effective the loss to the farmer-cooperator would be small. As a result of the on-farm trials we found out for example that zinc deficiency was widespread and not addressed by the current extension program. This led to great gains for those farmers who learned of it through the efforts of COs different venues and farmer-to-farmer interactions. Our farmer training needs assessment survey showed for example that farmers meet in the village square and talk of their experiences in crop culture including any new methods that they come upon. How widespread this is will not be known until a study is done, probably as someone’s thesis. We also identified the knowledge gaps of farmers which will become the focus of any trainings.

All of the agricultural COs in kharif 2007 gave presentations with farmers outlining our recommended package of practices during the 2007 kharif during their meetings with village groups as well as by Dr. Sahu on his site visits. Often village level farmer meetings are called when we visit each scheme. These range from 1-4 per scheme depending on time and farmer availability. Such meetings invariably turned into a question and answer format which became very popular. These sessions also strengthened the technical knowledge of the COs, and through their cell phone, COs could ask Dr. Sahu technical questions throughout the crop cycle answering farmers queries. So in each of the five sites where the agricultural COs were stationed in 2007 there was a lot of opportunity to expose farmers to new knowledge. COs take the role of an extension agent. Some saw the results of the on-farm trials although we failed in this aspect to reach a wider audience, COs were instructed to hold field days but in no instance was this carried out. As I have said before the problem with this project is implementation and the key here is the motivation of the COs. A number of COs think their role during our visits is to guide us, thus they are busy organizing or making tea rather than being an active receipient of our talks. Their belief is that we are the ones to train the farmers and not them. Our purpose is to show them how to train farmers, not to train them ourselves. This is the role of the CO. It turns out that the COs became very busy with other duties as we awaited the NGO mobilization that would carry this out with greater intensity and focus. Each on farm trial should have led to a field day where the neighboring farmers were invited to see the results and posters would be made giving the results and posted in public places. This was never done.

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In the last mobilization however we instituted a new plan following the team leader’s suggestion to focus on chak mobilization for the farmers to plant early and medium maturing rice varieties and to sow synchronously so that the rabi crop could be planted afterwards during the recommended safe period of crop establishment. This effort focused on working with chaks as the unit of training and consisted of a general meeting of all the villages where they outlined where their chaks were on a map that each made. We visited all five schemes and carried out these meetings with the outcome that the COs were instructed in how to organize such meetings and would go to all the villages and in turn cover all the chaks in each scheme.

In most cases posters were made that gave the characteristics of each variety that would be recommended for the farmers to note. Such posters were left on a central building so that other farmers not attending could see this information. Discussions were held on the correct method for the basal fertilizer application including the correct balance of nutrients, proper dosage, timing, and placement. A chart was developed and given to all COs that could be made into a poster so that each farmer could find his farm size and know how many kg of each type of fertilizer to use on his field. In essence we did the math for them. It was designed that four more similar vilage meetings would take place timed with critical crop stage where the next agricultural interventions were needed. It turns out, however, that these follow up meetings at the village level were made in only some schemes but not others. Possibly this was that ASA had come in but probably most COs just did not call them. Again lack of implementation.

As from our travels to the schemes we came up with the plan that each day each CO must visit two chaks minimum. This means the COs go to the chak site and round up any farmers in the field for an impromptu meeting. The purpose of their visit is both to educate the farmers on the correct rice technologies but also to monitor the fields together and to form solidarity between chak members. Of course on a given day not all farmers will be in the chak so they will be instructed to train other farmers on what they learn each visit. Each chak will be asked to get a bicycle tire which they will use to assess pest densities together and make decisions on pesticide use based on these assessments. The tire will be kept in the home of one of the farmers and

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taken to the field for this activity. The CO will train the farmers on how to use this guide to pesticide application. Farmers will show the CO any problems that have appeared each visit and the CO either diagnoses this or calls Dr Sahu. Farmers therefore will be wanting the CO to visit their chak as the CO is acting as an extension agent in this regard. By visiting each others fields for pest diagnosis and assessment the farmers are acting together and forming closer bonds. They are also educated together. The real purpose however is for the CO to organize the chaks to function as a unit in water management and the CO would mention to the farmers the need to coordinate their activities in terms of water management especially now that the rains are diminishing. Farmers need to be prepared to irrigate and have to know the steps to turn the water both on and off. The agricultural training although needed by the farmers is in fact a vehicle whereby the CO can introduce ideas on communal water management and the role of the WUA in the farm community.

In Amakoni for example Bambara famers we visited noted the new concrete canals that connected their fields to the lateral canals. Some farmers in the low lying fields asked us how they could follow our advice and lower the water levels for urea top dressing that was needed now. Water could be seen rushing through their fields. The farmer had not even thought about shutting the inlet off or to organize a schedule ofor water delivers. Now that water is coming to the fields from the canals, it is time for PIM!

VI. Village Level Seed Production

In the many farmer meetings that Dr Sahu and I attended this trip, he always brings up the topic of local seed production with the farmers. In each meeting he went over the procedure to obtain high quality seed, free of mixtures, weed seeds, and disease. Keen interest was taken of the ASA on-farm trials as the seed that was sown was certified seed obtained from IGAU Seed Production Farm. Those farmer cooperators that grew the 2 kg of seed per variety have the opportunity to produce quality seed to be shared with their neighbors.

In our meetings with the State Government Seed Production Unit in Raipur always supported the idea of farmer seed production as government seed farms cannot meet the demand. Dr Sahu has taken on this project and continually trains farmers in the best practices to obtain high quality seed

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such as roguing twice before harvest to remove wild rice and weeds and to ensure the crop was disease free. Seed quality is one of the lessons in the FFS rice curriculum and those farmers that will be trained in the FFS method will also be taught how to produce certified seed quality seed to sell to neighbors.

VII. Training Aides for COs in Kharif Rice

To support the COs in their being able to train WUA farmers perform the package of practices last mobilization we developed two fertilizer charts, one for DAP, urea, and MOP while a second one was for iffco and urea. These include the main fertilizers that farmers use. Keeping these charts the CO can determine how much each farmer should use for the three applications based on farm size. These are included in Appendix IV and Appendix V. A similar one was made for pesticide usage included in one table are caseworm, gall midge, stemborer, and blast disease. Again the farmer looks for the area of his field and the spray volume is given and the amount of pesticide to dispense in each sprayerload (Appendix VI).

I condensed the Rice Training Curriculum into 28 sheets of paper printed back to back. This handout should be multiplied and given to all COs. Satya will carry this out as he has the master copy. COs need study material that give background information on the project and their duties. In particular I believe COs need a ‘Procedural Manual’ outlining how a CO is expected to function and what are their duties. Currently instructions are verbal either over the phone or in infrequent visits. A number of people are giving orders to COs and sometimes those orders are conflicting. There is not central information exchange to give priority to these messages. The role of the CO needs to be made clear, particularly now that we are greatly expanding their numbers and placing them in sites with little orientation.

On our part we are trying to provide more printed matter. Accordingly Dr. Sahu and I made a condensed version of the rice curriculum stating ‘30 steps’ to successful rice cultivation (Appendix VII). This should form the basis of the training program for the COs to instruct rice farmers on the various key messages.

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Instructions were also given to the COs in how to use the bicycle tire method (an idea from Dr. Sahu) on when to apply insecticide for stemborers and gall midge infestation. Farmers are encouraged to monitor their fields weekly beginning 3 weeks after transplanting to note the incidence of stemborer deadhearts (dead tillers) and gall midge onion leaves (aborted tillers). Farmers toss a used bicycle tire into their field and count the total of deadhearts and onion leaves (Appendix VIII). When an average of 5 gall midge or stemborer damaged tillers were counted within the rubber tire it is time to apply insecticide (Phorate granules). If less than this number then they should not apply and keep sampling each week until flowering stage. The farmer should take samples in three spots in his field and if the total is above 15 then it warrants insecticide. Chak members are encouraged to do this activity together. We are sure that by following this method much of the needless insecticide spraying will be curtailed and farmers will save money and time as well as minimize insecticide exposure to themselves as well as to the rice environment.

Lastly we scanned a leaf color chart provided by Dr Sahu and had the image printed by the color printer (Appendix IX). We laminated 25 sheets in plastic and will give one each to the COs. In this way they can teach the farmers if they have used enough N (yellow green) or too much N (dark green) during the vegetative stage of rice. They just place the chart behind a typical leaf from each field to take the measurement using a scale from 1 to 6. This tool allows farmers to decide on the optimal dosage for his particular field. Too little N is yellow green and too much is dark green

These training aides will help the COs engage farmers. The comment said by some new COs that ‘farmers do not listen to us’ should not be heard. In turn the COs should look over their new training aides and listen to us.

VIII. Rabi Crop Plan

The team leader sent the consultants a memo underscoring the need to develop rabi crop plans for each scheme in a collaborative way with WUAs and chak committees. In the end, WUAs, chak committees, and farmers should "own" the plans, including the package of crop practices developed jointly with specialists.

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As the basic organizational unit of each WUA is the chak, we will request the COs to visit two chaks a day and about mid season in the rice crop initiate discussions with chak members through their chak committee to begin planning for the rabi crop. The main issue will be what crop to plant and what is the latest date to plant the crop. The crop selection will need to take into account how much water will likely be in the tank for use, how many hectares it can irrigate, and how many times will be necessary including the initial irrigation for land preparation and sowing. For example wheat and groundnut take 4-5 irrigations, sunflower 3-4, and chana 2-3. By the end of September, the rainfall that will come in the kharif would be mainly over and this decision could be made as to how many irrigations would be possible for each farmer given the volume of water left in the tank. Knowing how many irrigations are possible for the area of rabi planting then narrows the choice of crops to plant. For example we know now that Balar scheme will have only irrigation for kharif rice. Therefore we are encouraging farmers on heavier (kanhar and dosa) soils to relay crop Lathyrus, field pea, or lentil before rice harvest using improved varieties that Dr Sahu told the COs and farmers in the village meetings where to get them.

Not all of the repair works in the schemes have been complete in the 25 schemes therefore much of the command areas are still rainfed. These rainfed farmers on kanhar and dosa soil will be encouraged to relay crop Lathyrus to secure at least a small crop and to get them conditioned to plant rabi crops each season. Such farmers should purchase high quality seed of varieties recommended by IGAU and are in our package of practices for rabi crops (Appendix X).

The WUA will compile the list of seed and fertilizer requests from the chak committees and determine the seed needs for the entire scheme. Rhizobium culture will be needed for legumes, SSP (single super phosphate fertilizer) as the source of P for oil seeds (supplies sulfur and calcium), a specific strain of Rhizobium nitrogen fixing bacteria for each crop, and gypsum for groundnuts (both sulfur and calcium). There are two forms of gypsum: CaSO4 and MgSO4. The latter is preferred. This information will be passed on to the DoA in a timely fashion either via the RAEO or directly to the block office or DDA district office.

From input from Dr Sahu, the source for the supply of seed should be identified for each scheme and an inventory of the

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varieties available for each crop species will be known as the seed suppliers are mainly the Department of Agriculture and IGAU seed farms.

The main focus this rabi season is to have farmers test as many varieties as are available from the seed suppliers. Varieties will be tested by each farmer on his farm and then the chak members can visit each one to see the performance. Only after several years of doing this will we know which varieties of each of the main rabi crops are the best performers. At that time we can do an economic analysis of the profit that is likely for each crop species and then be able to make better judgement on which ones are the most profitable. Now we may not be testing the best varieties of each crop type and if we narrow the list down too soon we would be making a hasty decision (and perhaps wrong decision) on the crop species farmers should grow if they are after the most profit and greatest stability of yield.

As with the chak activities we are doing in rice, the CO will meet regularly with farmers in each chak to trouble shoot to identify production problems and to discuss the activities associated with the next growth stage of the particular crop as part of farmers’ training. Training therefore will occur in many small doses. It will take COs two years to be properly trained however. So far turn over rates are very high which is not good as it slows our program down. If problems are identified in the field, other chak members will be invited to see the problem and to learn of the recommended practice to counteract the problem. Each problem therefore becomes a ‘learning moment’. In such situations farmers are more open to learning as they want to know how to deal with each particular problem that they see in their field. Nature provides the problems thus the training is not an academic exercise but based on addressing real field problems occuring at each growth stage.

Summary of the rabi plan

1. COs visit two chaks a day to train farmers on rice technology and ask them to plan for the rabi crop in terms of how many irrigations can be given from the tank given how full it is and therefore what rabi crop will be chosen. Each chak will be requested to decide on only one crop.

2. Rainfed farmers where the irrigation system has not been improved yet that are on kanhar and dosa soils

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will be encouraged to rely crop Lathyrus, field pea or lentil.

3. The WUA compiles all of the seed and fertilizer requests (including Rhizobium, SSP, and gypsum for those crops requiring them) from the chak committees planning on growing a rabi crop and gives this plan to the DoA either through the RAEO or DDA in district headquarters

4. Dr Sahu visits the DDA in each district to find out what varieties of high quality seed are available from the DoA and seed farms for the chosen crops as well as Rhizobium seed treatment and special fertilizers such as SSP for oil seeds and gypsum for groundnuts.

5. Farmers purchase seed in a timely fashion and are encouraged to select a number of varieties of the chosen crop between them so they can evaluate more of them

6. Make beds if water logging from rain is expected.7. Farmers ensure field channels are in place and

construct compartments (about 10 m long and 4 m wide) in their fields with shallow bunds to irrigate them one at a time avoiding overwatering or underwatering

8. CO during frequent chak visits goes over the package of practices for the particular rabi crop with the farmers and trains them on the technologies

9. CO makes regular visits to the chaks during the rabi season and trouble shoots

10.Dr Sahu makes regular visits to the schemes to back up the COs on technical problems related to rabi crop production

11.After harvest, the CO organizes a meeting with each village where the farmers in each chak evaluate what varieties were tested to make their assessment of which were the best performers

12.CO helps farmers calculate profit from rabi crop

IX. Rabi Packages of Practices

A package of practices similar to that developed for rice has been developed for the crops that farmers choose to sow (Appendix X). It is to be noted that the packages are still being developed as more site experience will be needed to finalize them. The main source of this information is IGAU’s farmer bulletins that Dr Sahu and I collected in our visits to the campus. These are in Hindi and will be translated to English by Dr Sahu for my input. I wrote them based on the information from the farmers’ bulletins and our experience.

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The packages will follow the crop growth in terms of when each technology will be conducted so that in the chak meetings those technologies for the next growth stage would be discussed so that farmers can carry them out successfully. The success of this method will be how many farmers will attend the chak meetings and how much information they will share with farmers who do not attend. This is why it is best if a poster is made for each growth stage so that the technologies can be read by farmers who did not attend the meetings. The posters would be placed in areas where farmers frequent in the village. We made a fertilizer chart for the five most important rabi crops that eliminates the need for math calculations (Appendix XI).

X. Conclusions

What has become apparent in Package B of CIDP is that the consultants have a good idea of what the objectives and the strategies should be to achieve our objectives of supporting the development of strong WUAs to manage their own irrigation system and organizing the delivery of water to its members. Included also is a training program to instill the farmers with the latest scientific farming knowledge for irrigated rice and irrigated rabi crops with the result of expanding the number of farmers to plant a rabi crop whereas few do now. This development hinges on the WRD’s ability to rehabilitate the irrigation schemes into the former good working order and farmers designing and constructing their own field channels to do away with the troublesome field to field irrigation that is common in Chhattisgarh.

Accordingly we have hired COs, and now Senior COs, and an NGO to carry out the plans that have been elucidated in numerous reports. It is clear that the group of consultants that have been hired to shepard the project along are competent and have a vision of how this is to be done. What has been lacking in my opinion is the implementation of these ideas. The implementers are those stationed in the schemes as only they by living in close proximity with the target farmers can execute the planned activities of the consultants. The consultants are constrained as few are with the project on a continuous basis. Thus before we leave we issue instructions to the site-based staff.

Time and again however it is noticed that most of our instructions have not been acted upon thus critically delaying the project. More of these instructions should be

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in writing and eventually (sooner than later) the consultants need to write up a Procedual Manual for COs.

XI. List of Appendices

Appendix I. Key Informant Interviews giving a chronological accounting of all meetings with technical agriculturalists as well as WUA organizations and farmers, Aug-Sep 2008.

Appendix II. Tentative ASA Field Training Plan of the Bilaspur Regional Agri Team NGO Package for August,2008

Appendix III. Details of training conducted under Agriculture Support Services by ASA

Appendix IV. DAP and urea fertilizer calibration chart for rice

Appendix V. Iffco fertilizer calibration chart for rice

Appendix VI. Pesticide calibration chart for rice

Appendix VII. 30 Steps to Successful Rice Cultivation

Appendix VIII. The Bicycle Tire Method of Pest Sampling

Appendix IX. The Bicycle Tire Method of Pest Sampling

Appendix X. Package of practices for rabi crops

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Appendix I. Key Informant Interviews giving a chronological accounting of all meetings with technical agriculturalists as well as WUA organizations and farmers, Aug-Sep 2008.

14 Aug I met Yogesh, ASA team leader at the ASA headquarters in Raipur with Dr. Sahu

We discussed the progress of the training program and made plans for site visits. There will be visits to Bilaspur region in the week of Aug 18, to Raipur sites the week of Aug 25 and to Geg and Ambikapur the week of Sep 1 and to Balar the final days.

Yogesh showed us the training schedule for Raipur which showed how frequently each site was to have trainings and what topics were discussed at each training. Rains have been delayed which has benefitted the training program as it gave them more time to prepare the curriculum. Most sites have normal rainfall however. The trainers need to try to match the technical topics to the growth stage of the crop at hand.

The training teams from the region first visited the sites in May and June and met the WUA president and held a meeting with farmers to give them an outline of the goals of CIDP and the role the training program had in achieving those goals. Farmers were asked if they wanted the training and what time of the day that they would be available. It soon became apparent that only in the late afternoon could the trainings occur in the kharif season. This was due to the fact that in most sites it is the farmers who are the laborers for the dam and canal repairs under the government NREGA program. Even though it was to be only in the dry and hot seasons in some sites such as Amakoni work was extended into the kharif season but this was an exception. The training topics were:

Lesson 1 JuneImportance of quality seed, seed treatment, new rice varieties and their characteristics, early fertilizer application

Lesson 2 JulySRI method using hybrids, weed control, early insect control, top dressing of fertilizer

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Lesson 3 AugIntegrated nutrient management, water management, integrated pest management, & improved biasi

In Raipur trainings are being undertaken in five sites (Makatola, Khadawa, Pakhanjore, Bhansagar, and Neota). The last two sites are some in Bastar. Training is undertaking irrigated as well as rainfed farming with improved biasi in the later case.

COs in some sites help organize the farmers for the training sessions but mostly the ASA trainers are working on their own schedule. It was difficult to get farmers to attend as they have field work, the smallest farmers not only in their own field but as hired laborers of others. They need to work long days to achieve this end. Larger farmers who hire out may be able to meet in the mornings as they do not work but many are hesitant to enter the field due to social stigma.

No training aids were developed by ASA and the trainers just lecture somewhere in the target villages in the late afternoon or even after dark. The term seed treatment is termed ‘vaccination’ so that the farmers are more familiar with this concept. They demonstrated the method of seed treatment with a fungicide as well as showed farmers how to use the salt technique to remove small seeds from their planting material. They even purchased Bavistin fungicide and distributed it to farmers.

Other times they meet farmers in the field and give on-the-spot trainings there such as plant spacing. Attendance is taken and normally some 8-60 farmers attend with about 25 as average. Attendance is ad hoc so that the same farmers are rarely taught technologies spanning the entire growing season as they only will attend one session per season. Farmers are told to share their information with their neighbors that did not attend. This is a great idea but farmer-to-farmer seldom works in practice.

In Raipur region there are variety trials in Amakoni (2 villages) and Balar (3 villages) schemes. The best working WUA in Raipur is in Amakoni.

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.14 Aug with Dr Sahu to IGAU to get technical bulletins on rabi crops

We met with three breeders of pulse crops, oil seeds, and tubers and learned that safflower is a new crop to Chhattisgarh and is resistant to monkeys and cattle grazing a distinct advantage in sites with this problem such as Bilaspur tank. Soybeans need 5-6 irrigations and is a kharif crop so will not be included in our rabi curriculum. We learned of some tuber crops such as elephant’s foot and sweet potato. Elephant’s foot we saw in Amakoni with some farmers who cultivate it. IGAU has improved varieties. Also sweet potato has early maturing varieties such as Sakarand-2 of 90 d and is carotene rich (vitamin A). Saharad-1 and Indra Madhur are 120 day varieties. Sweet potato produces a large amount of calories per acre and is good for food security and can grow on matasi soils.

18 Aug 1 PM Bilaspur ASA Training Headquarters with Pankaj Sharma trainer with Dr. Sahu

Pankaj explained how the training course was being carried out for the Bilaspur region encompassing six schemes (Beherakhar, Kranti, Pondiguma, Bilaspur, Charbhata, and Ganiyari). From Bilaspur it takes 6 h drive to reach Beherakhar while 3 h to Kranti, 1 h to Pondiguma, and 4 h to the other three tanks. Clearly the training program is very expensive due to the time and money required to make such long trips from a regional training office. Charbhata and Ganiyari are close together so the trainers can stay at the sites rather than returning to Bilaspur. Significantly it was found that few farmers could attend meetings in the mornings so that only one training could be conducted each day. In each tank three villages were chosen so the trainers stayed at each site in local guesthouses over the stay.

Early in the rice season at times the trainers approached groups of farmers such as transplanting gangs of mostly females to give on-the-spot training showing them how to transplant the correct way (so the roots are pushed into the soil below the ground rather than pushed up from the resistance provided by the soil, thus taking 7-10 days for the seedlings to

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recover) in terms of number of seedlings per hill and proper spacing between hills.

In sites where there are COs the farmers are assembled around 3 PM for the training. Numbers varied each time as did the same farmers are not necessarily trained each time. Where COs were not present the numbers attending are fewer.

Although the trainings were called farmer field school the method followed was far from the prescribed method outlined in the plans. The reason that the trainers could not follow the FFS method was that there were not enough trainers to undertake the more intensive weekly trainings over 16 weeks for the rice course and the need to cover all 25 schemes with only 9 trainers and 3 vehicles. Under those conditions ASA did the best they could and I do not fault them for that.

The ASA trainers were introduced to the villages by the WUA president and there was an introductory meeting to explain the training course to the farmers. After than the trainers conducted a short PRA exercise mapping the fields in each tank as to whether the crops were biasi or transplanted. Training was provided for both rice cultures. Biasi is rainfed while transplanting connotes that farmers were receiving irrigation. The improved biasi training includes the farmers sowing more seedlings in one corner of the field that can be used to increase stand during gap filling after the intensive biasi tillage that rips out weeds but also rice. WRD undertook repairs to the tanks/canals in all 25 systems in the 2007 rabi season so at least some farmers in each scheme would have been converted from rainfed to irrigated rice. In some sites it will take three seasons to make the necessary repairs. The objective of the project is of course to convert all farmers in the command area to irrigated farmers.

ASA purchased seed from three varieties new to most villages in the project from IGAU seed production unit which has high quality seed. These were Shivam (from Hazaribad in Bihar), Samleswari, Chandra Hasani, and MTU1010. The last variety is well known to most rice farmers in Chhattisgarh. These are all early or medium duration which fits into our program of having the farmers switch to this maturity class so that they

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could have a timely planting of rabi crops. There were two types of variety trials, the so-called ‘mother trial’ where a farmer planted all four varieties side by side and a ‘baby trial’ where the farmer only planted one of the varieties. It turned out that in some sites in the mother trial that the farmer cooperators planted them far apart and not together as ASA did not have time to follow up on instructions.

3PM Pankaj Sharmam Dr. Sahu and I went to Pondiguma scheme to Bilah block and then to meet the CO Ms Geeta Gohiya in her house in Hathani village.

We learned that the area now is 120 ha irrigated and 523 ha rainfed for a total of 643 ha. The tank is now full having just filled after heavy rains the past week or so. The site appears to be in a high rainfall area whereas in Kranti just an hour to the north has had much less rainfall. We went over the PRA maps that were completed by the CO and ASA trainers during the training course preparations. Geeta was unsure as to how much repair work was undertaken in the rabi season on the system and which farmers benefitted this kharif. She has a sociology background.

We wanted to visit a site of the variety trials but the paths were too inundated to negotiate. There is a total of 74 trials (farmers) with 9 having the mother trial. We instructed Geeta on how to take the data as she is the only person that can do that now as the ASA trainers will leave the site (by 6 Sep). They are now writing up their final reports and getting ready to move. However they are continuing with the training programs that were scheduled. As can been seen (Table 1) that there is a planned one-week break between 12 Aug to 21 Aug in anticipation of the holiday period.

The RAEO for Pondiguma has his office in Bilsapur and has been present for a few of the trainings but apparently stayed in the background. Pankaj said that the RAEO approved of the trainings.

Geeta got three farmers to come to talk to us. All of the farmers that conducted the variety trials had irrigation. Many have tube wells so that even though most are rainfed farmers now that 74 farmers with irrigation were identified.

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We got a sketch of the local rice culture and farmer knowledge from the 2 h interview conducted by Dr. Sahu and myself. Most just finished transplanting although they said that the delay of one month from normal will result in lower than normal yields. They also said that they do not go to the Government Society to purchase seed and inputs as it is too far away. In fact they have not purchased new seed in over 7-8 years and have been recovering their own seeds each season with the result of more mixtures and noticeably lower yields as a result. Therefore they welcomed the new varieties as a way of getting pure and disease and weed free seed. They want to get better quality seed but their experience with the Society is that the seed is late and often out of stock. Thus they purchase fertilizer from local shops and pay cash. The soil is mostly kanhar or heavy clay and as a result plant rabi crops to some extent with the most common being wheat, lathyrus, and summer rice. The prevailing variety is Swarna (a long maturing variety that has been around for decades and is very robust and high yielding), thus limiting the scope for rabi crops. Farmers can still grow sunflower sown after a long maturing variety although it will take more irrigation water in the rice season. Yields of Swarna average 22 bags/acre (75 kg per bag) or about 4 t/ha (double the state average probably from the better soil). It will be a difficult job for Geeta to get them to change to shorter maturing types. The variety trials however should produce some candidates that will compare in yield to Swarna. But according to Dr Sahu no variety can beat Swarna in yield as it can recover from problems better due to the longer growth period. Therefore taking the yield data from the farmer will be important.

The farmers we interviewed had many questions for Dr. Sahu and we learned that they do not soil incorporate P and K but do know that young seedlings allow for greater tillering than older ones. As with most farmers in Chhattisgarh from our experience, attention soon shifted on what chemicals to use for pest control. They mentioned stemborer, caseworm and brown planthopper as problems. Gall midge used to be important but only infrequently occurs nowadays. This was the result of resistant varieties released by IGAU and Dr. Sahu such as Mahamaya.

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The farmers appreciated the training course although they will only receive about 4-5 trainings in the rice season. They said they did learn something and will pass the information on to other farmers who did not attend.

19 Aug Dr Sahu and I arrived 1 PM from Bilaspur to Bilaspur tank in Raigarh to meet with Duryodhan and Mr. Patel WUA president

Discussions were held in the CO’s house with the WUA president. We learned that ASA has training in Kritmal, Kushwabahri, Bhupdevpur villages. They insist that training can only be done in the late afternoon or evening as farmers are not present. It thus is very expensive training to travel such a distance and give trainings to only a handful of farmers each day. They stay in expensive hotels and have a per diem of up to Rs600 for the hotel and Rs 200/d for food and incidentals. The government per diem is Rs120/d for food and incidentals and the cost of the government guesthouse.

On our last trip to the sites we met with farmers in the village and made a map of the chaks and advised them to plant medium or early maturing varieties synchronously to be more efficient in irrigation delivery and leave sufficient time for a rabi crop. At the time the CO gave technical information related to early crop management and then advised the COs to conduct similar meetings at four other critical stages in the crop’s growth period until harvest advising on the needed timely cultural practices. Duryodhan told us that he had conducted the second meeting with the farmers but instead of meeting with farmers in villages he meets them in their chaks. His program is to visit 2-3 chaks each day and he goes to the field to the area of each chak and seeks out farmers working in their fields. He then invites them to gather and they have a discussion on current technical problems farmers have found as well as going over the next critical cultural practices for the crop. This would seem to be a very effective method that would combine PIM and agricultural training needs. There are 21 chaks in Bilaspur tank so each chak has a meeting every two weeks. In my opinion this is a more effective training

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method than we saw for ASA which is much more expensive and has similar coverage. If all the COs followed this visitation schedule we would achieve the same objectives as the NGO and we can save money by cancelling the NGO program. If we cannot get a NGO that has better training skills and methodology we might as well save their budget and focus on COs only. Duryodhan has been meeting with farmers for over a year now in four of the seven scheme villages. This year he expanded to include 6 of the 7 villages as the seventh have their own tubewells and are not interested in the project. The current topic of the meetings is the first top dressing. We gave him a fertilizer chart which gives the dosages of NPK in bags of product for each field size. The CO goes over this chart with the farmers to ensure they have the recommended dosage. I therefore recommend that we give the COs the training materials that we gave ASA trainers so they can study our recommendations in more detail.

This year the rains have been delayed a month and discussions with farmers revealed that in 10 years, only three are normal with the others having delays in the rainy season from two weeks to over a month. In this situation the farmers would be better off direct seeding with pre-germinated seeds (so called wet-seeded rice or lehi). This season farmers started their nurseries and then the rains failed so that many are planting seedlings 45 days old. This will result in a 50% loss of yield! The farmers who are successful have their own source of water from bore holes who can supplement the lack of rainfall and plant early. This is the ideal situation because WRD will not release water early as the tanks are empty in such years as this year no matter how organized the WUA becomes. So this year we have more area that can receive irrigation water due to the R&U activities but with the lack of rains there still have been delays in transplanting. The best option for those who do not have bore holes is to direct seed. To do so they will need to learn how to apply herbicides. It is also known that the weed problem will get worse and worse by continuous direct seeding so to overcome this the farmers should transplant in years where heavy rains came early, say 1-2 times a decade to slow down the evolution to a higher expected weed problem. On a single rice crop the weeds may not worsen but this needs to be seen.

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ASA set up variety trials in two villages Kritmal and Kushwabahri where in each two mother trials and 12 baby trials were established in each one. We visited these trials in Kushwabahri and found some problems with the seeds that ASA got from IGAU. In some instances the seeds were not clean and in the field trials Chandrahasani which is supposed to be resistant to gall midge was found to be infested in the field. It is known that a different biotype occurs in Ambikapur than in Raipur so when they screen they only screen for the Raipur biotype. It remains to be seen if Chandrahasani is only mildly susceptible or highly susceptible. We also saw a field of HMT next to the trials and Dr Sahu remarked that it is slow to green up after N application in a week will become greener. HMT means Hindustani Machinery Technologies a former government industry but no one knows where the variety came from as there are no breeder seeds. It is actually the same rice variety as Sonam Mashuri another very popular type. After visiting the field we went to the dam site and saw that the reservoir is overflowing as the Raigarh area has had heavy rains for over two weeks now. There is flooding damage in some fields from deep water and water coursing through the fields.

Duryodanh took the WUA president to the Dept of Agriculture office in Raigarh where they met an ADO and after that they went to the KVK where they met the project coordinator. Now the president knows what these agencies do and the KVK offered training to Bilaspur tank farmers. I asked Mr. Patel what he thought about the new lower interest rate for agricultural loans offered by societies. He had no emotion as he always pays in cash! Rich farmers therefore do not avail of loans.

ASA trains on SRI and improved biasi in its sites. We told ASA not to train on SRI until next year but they have gone ahead and introduced it even in rainfed areas!. SRI requires level fields, high labor inputs, and absolute control of irrigation to perform well. Risks are way too high in rainfed for this type of crop culture. Improved biasi is simply asking the farmers to establish a seedbed in the corner of their fields so after the biasi field operation they can fill the gaps between hills to give a higher plant density. Biasi is

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rainfed rice culture and gets low yields from low plant populations and subsequent tiller densities.

There are two sources of seed for farmers in Bilaspur tank. They can avail of the varieties in the DOA seed production section in Raigarh (Beejbnagon Boirdagar) or go to a seed farm at the IGAU regional station where Dr. D.J. Pophaly former Associate Director of the KVK program and rice entomologist is the head of the station. It is important that farmers secure their seed for the rabi cropping season from good sources and soon as early planning is needed. Now that the NGO is leaving we have no budget for the project to purchase seed for variety trials. Therefore the farmers will have to purchase seed from nearby sources. It is recommended that groups of farmers purchase rabi crop varieties and each one choose a different variety as it is not known which ones are better than others. Our variety trial will be all of the farmers sowing each type.

20 Aug 9AM revisited the Bilaspur tank site and held more discussions with the CO. Left at 2PM for Bilaspur

21 Aug 1:30PM arrived in Pondaria and Kranti scheme with two ASA training staff and met the CO Dilip Chandra.

Kranti tank is now only 4 feet deep with water with a capacity of 16 feet. The area is clearly suffering from lack of rain. Canals have been repaired over the rabi season however.

We first stopped at a farmer cooperator’s field (Bishnu Singh) in Verkona village to see an ASA variety trial which looked very good but perhaps the farmer had applied too much N as the leaves were very green. He had a tube well so the water control was excellent. We asked the ASA trainers if they had a leaf color chart that we gave them in their information packet in a CD and they said they did not have one. In fact they have no training aids made from the files in the information packet that included a CD. They basically are doing what they did in their last project! We told them not to do what they had done before but we were talking to deaf ears. They clearly had not gone over the rice curriculum I gave several copies in CD format as they could have printed some to give to the trainers. They

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were to develop training materials for each lesson to be given. Their method was twofold. If a meeting schedule could be arranged they met the farmers in the village and delivered a lecture going over several large topics such as integrated nutrient management, seed treatment, pest control. During the lecture the second trainer would ask farmers to review what they had just learned by asking them to state the information in their own words. This is a very effective method and should be adopted in future training programs and by the COs in their chak meetings with farmers so that they can know what farmers are actually assimilating from the sessions. The second method which probably happened in sites without COs and when a meeting was not scheduled was to go to the field and see groups of farmers undertaking field operations. Photos were shown of ASA trainers in the field with lady transplanters showing them the proper way to transplant.

Across the road from the farmer cooperator were two fields. The first field had a good stand on the far end but the near end had sparsely distributed rice hills. It was obvious from the cut tops of some of the hills that the field was planted late as the varieties were tall. The tops were cut to stimulate tillering and to remove leaves that would droop into the water. The near area perhaps became flooded at an early stage and thus the sparse stands or the water was too deep. The farmer was not around to explain. The field was ponded.

Next to this field was one which had also been transplanted but there was no standing water. The farmer had access to water from the canal but due to the lack of rain no water was flowing. The crop was beginning to be drought stressed and Cercospora leaf spot was highly evident which was not seen in other fields with standing water. Without standing water the difference between daytime and nighttime temperatures was more extreme thus dew would have formed in the drought stressed fields to allow the fungus the right microclimate for the spores to germinate and to enter the plants.

By this time we had attracted a crowd of farmers and one told us his field located just down the road was suffering from an insect problem. We went to his field

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and saw the problem which was a combination of blast and bacterial blight. He had sprayed an insecticide however to no avail. The crop was less than a month old and was attacked only on the corner of the field near dwellings. One of the dwellings housed cattle and what had happened was that during the rains the manure had drained into the rice field making the crop hyper-susceptible to both diseases. We told ASA to deliver their training on the spot as we had attracted some 20 farmers by this time. Both trainers gave a talk and explained that the problem was from the manure but then expanded to include seed treatment land preparation, transplanting method. All of these topics are too late as the crop is in the field. A lot of questions from farmers came from ASA explaining how to hold seedlings to transplant. Hunks of grass yanked from the ground was used to explain by showing them how to hold the seedlings. Farmers were incredulent. There were no training aids, posters, or farmer leaflet to allow farmers to study the information. Farmers initially did not believe that Swarna could easily tolerate the fungal infection until Dr Sahu explained it telling the farmer that since the variety was Swarna it would outgrow the problem and the farmer in the future should block the flow of manure into the field and hold off the basal urea application to that corner of the field. The trainers were able to get the farmers to recognize blast and BLB symptoms from the plants in the field. There was no need to spray at this time but if the farmer wanted to he should spray a fungicide such as Hinosan as blast was more prevalent than BLB. Thus this was a learning opportunity and COs should follow this example to teach farmers scientific farming. During the ASA training the CO was gathering the signatures of all of the farmers. How much he learned as a consequence is hard to know as he was not focused on the discussion. This same outcome happened with Ms Geeta who was more concerned with serving us tea than listening to what we were saying. We were there to train her but she was there to serve us tea and had to leave the room constantly as a result! The ASA training method is ad hoc with only monthly trainings and not the same farmers each time.

After that training ASA was done so we went back to the PWD Guesthouse to secure our lodging only to find out that only one room was available. At that point we

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decided to cut the trip short and return to Raipur directly so that the ASA trainers could have the room and deliver their training to other villages in the next two days. The trainers were prepared to drive to Kwarda to stay in a good hotel however. Greater than one hour distance.

23 Aug Sat Visited the IFAD funded Tribal Development Project in Raipur

The Deputy Director unfortunately did not know the activities of FFS in detail except to say that they train farmers as trainers as we wish also to do. He would look up the names of the best NGOs that have FFS experience in their program. They now have run 62 FFSs that trained 1200 farmers in 3 districts. That averages 20 farmers per class. These NGOs will now have had 4-5 years experience running FFS trainings which is fine for us.

25 Aug Mon travelled with Dr Sahu and Mr Tulsi to Amakoni arriving 12:30PM with Sanjay the CO

There were complaints of farmers that the NREGA program was taking away laborers for weeding. It turned out that they are still pouring concrete for making lateral canals in the irrigation system and working into the rainy season to do it. Laborers who have 100 days credit to work on the program get Rs72/day, more than they make as casual laborers for hire.

The Chief Minister just made a program to provide rice for the poor of Chhattisgarh at Rs3/kg for 35 kg/family per month. This is now being extended to cover a subsidized price for pulses. There are elections later this year and the politicians are falling all over themselves to give subsidies to farmers (voters). What they really need are jobs. India cannot afford a welfare state.

Sanjay reported that 60% of Amakoni farmers now purchase certified seed for the rice crop, a great increase over years past. The Amakoni farmers followed procedures and made their request to the DoA ahead of the wet season but the Society in which they get their seed serves over 30 villages and sent in only the

33

Amakoni request. Thus the seed had to be shared with all 30 villages not just Amakoni!

Sanjay works in three villages (Amakoni, Roda, Kumaria) where there are 4 chaks each so he has a total of only 12 chaks. We told him to visit two a day and continue to drive home the package of practices to farmers as well as supporting farmer organizations such as chak committees. Now the chak committees are informal. In Banjarbara we saw the laborers finishing up lining lateral canals with concrete and one of the outlets was open pouring water into the farmers’ rice fields. We were told by one farmer to come and see his field. We walked down to the bottom of the irrigated rice lands to the lowest lying field and water was rapidly flowing through his field. He was asking how he could lower the water level to apply the topdressing of urea. Clearly this is now the time to organize the chak committees to regulate the delivery schedule of water. Farmers were wasting water as there was no control. They just opened the channel up and let the water rush through. There needs to be a drainage canal to let the water out rather than flushing the bottom land fields. Farmers now have an issue to pursue through the chak committee. We told Sanjay to work on this need to get the chak committees to function now that the irrigation water is flowing. They need to save water for the rabi season and stop wasting it. One farmer even showed us plant samples of foot rot fungal disease that had been ponded with too deep water of 1 foot depth. Some 5 acres were affected.

We saw the ASA variety trials and the fields of the farmers in Roda that had ordered seed from IGAU. They gave seed to 28 farmers in two villages. There are six varieties MTU 1001, Chandrahasani, Samleswari, Karamasuri as well as two from Bihar Siva and Hazari. We always insisted that they should not bring in varieties from outside of the state as IGAU would object but they went ahead anyway. They also recommended rice farmers use a hormone spray nitrobenzene 20% which on the label of the product is for vegetables not rice. Anyway there is no evidence that any of these hormones is of any benefit. All have been tested at IRRI with that result. We told a farmer who had purchased a bottle to return it.

34

We saw a newspaper clipping that Sanjay had saved that during the period of the one month drought that farmers worshipped a god Yagya to bring the rain. They burned ghee, rice, black gram and herbs in a large vat. The rains did come.

There were two fields where one was Swarna which had blast and Chandrahasani one of the new varieties which had less. We told Sanjay to use this example to drive home the concept of plant resistance as one variety clearly had less incidence. By visiting two chaks per day Sanjay will come across more of these ‘teaching moments’ where he can use a field situation to drive home the concepts that we want farmers to know. Aside from blast we saw stemborer and gall midge damage. Caseworm this year is much less as there was a lack of rain for a month between June and July.

Another teaching moment came later where Mahamaya had blast but the farmer had not used K. So we told him next time to use K as a balanced fertilizer and the K would give the crop more strength to tolerate pests.

We met two ASA trainers who had come to Amakoni to give a training. Sanjay had never attended any of their sessions as they were in the evening. The one today was scheduled to begin at 7PM. ASA had to give trainings after the work day as most of the farmers are laborers for the NREGA program and are making canals. In the future years farmers can have trainings during the day. If they can spare time for NREGA work they can spare the same time to attend FFS training.

We came across four people weeding in their field. Both Cyperus iria and Ludwigia weeds were mature and growing above the rice canopy, clearly the farmers were late in their weeding. This was noticed throughout the site. These were the owners who said they could not hire weeders as they were working with NREGA and had to weed on their own and were late as they had 4 acres of rice to weed.

Also commonly seen were fields where there were patches of dark green and light green due to the uneven spread of fertilizer. Farmers apply by hand and many lack skills to apply it evenly. They should divide their fields up and then divide the fertilizer into an equal

35

number of portions and apply each portion to a specific area to overcome this problem.

It became apparent with gall midge and stemborer that farmers need to learn how to quantify the infestation level. It is not enough to just find these pests in the field but their damage must be estimated in order for farmers to decide if control is warranted. We had trained the COs to use a 0.5 m2 wire frame for this purpose but Sanjay was not teaching the farmers to use it. Dr Sahu suggested that farmers use an old bicycle tire and keep it in a tree in the field to be used by the farmers in the chak. That would give the chak farmers a common activity that they can do together. The CO should take the farmers around to each others fields and make this assessment. Sanjay now meets with each chak at least every two weeks.

We also introduced a teaching tool to Sanjay saying that after the teaching moments that he ask each farmer to repeat what he had said. This will increase the learning process and make the conversation two way rather than one way.

Aug 26 Tues 10:30AM Dr Sahu, Mr Nandi and I leave for Bikunthpur arrive 6:30PM

Aug 27 Met with 3 SCOs and 4 COs in hotel for planning and orientation meeting 1PM meeting in Kasra village organized by Ms Manju and Ms Kali

Aswini Kumar is SCO of Gej One CO is in Ghunghota in Koryia dist, another Prem Narayan is in Amhar next to the Gej scheme. One SCO Akshaya Kumar Swain is stationed in Darki but will supervise Jagannathpur and Banki as well. Panjak Mishra SCO has no assignment.

None of the SCOs have motorcycles or their own transport. As Manju has only one scooter getting the SCOs around has been difficult. Culturally it is not good if Manju is having a male as a passenger. This has limited the scope of training for the SCOs. Prem has a bicycle and lives in the village.

In the organizational meeting we stressed that now is the time to organize chak committees around the topic

36

of water management for rice and rabi crops. COs should visit 2 chaks per day on a regular schedule.

The Gej tank is 95% full but has not initiated irrigation yet as the crops are doing well rainfed. The canal work has been completed on the main canals and only some more work will be done next rabi season on the lateral canals.

ASA has set up 3 mother trials and 8 baby trials in Gej. ASA training now has stopped.

30 farmers met with us in Kasra village in a town meeting hall. Dr Sahu occupied most of the program of going over the package of practices. He trained Manju on the leaf color chart who in turn trained a farmer by asking him to explain how it works. We were able to get across the concept of using too much N and that a medium level of green is desired in rice leaves not a dark green. We are now being more proactive in our farmer sessions but giving them quizzes and asking them to repeat what Dr Sahu has said. This will strengthen the learning process that is needed. Farmers minimally need to learn some 30 concepts on how to grow a good crop of rice and the chak visits need to reinforce these concepts. We need to make posters to reinforce them as well. The bicycle tire sampling method needs to be followed in the chaks by farmers going to each others’ fields with the CO and sharing the tire sampler between them. They can keep it in a tree in the chak for all farmers to use. We saw damage from stemborers, leaffolder, caseworm (chitri banki) and termites (no roots in rainfed field with sandy soils). We gave a short quiz to farmers at the end of the meeting. We need to make posters to place on the wall after such sessions so farmers can read it later.

We went to the fields to see overuse of N as the leaf color was deep green. A field where all of it was attacked by blast was shown. The seed came from UP so they did not know the variety.

4PM we went to Oyuge village for a meeting with some 20 farmers including the WUA president

After a discussion of the package of practices technologies by Dr Sahu we had a session where Manju

37

demonstrated the leaf color chart. Dr Shau stressed the use of potassium to improve pest resistance. We fielded questions by the farmers who were very interested in hearing about rice technology.

Afterwards we took a ride to see a group of fields which were not growing well. One field had blast but it was not severe, however some half dozen fields were severely nutrient deficient. One showing classical N deficiency while 2-3 others showed soil problems which could be iron toxicity. All of these fields were in very light Matasi soils. It turned out that these farmers had applied neither inorganic fertilizers nor FYM. The farmers obviously had not been that attentive to anything said in chak meetings!

After this we met with the SCOs over snacks and had a long discussion. Aside from not having any transportation Mr Akshaya stated that when he went into the WRD office in Ambikapur that an assistant engineer was very rude to him saying how dare he come in his office without permission. This is very disturbing to say the least. When we go to Ambikapur we will talk to WRD about this. (We eventually went to his office but he was at home before 6PM and refused to meet with us).

Aug 28 Thurs 10 AM COs (Aswini, Panjak, Manju, Kali) met at hotel for short discussion before field visit to Amhar tank for the day beginning noon

We visited Rampur village in Amhar tank with Prem the resident CO. WRD work has stopped but many improvements have been made and the tank is full. Plans for the rabi crop include wheat and maize. With the improvements half of the 800 ha command area could be planted in the rabi season. For other areas the canal is too low to irrigate but a pump could lift the water to serve these areas. In the farmer meeting some 35 farmers attended and discussion led off by Mr Nandi with Dr Sahu taking the bulk to time answering questions from the farmers. Farmers showed their enthusiasm for the discussion by some going out and bringing in others. It became a packed house. Dr Sahu spent 2 h going over rice culture and fielding questions. In the end some 10 farmers signed up to be seed producers. One brought a sample of rice with BLB and this was shown to other farmers and contrasted with blast as a problem. Planthoppers are a

38

problem but mostly on traditional long maturing varieties. At the end of the farmer meeting Prem even handed out leaflets he got from the DoA! That showed ingenuity and desire from a CO. We then went to see a number of fields, splitting up into two groups. Farmers showed us fields with nutrient deficiencies and from the stated fertilizer level that was applied it was noted that the dosage was almost adequate as 56N 32P 12K were given. The soils were matasi and needed FYM however which was the problem we saw. Some leaffolder and caseworm were present as was some blast but aside from nutrient deficiencies the only other problems noted were varietal mixtures in some fields.

2PM After taking lunch nearby we met in Schindia village of Amhar for another meeting.

The same format was followed and we met in a room of the Panchayat with 40 farmers. Farmers told of their problems and one said that no matter what he did he had too many weeds. He said he weeded before they set seed but still did not know what to do. We need to introduce herbicides for some of these problems as no farmer uses them. Weeds come from rice seed, irrigation water, FYM, the seed bank in the ricefield soil, and the bunds. Some 10 farmers also signed up to be seed producers. A farmer brought in a sample of rice blast which was passed around.

We then visited the fields. Most were well weeded but others had Cyperus iria as the dominant weed followed by some Ludwigia and Echinochloa in lesser densities. Nutrient deficiency was not as apparent here as in other sites.

Returned to Baikunthpur for follow-up meeting with COs before dinner

Fri Aug 29 10AM met with COs at hotel. A farmer from Kasra brought a rice plant with a symptom of nutrient deficiency and we gave recommendations and 11AM we all drove to Ghunghutta tank arriving at noon in Amhar village of Sonhet town in to meet the CO Ashwani Dewangon. The site is located in the hills reminiscent of Beherakhar.

Some 30 farmers came to the meeting held under a mango tree by the side of the road. The tank serves 520

39

farmers and 680 command area. There are 8 villages and 6 chaks. The tank is now only 50% full so less rain fell here than in Geg. The team of COs Manju, Kali, Prem and SCOs Pankaj and Aswini along with Mr Nandi and Dr. Sahu presided in the farmer meeting.

Farmers gave some plant samples for diagnosis. The first was termite damage and we recommended Lindane powder incorporated into the soil only along the border with the rice bunds. Another sample was stemborer. Gall midge is also present but planthoppers are rare.

Farmers grow a rabi crop dominantly of wheat. They sow WH147 variety and broadcast the seed and flood irrigate without compartments. They incorporate inorganic fertilizer into the soil at land preparation. They use FYM on rice at 2 carts/acre. Their yield is about 3 q per acre.

The farmers thought Dr Sahu was a medical doctor and quickly drafted a handwritten letter requesting free drugs. The public health worker was in the group of farmers and they chastised her for not coming more often. They also asked us about a problem on the mango tree which was a twig borer of some kind. Some 30 farmers were in attendance at some stage and the interest level was high.

After lunch in Sonhet town we moved to Bodhar village for a 3 PM meeting. We eventually met up with some 15 farmers as it was raining by then.

Mr Nandi asked the COs to give the presentation this time as training. Prem did most of the talking while Pakaj, Aswini, and Manju added. Mis-statements were corrected but few were needed.

We then returned to Baikunthpur to the DoA office and met Mr. A.P. Patel DDA.

We gave our request for rabi seed to include our projections of no less than 2000 acres of rabi expected now that the irrigation system is better functioning.

Aside from rabi seeds I told the DDA we were thinking of two technologies that would give the greatest improvement in agriculture. One was to make compost and

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the other was to import the inverted-T seed drill from Haryana. On the former case he said that while only having been here since July he was working on a plan to protect rabi cropping by containing stray cattle to a penned grazing area. He shared our concern of low organic matter and he said the manure from the cattle would be used to make compost. On the matter of the seed drill he said the soil minerals in CG soils precluded use of the seed drill. Apparently it has been tried and failed.

We concluded as we have done every evening with a meeting of the COs.

Sat 30 Aug 10AM Dr. Sahu and Mr Nandi leave for Ambikapur to pick up CO Swain and arrive Kumari village Darki tank noon for farmer meeting

WUA president presided over the meeting with 8 TC members. The tank has 2.5 m of water out of 7.5 m. The reason why so low was that WRD was undergoing repairs and continually drained the tank. Farmers grow mainly IR36, IR64, MTU1010, and hybrids. Pests are a problem with blast on hybrids, MTU1010, and IR64 and stemborers now serious in the view of farmers. Farmers know what fungicides to control blast (Hinosan, Polygram, Bavistin). Spray volume was lower at 220 l/ha rather than the 300 l/ha recommended. They put 80 ml/sprayer refill which is good. Farmers report rice bug as a pest during ripening stage as the ecology at the site is a small valley with rice in the bottomlands and forests surrounding. Hybrids are the most susceptible to pests. There has not been a resident CO in the site but they had organized anyway. They were very attentive during the presentation by Dr Sahu giving agricultural recommendations. Their level of knowledge seemed quite good. We then found that one TC member Tilber Bhuwan was a FFS village facilitator in Silphilly Village in the IFAD Tribal Development Project. Currently they are giving FFS training every Wed from noon to 2PM in the village. Every Thur the trainer goes to the NGO office in Ambikapur for debriefing and further training for him. He receives Rs2000 per month to give one FFS school by himself. FFS classes are 50% female by design. They also have FFS for wheat in the rabi season. The NGO in Ambikapur is the Tribal Development Training Institute.

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At 5PM we returned to Ambikapur and visited the WRD office and then DoA office. In the former case the Asst Engineer had returned to residence and did not want to see us. In the latter case the DDA was in a meeting with his SDOs so we could not talk to him.

Sun 31 8AM leave for left for Jagganathipur scheme with CO Swain. Arrive 10AM visit Mampur village and farmers’ fields then to Jagganathipur village for the same.

We passed a growing sugarcane area as the government is now building a sugar refinery. Sugarcane fields are intermixed with rice fields. Today was a schedule meeting of the WUA. We ended up in Mampur village following a farmer with a sprayer on his back to his field. He had caseworm damage and his field was at the bottom of the toposequence of rice fields in the lowest lying area. We told him to put in mosquito mesh screens at the inlets and told him to spray only the damaged patches with insecticide. He applied Roket which is a mixture of profenophos and cypermethrin. Any insecticide will kill caseworm if applied at the correct dosage.

We acquired a bicycle tire that we will use as a sampling method to assess pest densities (gall midge and stemborer). The tire is 58 cm diameter or 0.26 m2. Dr Sahu found another field with gall midge so we took our bicycle sampler there to assess. We found a range of 0-4 galled tillers in the 0.26 m2 area encompassed within the tire. We are setting a threshold value of 5 damaged tillers from adding gall midge and stemborer together. Thus this assessment averaged below this so we told the farmer not to spray but to sample again next week and see if the damage got worse.

The farmers gather some branches of a tree Bhelawa and stuck them into the affected field to ward off gall midge as an indigenous control practice.

Swain stayed on to attend WUA meeting and we left for Raipur noon and he will return to Ambikapur by bus. We arrived in Raipur at 8:30PM.

4 Sep Thurs 10AM left for Kasdole arriving 1PM at the WRD guesthouse to meet Abha, Sandyia, and Milind Chandrakar a

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new CO along with Mr. Tandon a WRD sub-engineer and RS Varma a draftsman.

Unfortunately for the Balar scheme the rainfall has not cooperated and the tank is 31% full, being only 16 feet deep out of 36 feet capacity. The rice crop is all biasi sown the last week of July. There will be no irrigated rabi crop anywhere and the water will be used only for rice. The main gate was open yesterday. Harvest will be in late Nov.

We discussed with WRD over the current situation. 25% of the construction was completed last dry season. WRD and the WUA are at loggerheads over how the field channels will be constructed. WRD wants to contract it out and WUA wants NREG to do it. There is a budget for construction of the field channels that sits with the Collector. The Collector is dissatisfied as the budget item is not itemized to single out field channel construction. It is stipulated however that the channels are to be 80% earth and 20% concrete. Other items in the budget are constructing of chak gates, village road bridges etc.

The WUA president is a businessman not a farmer and has sided with WRD. He says he needs to get the money spent back he spent on his election and negotiations with contractors will do that. In addition the WRD and WUA have not agreed that the tax collection would be handed over to the WUA. WRD says that the WUA is corrupt. Water management responsibilities also have not been handed over. WRD also wants tail first delivery but large farmers at the head end want it first there. In Sel village however the villagers are paying some farmers who tend to the irrigation water and monitor flow. They are paid in rice collected at the end of the season. There is a revolving fund in the WUA of some Rs60,000.

The three COs in the site have the following responsibilities:Abah 4 villages, 10 chaks, Sandyia 6 villages 18 chaks, Chanradkar 3 villages, 5 chaksThis totals 13 villages and there are 28 total

The COs have not conducted any of the village level meetings we instructed them to do as a means of

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training farmers on the package of practices. Abah and Sandyia in fact could not produce a copy of the package of practices and despite the dozens of meetings with farmers held over the past 1.5 years they are ignorant of the technologies. Their excuse is that we did not train them properly! We pointed out that other social science based COs have readily picked up the agricultural practices and have studied the package and can guide farmers in the field. The Balar COs cannot guide the farmers in the field and as a result they say ‘the farmers do not listen to them’.

Sadly we were told that ASA held a few PIM meetings here but have not conducted any trainings at all! They did set up a number of variety trials with the 2 kg allotments of seed to cooperating farmers, how many the COs could not tell us but it is in 3 villages (Chandidh, Semaria, Chhachhi)

3PM we met the farmers at Pisid village attended by 30 or so farmers

Dr Sahu with the help of a small whiteboard immediately went into his routine and for the first time had a small whiteboard to illustrate his points. He went over the package of practices with the farmers and introduced the bicycle tire method of sampling for stemborer and gall midge. Farmers were told to place the tire in three places in the field and count the number of combined deadhearts and onion leaves. The total of insect damaged tillers with those samples should be less than 4 per sample or less than 15 counting all three samples. Some farmers still wanted to know the name of the pesticide to apply even though the densities did not surpass the threshold. For farmers to perform this sampling method they need to understand the concept that rice can tolerate 10-15% damaged tillers without an economic yield loss. This is taught as a field exercise in FFS where farmers clip 10% and 25% of the leaves or tillers from small plots and compare the yield with a control. Farmers were also taught if they have pest damage in the field to apply 5 kg/acre of MOP.

4 Sep Friday 10:30AM we went to Chandidh village which is in the middle of the canal system.

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We went to the field to see the ASA mother trial of four rice varieties. But the farmer planted each variety in different fields spread out over a large area thus side by side comparisons cannot be made. One of the varieties was a very early maturing rice Hajari which is actually a very early upland type and was flowering while all other fields were in the elongation phase before panicle initiation. Being out of synchrony birds will damage it.

In farmers’ fields we saw gall midge damage and termite damage as well as over and under application of inorganic fertilizers. Many farmers were seen spraying their fields. Many farmers believe that spraying is necessary just as applying fertilizers is to obtain high yields. This is not so as most fields will not require insecticide application as the pest density and consequently damage levels are not high enough to warrant investing in spraying. We illustrated the bicycle tire sampling method for farmers to follow in order to overcome this problem. The method is to begin sampling about 6 weeks after direct seeding by tossing the tire into the field and counting the combined total of stemborer deadhearts and gall midge damaged tillers (called onion leaves). Only count the damaged tillers not all of the tillers. Repeat this twice more to give three total samples. If the total of the three samples is 15 or over then the farmer should broadcast Phorate granules. Spraying is a poor control method for either stemborer or gall midge. We spent some time teaching the farmer how to do this simple method.

Termite damage is not enough to warrant insecticide treatment as it occurs only along the margin of the field and will not spread far. Yield is higher along the margin due to the edge effect from lack of plant to plant competition in the middle of the field so the crop can overcome this type of damage. There are never more than a few dozen hills damaged in one field which is uneconomical to attempt to control. Water will flood out the termites anyway.

Some fields expressed symptoms of overuse of nitrogen while others showed an imbalance of inorganic fertilizer and lack of FYM.

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1PM farmer meeting in Chhachhi village also in the middle of the irrigation system with 20 farmers

Farmers said they were only about 5% complete with the pesticide spraying in the village. It seems that there is a belief after tillering stage that all fields should be sprayed to get a high yield. When we told them of the bicycle tire sampling method and that it was not necessary to spray until pest densities warranted, many began to re-examine their beliefs on pest control. One farmer we interviewed had 9 acres and 7 to Sonam and 2 to HMT. He has not sprayed yet as there is not water in his field. But he will spray Cypher 505. He knows not to spray against the wind.

Farmers mentioned gall midge ,stemborer and said the sprays were effective as the pest decreases. This can be the case naturally without pesticide as dead tillers are replaced and the stemborer or gall midge is in the adult stage. One applies 2 kg Phorate/acre but should use 8 kg.

The farmers mentioned that they normally relay crop field pea on about 35 acres of bottom land (bhatra land) and will do so. They cannot relay crop Lathyrus as the soils are matasi and too light and sandy.

As a result of Dr Sahu’s talk many farmers said they would use the bicycle tire method and reduce their insecticide dependency.

3PM we attended a farmer meeting in Semaria with some 35 farmers.

This turned out to be the liveliest of the farmer meetings this mobilization and farmers brought us samples of rice plants affected with caseworm, stemborer, gall midge, termites, blast and zinc deficiency. The farmer with zinc deficiency has sprayed insecticide. Both the farmers and the COs became more proficient in identifying the common field problem. Some of them even started teaching. The CO went with one farmer who had stemborer deadhearts and recorded an average of 14 per sample so we told him to treat the field with Phorate granules.

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6 Sep met with Dr. S.S. Rao, Associate Director Research at IGAU who worked on pulses

There are separate Rhizobium strains for each type of legume (pulse) including Lathyrus, groundnuts, chana, field pea etc. They should be used @ 200 g/acre for 8-10 kg seed. If farmers use ZnSO4 for rice it will benefit the rabi crop. Sunflower may benefit from a 2% spray of Boron at flower. Aflatoxin has not been a problem for groundnuts in storage in Chhattisgarh. The best groundnut varieties are J11, AK159, TAG 24, TAG 26. Most groundnuts are the bunchy type rather than runner type. Gypsum should be used at 20 kg/ha. CaSO4 or MgSo4 should be used once in three years for rabi crops

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Appendix II. Tentative ASA Field Training Plan of the Bilaspur Regional Agri Team NGO Package for August,2008

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S. No. Name of Scheme Name of Village Training Date Subject of Training & work to be done Responsible Person

Bhupdevpur 05.08.08

Integrated nutrient management (INM), integrated weed management (IWM), integrated pest management (IPM), on–farm water Management & establishment of FFS

Pankaj Sharma & P. S. Bhadoriya

Kushwabahri 06.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, water Management & Disease

control 1 Bilaspur Tank

Kritmal 07.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, on –farm water Management &

Improved Biasi

Navagaon 08.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, water Management &

Establishment of FFS

Murkuta 11.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, water Management & Disease

control 2 Pondiguma Tank

Hathani 12.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, water Management &

Establishment of FFS

Birkona 21.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, Rainfed water Management &

Improved Biasi

Alipur 22.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, water Management & Disease

control 3 Kranti Tank

Rehmankapa 23.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, water Management & Improved

Biasi

Bhimori 25.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, water Management & Disease

control

Pandariya 26.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, on-farm water Management &

Disease control 4 Behrakhar Tank

Usabahri 27.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, water Management & Improved

Biasi

Parpondi 28.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, water Management & Disease

control

Dhaura 28.08.08 INM, IWM, IPM, water Management & Improved

Biasi 5 Charbhata Tank

Charbhata 29.08.08

INM, IWM, IPM, water Management & Improved Biasi

6 Ganiyari Tank Deepakchedi 30.08.08

INM, IWM, IPM, water Management & Disease control

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28 May - 14 Jul 2008

Sr. NoDate Name of

schemeNo. of WUA covered

Topics covered / discussed Total no. of participants

Main outcomes of the training

1

28-05-2008 Amakoni 1 Introductory discussion on CIDP's Agriculture Componenet & kharif planning

20 Farmers came to know about CIDP's agricultural development programme & prepared Informal kharif plan

2 28-05-2008 Amakoni 1 Do 15 Do

3

29-05-2008 Balar 3 Introductory discussion on CIDP's Agriculture Component & kharif planning

60 Farmers came to know about CIDP's agricultural development programme & Informal kharif plan has been prepared by the farmers

4

29-05-2008 Balar 3 Introductory discussion on CIDP's Agriculture Component & kharif planning

60 Farmers came to know about CIDP's agricultural development programme & Informal kharif plan has been prepared by the farmers

5

11/6/2008 Amakoni 1 Quality Seeds & , Seed treatment &new rice varieties their characteristics, Fertilizer application, dose & time, Establishment of Farmers Field School

14 Farmers awared about importance of good seeds, major difference in grain & seeds and new rice varieties. They learn how to use fertilzer their dose & time, Farmers agreed for FFS

6

12/6/2008 Balar 2 Importnace of Quality Seeds & , seed treatment, new rice varieties & their characteristics

28 Farmers awared about importance of good seeds, major difference in grain & seeds and new rice varieties

7

17-06-2008 Uparwaha 1 Seed treatment, seedling treatment,control of early rice insect

24 Farmers came to know about seed borne deseases & insect infestation, their prevention thru seed treatment, method of seed treatment

7

19-06-2008 Markatola 1 Seed Treatment, New Rice varieties & Nursury management

10 Farmers awared about benefits of seed tretment, method of seed tretment, salient features of new rice varieties and scientific seed bed management

8

21-06-2008 Khandawa 1 Seed treatment & scientific seed bed management

7 Farmers came to know about seed treatment & seed born diseses and how to control it

9

21-06-2008 Balar 1 Seed production, Seed certification & FFS

15 Farmers awared about seed production methodology and seed certification process

10

24-06-2008 Neota 1 FFS, Seed treatment & Nursury management

26 Farmers Adopt Transplanting and hybrid rice

11

24-06-2008 Bishrampuri (Banskot Tank)

1 FFS,Seed treatment,Hybrid Varieties of Rice & Nursury management

25 Farmers awared about FFS concept, method & advantages of seed treatment and scentific management of rice nursary

12

25-06-2008 Bhansagar 1 FFS, Seed treatment & Nursury management

26 Farmers awared about FFS concept, method & advantages of seed treatment and scentific management of rice nursary

13

25.06.2008 Bhurung pal

1 FFS, Seed treatment & Nursury management

26 Farmers awared about seed treatment method and its benefits, concept of FFS

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1/7/2008 Uparwaha 1 Package & practice of Rice & Quality Seeds

8 Farmers came to know about seed treatment and how it is beneficial, how to follow package of practices of rice

15

4/7/2008 Kharkhara 1 Chak identification & Improved Biasy 35 Farmers awared chak approach, their advantages and also learned about intensive biasy and its benefits

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8/7/2008 Devgaon 1 FFS, Chak identification, Seed treatment&Intensive Biasi

29 Farmers know about seed treatment and how it is beneficial & Benefits of chak farming

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8/7/2008 Devgaon 1 Chak identification, Seed treatment&Intensive Biasi

29 Farmers know about seed treatment and how it is beneficial & Benefits of chak farming

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10/7/2008 Pakhanjore 1 (SRI method of rice cultivation with hybrid just informative) & early insect control in rice & fertlizer application( dose & time)

24 Farmers learned how to do SRI, they came to know about early insect control measures in

State Training Centre, CIDP, NGO Package -B, Raipur, C.GAppendix III. Details of training conducted under Agriculture Support Services by ASA

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First application First top dressing Second top dressingBasal 1/ 20-25 days later 1 week before panicle initiation 3/

Field size DAP MOP 2/ Urea Urea MOPNP K N N K

Acres Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg

1/4 25 decimals 0.25 13 5 6 6 11/2 50 decimals 0.5 25 10 13 13 33/4 75 decimals 0.75 38 15 19 19 41 100 decimals 1 50 20 25 25 5

1-1/4 1.25 63 25 31 31 61-1/2 1.5 75 30 38 38 81-3/4 1.75 88 35 44 44 9

2 2 100 40 50 50 102-1/4 2.25 113 45 56 56 112-1/2 2.5 125 50 63 63 132-3/4 2.75 138 55 69 69 14

3 3 150 60 75 75 153-1/4 3.25 163 65 81 81 163-1/2 3.5 175 70 88 88 183-3/4 3.75 188 75 94 94 19

4 4 200 80 100 100 204-1/4 4.25 213 85 106 106 214-1/2 4.5 225 90 113 113 234-3/4 4.75 238 95 119 119 24

5 5 250 100 125 125 256 6 300 120 150 150 307 7 350 140 175 175 358 8 400 160 200 200 409 9 450 180 225 225 45

10 10 500 200 250 250 5011 11 550 220 275 275 5512 12 600 240 300 300 6013 13 650 260 325 325 6514 14 700 280 350 350 7015 15 750 300 375 375 7516 16 800 320 400 400 8017 17 850 340 425 425 8518 18 900 360 450 450 9019 19 950 380 475 475 9520 20 1000 400 500 500 100

Rate kg per hectare is based on 80-50-30 NPK1/ Basal means applying before the last plowing in land preparation to place fertilizer into the soil2/ Muriate of potash, remove 5 kg for second top dressing (based on 1 acre, apportion for other field sizes)3/ Panicle initiation stage determined by tiller dissection

Appendix IV. DAP and urea fertilizer calibration chart for rice

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Appendix V. Iffco fertilizer calibration chart for rice

Second top dressingFirst application First top dressing 1 week before

Basal 1/ 20-25 days later panicle initiation 2/Field size iffco (12:32:16) Urea Urea MOP 3/

NPK N N KAcres Kg Kg Kg Kg

1/4 25 decimals 0.25 16 7 7 11/2 50 decimals 0.5 32 14 14 33/4 75 decimals 0.75 48 20 20 41 100 decimals 1 64 27 27 5

1-1/4 1.25 80 34 34 61-1/2 1.5 96 41 41 81-3/4 1.75 112 47 47 9

2 2 128 54 54 102-1/4 2.25 144 61 61 112-1/2 2.5 160 68 68 132-3/4 2.75 176 74 74 14

3 3 192 81 81 153-1/4 3.25 208 88 88 163-1/2 3.5 224 95 95 183-3/4 3.75 240 101 101 19

4 4 256 108 108 204-1/4 4.25 272 115 115 214-1/2 4.5 288 122 122 234-3/4 4.75 304 128 128 24

5 5 320 135 135 256 6 384 162 162 307 7 448 189 189 358 8 512 216 216 409 9 576 243 243 45

10 10 640 270 270 5011 11 704 297 297 5512 12 768 324 324 6013 13 832 351 351 6514 14 896 378 378 7015 15 960 405 405 7516 16 1024 432 432 8017 17 1088 459 459 8518 18 1152 486 486 9019 19 1216 513 513 9520 20 1280 540 540 100

1/ The rate in terms of kg per hectare is based on: 1) basal 19-50-25/ha , 2) 30-0-0 for each top dressing for a total of 80-50-30 kg NPK/ha2/ Panicle initiation stage determined by tiller dissection3/ Muriate of potash K

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Appendix VI. Pesticide calibration chart for riceInsecticides Fungicides

Chitri banki (caseworm) 2/ Stemborer Blast 5/1. Formulation 2. Formulation Gall midge Formulation

Spray Spray gangai 3/ SpraySpray volume 17.8% 55% Formulation Spray volume 50%

(15 liter eg Cypchlor, etc Granules (15 liter capacity sprayer) eg. Confidor Total liters cypermethrin 5% Total liters 10% capacity sprayer) eg. Hinosan Total liters

Field size Young crop 1/ imidacloprid of product + chlorpyrifos 50% of product Phorate Older crop 4/ ediphenophos of productAcres No. sprayer loads ml/sprayerload per field ml/sprayerload per field kg/field No. sprayer loads ml/sprayerload per field

1/4 25 decimals 0.25 1 190 0.2 60 0.1 2 2 100 0.21/2 50 decimals 0.5 3 190 0.6 60 0.2 4 4 100 0.43/4 75 decimals 0.75 4 190 0.8 60 0.2 6 6 100 0.61 100 decimals 1 5 190 1.0 60 0.3 8 8 100 0.8

1-1/4 1.25 7 190 1.3 60 0.4 10 10 100 1.01-1/2 1.5 8 190 1.5 60 0.5 12 12 100 1.21-3/4 1.75 9 190 1.7 60 0.5 14 14 100 1.4

2 2 11 190 2.1 60 0.7 16 16 100 1.62-1/4 2.25 12 190 2.3 60 0.7 18 18 100 1.82-1/2 2.5 14 190 2.7 60 0.8 20 20 100 2.02-3/4 2.75 15 190 2.9 60 0.9 22 22 100 2.2

3 3 16 190 3.0 60 1.0 24 24 100 2.43-1/4 3.25 18 190 3.4 60 1.1 26 26 100 2.63-1/2 3.5 19 190 3.6 60 1.1 28 28 100 2.83-3/4 3.75 20 190 3.8 60 1.2 30 30 100 3.0

4 4 22 190 4.2 60 1.3 32 32 100 3.24-1/4 4.25 23 190 4.4 60 1.4 34 34 100 3.44-1/2 4.5 24 190 4.6 60 1.4 36 36 100 3.64-3/4 4.75 26 190 4.9 60 1.6 38 38 100 3.8

5 5 27 190 5.1 60 1.6 40 41 100 4.06 6 32 190 6.1 60 1.9 48 49 100 4.87 7 38 190 7.2 60 2.3 56 57 100 5.68 8 43 190 8.2 60 2.6 64 65 100 6.49 9 49 190 9.3 60 2.9 72 73 100 7.210 10 54 190 10.3 60 3.2 80 81 100 8.011 11 59 190 11.2 60 3.5 88 89 100 8.812 12 65 190 12.4 60 3.9 96 97 100 9.613 13 70 190 13.3 60 4.2 104 105 100 10.414 14 76 190 14.4 60 4.6 112 113 100 11.215 15 81 190 15.4 60 4.9 120 122 100 12.016 16 86 190 16.3 60 5.2 128 130 100 12.817 17 92 190 17.5 60 5.5 136 138 100 13.618 18 97 190 18.4 60 5.8 144 146 100 14.419 19 103 190 19.6 60 6.2 152 154 100 15.220 20 108 190 20.5 60 6.5 160 162 100 16.0

1/ Before canopy closure (can see the water in the field) based on 200 liters/ha2/ Based on 0.4 kg ai/ha and assuming a young crop3/ Based on 0.8 kg ai/ha4/ After canopy closure (can no longer see the water in the field) based on 300 liters/ha5/ Based on 1 kg ai/ha and assuming an older crop

Appendix VII. 30 Steps to Successful Rice Cultivation

1. Avoid sowing a second crop of rice during the rabi season as there is not enough irrigation water if many farmers did this and in doing so will reduce pests

2. If you plan to grow a rabi crop then select a medium or early maturing rice variety

3. Plant Mahamaya, Chandrahasani, or MTU1001 varieties where gangai (gall midge) is a problem

4. Farmers in the same chak should sow rice at the same time to make irrigation more efficient

5. Use healthy seeds by either purchasing certified seed or selecting the healthiest seed from your field

6. Level your field in order to maintain even water depth to all plants that results in more tillering and even development between hills

7. Apply FYM or compost to seedbed so seedlings can be pulled with least injury to the roots

8. Apply FYM or compost to main field @ 4 cartloads/acre during plowing9. Use balanced nutrients NPK and understand the ‘law of the minimum’

(eg, N, P, or K is missing the crop will not grow well, therefore all three are needed)

10. If the farmer has not applied FYM then he needs to add 12 kg more nitrogen per acre.

11. Recognize zinc deficiency symptoms and correct by broadcasting zinc fertilizer. Zinc deficient leaves are green at the base and have turned light brown on the edges just like BLB except there are many dark brown spots along the damaged portion

12. Incorporate NPK during land preparation into the soil (not on the soil surface)

13. Transplant 21 d old seedlings14. Water too deep prevents rice plants from tillering. At the time

of transplanting there should be no standing water for 3-4 days, then maintain 2-4 inches (5-10 cm) on a young crop until 20-25 days after transplanting (until tillering is over), thereafter depths can be higher

15. Before first top dressing of urea lower paddy water and broadcast at tillering stage

16. Use the leaf color chart to determine nitrogen need during early growth stage. Avoid overuse of nitrogen as it makes the crop susceptible to diseases

17. Recognize panicle initiation stage and apply last top dressing of N one week before the stage occurs after lowering the water level

18. Weeds come from rice seed, irrigation water, FYM, the seed bank in the rice field soil, and the bunds. Weed seeds can live for over 10 years in rice field soil.

19. Weed beginning the second week after transplanting and do not let any weeds grow above the rice canopy.

20. Remove all weeds from your field before they set seed, particularly karga plants.

21. Assess the incidence of stem borer deadhearts and gall midge damage using an old bicycle tire which when placed in the field it encircles an area of 0.25 m2. Take three measurements each week per field. If an average of 5 tillers are damaged by both species added together then broadcast Phorate 10% Granules at 4 kg/acre into fields where the water level has been lowered for the purpose

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22. If chitri banki (caseworm) is a constant problem then install a mosquito mesh screen in your inlet and encourage upstream farmers to do the same. If the damage will kill young plants spray Confidor (imidaproclor) 17% @190 ml per sprayerload/acre or using a mixture of cypermethrin + chlorpyrifos liquid @ 60 ml per sprayerload/acre or similar mixture which is cheaper. Spray volume is 5 sprayerloads/acre as the crop is young. In fact all insecticides kill this insect, so choice of product is not a factor. The important point to know is to apply an adequate spray volume and dosage

23. Recognize termite damage as dead hills along the borders of the field. Pull the hills and notice the roots have been eaten away. As only a few hills are affected and the termites cannot spread far as they live in the bunds, that it is uneconomical to attempt insecticide control.

24. To prevent blast and other fungal diseases apply seed treatment of Bavistin powder at 3 g/kg seed. Wet the seeds before applying powder and then let the seed dry

25. If blast is threatening the crop apply Hinosan 50%EC fungicide. Use 100 ml Hinosan liquid/15-liter sprayer and apply 8 sprayerloads per acre as the crop is older.

26. Varieties differ in their response to pests. Some are highly susceptible (Swarna, the new hybrids) while some are resistant (Mahamaya and Chandrahasani to gall midge)

27. An adequate spray volume is needed in pesticide sprays. Apply 80 liters per acre in early stage rice (5-6 sprayer loads/acre with the 15 liter sprayer) and 120 liters after the canopy closes (8 sprayer loads/acre)

28. Farmers need to add the correct amount of pesticide to the sprayer and broadcast the correct amount of granules to the field. Use the pesticide calibration chart to determine how much for your field size

29. Rice plants can tolerate surprisingly large infestation levels from insect pests without experiencing a yield loss. Farmers should not apply pesticide until damage levels threaten economic loss. To know this level sample the field weekly. Use an old rubber bicycle tire as an area to sample and count the number of gangai galls plus stemborer deadhearts within the tire. The crop can tolerate a total of 5 damaged tillers from such a count. Only attempt control if there are more or the damage is rapidly increasing week to week.

30. Chitri banki is most common in fields in bottom lands. The worms live within sections of rolled up rice leaves and float from higher lying fields to lower lying fields during rains. If you have a low lying field that receives irrigation water from those above, place a mosquito screen at each of your field inlets and encourage your upstream neighbors to do the same. Only when patches of heavily defoliated rice occurs in the field should you attempt to control by sprays. A young crop will outgrow this damage but you need to prevent plants becoming totally defoliated that create gaps in the field. Follow the guidelines in the pesticide calibration chart.

31. Never spray pesticides during the flowering period from 8AM to noon as sterility will result

32. To obtain high quality seed (pure variety) for the next crop rogue the crop twice. First time at flowering stage and the second time a week before harvest to remove karga and mixtures.

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Appendix VIII. The Bicycle Tire Method of Pest Sampling

Farmers seem most confused about pest and disease control. Through your training we hope to have farmers overcome this lack of knowledge. Stemborers and gall midge are present in all sites and can occur in any rice crop. Stemborers kill tillers when the larva tunneling inside severs them. The result is a deadheart or brown tiller. To verify that this is caused by stemborers pull on it and it should come out. Or you can split the base of the tiller open with your fingers to find the larva or signs of its feeding. Gall midge causes a characteristic damage called a silver shoot or onion leaf. The damaged tiller becomes blunt on the tip and the tiller remains green. Learn to recognize each of these field symptoms.

The objective of this insect pest sampling method is to know when to apply insecticide when stemborer and gall midge damage becomes economically significant. All too often we have found farmers applying insecticide when very little damage is occurring in the field. It is not necessary to apply insecticides each crop as it is with fertilizers so we need a decision rule. The bicycle tire method provides and easy way for farmers to achieve this.

The method:Dr. Sahu came up with a worn out bicycle tire as a simple sampling tool that farmers can easily use. Have the farmers in each chak get a used bicycle tire. Beginning the third week after transplanting or the fifth week after direct seeding toss it into the field. Do this on a weekly basis, three samples per field. Straighten out the tillers that are bent over from the tire to decide which are inside and which are out. Count the number of deadhearts and onion leaves. As pest populations are not evenly distributed you will need to repeat this twice more to give three samples. Add the number of each.

In field A the total is 4 + 3 + 6 = 13. This is below 15 which would be an average of 5 per sample. Therefore do not spray and sample again next week.

In field B the total is 9 + 5 + 2 = 16. This is over the total of 15 so the farmer should broad Phorate granules, use your Pesticide Chart to decide how many kg to apply for the size of the field. Be sure the field has some standing water before applying. Phorate will dissolve and enter the soil and eventually the plant and kill the stemborer inside the tillers. Sprays cannot reach these places in the plant thus granules are better than sprays.

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Appendix IX. The Rice Leaf Color Chart

Farmers will be trained to use the color chart to match the leaf color of vegetative stage rice to determine if the top dressing of urea is needed and if farmers are using too little or too much nitrogen fertilizer. We used the color printer in the office to print 25 charts to give one each to the COs. These were laminated in plastic so they could be used in the field without being destroyed from wetness.

We could make more of them to give to TC members to use in their chaks at a low cost. The leaf color chart came from IRRI.

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Appendix X. Package of practices for rabi crops

Table of contentsCharacteristics of rabi crops................................................................................................1Wheat...................................................................................................................................2Maize.................................................................................................................................11Sorghum.............................................................................................................................15Millets................................................................................................................................15Lathyrus or keshari............................................................................................................17Gram or chana....................................................................................................................18Lentil..................................................................................................................................22Green gram Moong............................................................................................................24Field Pea or Mutter............................................................................................................25Pigeon pea..........................................................................................................................28Black gram or urd..............................................................................................................30Rapeseed and Mustard.......................................................................................................31Linseed or Flax..................................................................................................................35Soybean..............................................................................................................................38Groundnut..........................................................................................................................40Sunflower...........................................................................................................................45Safflower............................................................................................................................49Sesame til...........................................................................................................................49Niger..................................................................................................................................49Tomato...............................................................................................................................50Brinjal................................................................................................................................62Chilli..................................................................................................................................73Onion.................................................................................................................................74Garlic.................................................................................................................................79Cabbage.............................................................................................................................79Cauliflower........................................................................................................................86String bean.........................................................................................................................92Potato.................................................................................................................................92Bottle gourd.......................................................................................................................97Bitter gourd........................................................................................................................97Pumpkin...........................................................................................................................102Smooth gourd...................................................................................................................102Spinach............................................................................................................................103

Characteristics of rabi cropsIrrigations Crop Duration days Soils

1-2 Chickpea 120 HeavyLentil 90-100 Medium to heavy

0-1 Lathyrus 80 Medium to heavy1-2 Linseed 100 Medium to heavy2-3 Field pea 70-75 Medium

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Mungo, urd 70 Medium to heavyRapeseed 120 Medium to heavyMustard 90-100 Medium to heavy

4-5 Groundnut 110 Medium to lightSunflower 110 Medium to heavyMaize 90-105 MediumWheat 120 Medium to heavyPigeon pea 180 Medium

Heavy is black clay KanharMedium is DolsaLight is Matasi

WheatIn India two main species of wheat namely Triticum aestivum (common bread wheat) and Triticum durum (macaroni or durum wheat) are economically important. The bread wheat is the most important species accounting to 87 per cent of the total wheat production followed by the durum wheat (about 12 per cent). Bread wheat grown in Northern and Central India is good for chapati making and bakery products. Durum wheat which is good for 'suji', 'semya', 'sphagetti' and 'macaroni' is grown only in Central and South India and that under rainfed conditions.

Wheat likely will be an important crop in efforts to increase rabi cropping in Chhattisgarh. It is resilient, stable, and widely accepted. Wheat straw is a highly prized folder for stall-feeding of cattle. Wheat is favored by farmers in the winter season for production in the Northern Hills and on the Chhattisgarh Plain. Wheat area is likely to expand with new high yielding varieties that are resistant to some diseases, provided that irrigation is available. The straw is a highly prized folder for stall-feeding of cattle.

Wheat is a prime choice for increasing that area under double cropping after early rice, maize, urd, and moong crops in kharif in Chhattisgarh. Maximum wheat yields can be achieved only with full complements of fertilizer and other inputs, which can be obtained only with an assured supply of 4-5 irrigations, including the one heavy irrigation at sowing.

ClimateWheat is more adaptable to varying climatic conditions than any other cereal crop. It tolerates wide fluctuations in

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temperature, moisture, and sunshine hours. The best adaptation of the crop is observed in areas with moderate temperature and sub-humid to semi-arid conditions.Wheat requires cold weather, which is provided by the Chhattisgarh climate and grows best after early maturing rice. Wheat requires cool weather during part of its growth cycle, with a steadily falling temperature regime until heading. Warm temperatures at germination are not desirable. High temperatures and high humidity at some stages promote several diseases including rusts. Wheat requires a warm dry climate with bright sunshine during the reproductive (post heading) phase. Very hot winds at harvest are desired to generate good quality grain and easy threshing. Any rain at harvest time can be harmful however. Wheat requires average daily temperatures of 10-150C during early tillering phase, 21-270C or more at harvest, with a fairly prolonged winter (cold) stretch of very cool nights and bright sunny days. High dew formation during early growth is highly desired as it depresses evapotransipirtion loss from plants in the morning and defers irrigation needs for about 6-7 weeks.

SoilWheat can be grown on a variety of soils. The soil should be well drained, friable sandy loam, loam, silty-clay-loam or clay-loam of high water holding capacity (if not irrigated) and any type including loamy sand or sandy loam, if irrigation is assured. In Chhattisgarh, Kanhar and Dorsa soils are used for growing wheat on stored soil moisture.

Land preparationAs a general rule wheat crop requires a well-pulverised but compact seedbed for good and uniform germination (unless zero tillage is used). In irrigated areas wheat is usually sown after kharif crops like maize or paddy. After the harvest of the previous crop, the field should be plowed with disc or mouldboard plow. One pre-tillage irrigation is necessary to ensure a tillable soil. Where tractor is available one deep plowing followed by two to three harrowings with disc or tines and 2-3 planking should be given to prepare a well pulverized seedbed. Where bullocks are the source of power, deep plowing followed by two to three harrowings or four to five inter-cross plowing with local plow should be done. Planking should be done after each plowing to break clods. One light cultivation and leveling is required before sowing.

Varietial selection

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Variety Year released

Culture Maturity class

Days to heading

Days to maturity

Ht (cm)

Winter wheatAmarKanchan (DL803-3)

1994 Medium 100 96

Lok1 1981 Medium 90 92Mangla HI1077

1987 Medium 101 97

Sujata 1981 Late 100 126Swati Medium 92 110Vidisha (DL788-2)

1996 Irrigated Medium 97 92

C306 1965 Rainfed Med-late 100 122GW173 1994 Med-

early88 85

GW190 1994 Med-early

101 93

GW273 Irrigated 63 113GW496 1990 Medium 95HD2285 1991 Med-

early94 91

HI1454HI9498HW2004 1995 Medium 95 94WH147 1977 Med-

early98 92

Durum wheatRaj 1980 Med-late 93 92

Selection of healthy seeds of right variety suitable for a particular locality is a prerequisite before sowing. There should not be any mixture of seeds of other varieties or weeds. The seed should be purchased form a reliable source or use certified seed. If seed is not treated by the seed dealer then treat it with Vitavax, Thiram or Agrosan at the rate of 2.5 g per kg seed to prevent fungal diseases.

Time of sowingWhen the crop is planted is one of the important aspects in obtaining good yields. Delay in sowing causes drastic reduction in yield. The time of sowing varies widely over the wheat growing areas. It depends mostly on soil temperature, irrigation facilities and duration of wheat

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varieties. The normal time for sowing of high yielding dwarf varieties in irrigated areas starts in the beginning of November. Long and medium duration varieties, should be sown in the first fortnight of November and short duration varieties (120-125 days), should be sown in the second fortnight of November. Latest sowing is 10 Dec as onwards leads to a reduction of 40 kg per day per hectare.

Seed rate and spacing Seed rate varies with variety used depending upon its seed size, germination percentage, tillering ability, time of sowing, moisture content in the soil at the time of sowing and method of sowing. Usually, a seed rate of 100 kg per hectare is sufficient under favorable conditions of normal sowing. For varieties with bold grains like Sonalika and under late sown conditions, seed rate should be increased to 125 kg per hectare. In case where wheat is to be sown by dibbler, a seed rate of 25-30 kg per hectare is sufficient. For normal sown crop a spacing of 20 to 22.5 cm between rows is recommended. When sowing is delayed a closer spacing of 15 to 18 cm should be adopted.

Depth of sowingDepth of sowing is a very important aspect in successful cultivation of high yielding dwarf varieties of wheat. The coleoptile length is shorter in the case of Mexican wheat as compared to tall varieties. The coleoptile length of high yielding Mexican dwarfs is about 5 cm. Therefore, seeds of these varieties should be covered not by more than 5 cm soil to ensure uniform and good germination. Seeds of semi-dwarf varieties could be sown at the depth of 5-6 cm but seeds of these dwarf gene varieties should not be sown deeper than 4 cm. Similarly, in late sown crop, seeds should be sown shallow (about 4 cm deep) as deep sowing delays the emergence of seedlings by 2-3 days and heading by 5-6 days.

Methods of sowing

Wheat is sown by four methods:

1) Broadcasting In this method the seeds are broadcast and then worked in by harrowing in order to cover them. However, the seeds are not uniformly distributed in the field. This method of sowing is very inefficient and should not be encouraged. Germination of broadcast seed is relatively poor and the plant stand is often irregular. Wasteage of seed also results because most

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of the seed is left on the surface where they cannot germinate and may, therefore, be picked up and eaten by birds.

2) Behind local plow

A majority of farmers use this method. This method consists of dropping the seeds by hand into the furrows that have been opened with local plow. In this method seeds are dropped at a depth of 5-6 cm and germination is satisfactory.

(c) Drilling

In this method seed is sown by a mechanical seed drill or ferti-seed drill. With the help of this implement seeds drop at uniform depth and results in uniform germination and regular stand. The seedbed should be fine and well leveled and free from clods and weeds for the use of seed drill or ferti-seed drill. Seed drills may be either bullock driven or tractor driven. Ferti-seed drill should be used wherever possible to ensure uniform depth of sowing, proper placement of fertilizers and good germination.

d) Zero tillage inverted T seed drill

This implement has a knife like blade with a horizontal piece at the bottom (T-shaped) that cuts a furrow in the rice field that still is moist from the rice crop or has a light irrigation to wet up the soil. The drill places the seed under the soil in fields that have not been plowed or tilled in any way. This results in the quickest establishment but in Chhattisgarh due to the clay soils it must be tractor pulled rather than animal drawn. Fertilizer can also be delivered at the same time from another opening in the blade and fed from a hopper on the tractor. This method is very popular in Punjab and Haryana and facilitates greatly wheat culture where highest yields are obtained.

Fertilizer requirementManures and fertilizers both play important roles in wheat cultivation. Use of manure improves the general physical condition and structure of the soil and its capacity to hold water. A liberal quantity of bulky FYM (manure) should be applied in the field if available. About 10 to 15 t/ha of well decomposed farm yard manure (FYM) or compost should be worked well into the soil during land preparation. However,

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manures by themselves cannot meet the high nutrient requirements of plants, which are also in short supply. It, therefore, becomes necessary to supplement manures with chemical or inorganic fertilizers to get high yields. The high yielding dwarf varieties of wheat fully exhibit their yield potential only when supplied with adequate quantities of nutrients at proper time. A crop of wheat yielding 5 t/ha removes 100-150 kg nitrogen, 70-80 kg phosphorus and 125-150 kg/ha potash from the soil. The response of a given vaiety of wheat to application of fertilizers, however, varies from fields to field and from locality to locality.

Most soils are universally deficient in nitrogen but the status of phosphorus and potassium differs from place to place depending on native nutrient store and previous fertilization history of the field. Fertilizer dose can be aided by soil tests. In case soil tests recommendations are not available the general guideline for fertilization of high yielding dwarf varieties grown under different crop cultures.

Irrigated wheat sown in a timely manner will require 120 kg N/ha, 40 kg P/ha, and 0 K (120-40-0 NPK). Half of N and the full quantity of P2O5 should be drilled about 5 cm below the seed at the time of sowing. The remaining half of N should be top dressed at first irrigating. If late sown then the NPK rate is (80-35-0) per hectare.

IrrigationAdequate soil moisture is required for normal development of wheat at all the stages of growth. The crown root initiation stage and heading stage are critical stages when plant suffers most due to moisture stress.

The following schedule of irrigation should be followed for dwarf varieties of wheat:

First irrigation to the standing crop should be given 20-25 days after sowing, ie, at the crown root initiation stage. In cooler regions and in late sown wheat, it is desirable to apply first irrigation approximately 25 to 30 days after sowing. Delay in giving this irrigation should be avoided as it would result in upsetting the synchronous tillering in these varieties, subnormal heads, poor root system and poor grain yield. It is the most critical stage for irrigation.

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Second irrigation is at tillering stage, within 40-45 days after sowing.

Third irrigation is at late jointing stage, within 70-75 days after sowing.

Fourth Irrigation: At flowering stage, within 90-95 days after sowing. Irrigation at this stage is also important because during this period plants suffer most from soil moisture deficiency. The grain number and grain size are reduced considerable.

Fifth irrigation is at dough stage, within 110-115 days after sowing.

The total number of irrigations required will vary depending upon soil type, winter rainfall, amount of water applied per irrigation.Under limited supply of water the following schedule of irrigation should be adopted for best utilization of available quantity of water.

Where only one irrigation is possible, give it at crown root initiation crown root initiation stage, ie, 20-25 days after sowing.

Where two irrigation are available, first irrigation should be given at crown root initiation stage and second at flowering stage.

Where three irrigations are possible, first irrigation should be given at crown root initiation stage, second at late jointing (boot) stage and third at milk stage.

These recommendations strongly stress the importance of irrigation at crown root initiation stage. It has been sound that each week delay in first irrigation from crown root initiation stage results in yield reduction of 2-3 quintals per hectare.

WeedsWeeds emerge with the emerging crop seedlings and if not controlled in the early stages of crop growth these may cause reduction in yield varying from 10 to 40% depending upon the intensity and kind of weeds present in an area. However if the wheat crop follows paddy rice weed pressure usually is insignificant.

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Generally, weeds are suppressed with the help of hoe, khurpt, etc. However, nowadays it has become difficult due to labor cost and unavailability of labor. A number of chemical weedicides are available that control the weeds in wheat rather effectively. Most common and effective herbicide to kill all the broad-leaved weeds in wheat field is 2,4-D and should be mixed in about 400 to 600 litres of water for spraying in an area of one hectare. The amount of water may, however, vary according to the type of sprayer in use.

Insect pestsThere are few insect pests in the crop that follows paddy rice. The only one noted to date has been termites attacking in the early stages. Termites live in the rice bunds and attacks occur nearby the bunds. Damage is from feeding on the roots by the subterranean insects. Roots are literally removed killing young plants. Normally high seeding rates will allow compensation from such damage which acts to thin the crop otherwise a soil insecticide such as diazinon or imidocloprid can be sprayed in a band onto the soil using high volume that drenches the soil. Other potential insect pests are armyworms, cutworms and aphids.

Common diseasesDiseases have not been important in Chhattisgarh when wheat is planted after flooded rice. Common diseases reported in the state are black rust, brown rust, yellow rust, leaf blight, karnal bunt, loose smut, powdery mildew. Control would be by resistant varieties but if any of these appear then fungicide sprays such as maneb or bavistin would be needed.

RodentsRats can cause heavy loss to wheat crop and do considerable damage to the harvested crops lying in stacks in the field. For the control of field rats close all burrows in the evening and fumigate the reopened burrows in the morning with aluminium phosphide at the rate of 1 tablet of 0.5 g per small burrow and 3 g per large burrow. In case or re-appearance in the same field, bait with cumarin (Ratafin) at the rate of 1 kg of prepared bait (1 part cumarin:19 part wheat or maize flour, 1 part molasses and 1 part mustard oil) can be set out around the field.

Harvesting

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High yielding dwarf varieties should be harvested when the leaves and stems turn yellow and become fairly dry. To avoid loss in yield the crop should be harvested before it is dead ripe. When harvest is not done on time, grain may be lost due to damage by rats, birds, insects, shattering, and lodging. Timely harvesting ensures optimum grain quality and consumer acceptance. The right stage for harvesting is when there is about 25-30% moisture in the grains. Harvesting is normally done with a serrated edged sickle by hand. Bullock-driven reapers are also used occasionally. After harvesting the crop by hand, it is dried for three to four days on the threshing floor and then threshing is done by trampling bullocks or or pad thresher attached to bullocks. Nowadays power driven stationary threshers are becoming more popular because these are easy in operation and hasten the process.

When cultivation of high yielding dwarf varieties of wheat is done with improved scientific methods, they produce about 45-55 quintals of grain per hectare under irrigated conditions and 20-25 quintals per hectare under rainfed conditions. For safe storage, grain should be cleaned and dried well in sun for a few days so that moisture content of the rain comes down to 10-12%.

Average yields in Chhattisgarh are generally low 1 t/ha and is often intercropped with rapeseed/mustard as a mixture or as a border crop.

Price: Rs. 1600 to 2000 per ton

A bumper crop of wheat could be obtained only if a locally adapted, high yielding disease resistant variety is chosen for cultivation in a particular area. A number of dwarf and semi-dwarf varieties have been released for cultivation in different agro-climatic zones.

Maize

Maize (makka) production averages 1.6 t/ha and is the second most important rainy season crop in the state, after rice. Maize thrives best in warm to hot and humid environments, such as that which is found in the kharif season in Chhattisgarh. Cold tolerant varieties also have been identified. As a result, maize can be grown throughout the year in Chhattisgarh. Maize is a short-duration crop (90-105 days), and requires considerable moisture and warmth from

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germination to flowering (taselling and silking). However, extremely high temperature, low humidity and hot convectional winds (locally called ‘loo’) can damage the foliage and desiccate the pollen, resulting in poor grain setting or partially filled grain rows on the cobs.

Some farmers using tubewell irrigation such as in Pakhanjore produce three crops of maize per year. That rotation would be viable also on the Chhattisgarh Plains and in the Northern Hills region. Crops like soybean, blackgram, moong, cowpea etc., are grown mixed with maize. These legume crops are grown in the space between two rows of maize.

Soil typeMaize grows best on well drained, fertile soils of sandy loam or loam to silty clay loam textural groupings. It is easily damaged even with moderate waterlogging. Water stagnation is extremely harmful to the crop; therefore, proper drainage is a must for the success of the crop especially during the kharif season. Maize will not thrive on heavy clays, especially low lands. It can be grown successfully in soils whose pH ranges from 5.5 to 7.5. In the typical high rainfall climate of Chhattisgarh, maize should be planted on raised beds or ridges with fairly deep furrows (20-25 cm) so that even with continuous heavy rains, water does not come in direct contact with the plant stems. The maize plant has the capability to withstand mild flooding. Fields with mild slopes and those with matasi, brown sandy loam soils or first grade dorsa soils are best suited. Maize also can be grown on kanhar soils with proper water management.

Land preparationMaize kernels need a seedbed which is friable, well aerated, moist and weed-free to provide better contact between the seed and the soil. There is no need of preparing an extremely fine seedbed. The first plowing should be done with soil-inverting plow so that at least 20-25 cm deep soil may become loose. It should be followed by 2-3 harrowings or 3-4 intercrossing plowings with local plow. Planking should be done after each plowing. While preparing the field for maize crop leveling must not be overlooked. A properly levelled and uniformly graded field is required for good water management.

Recommended varieties

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Variety MaturityYield q/ha Plant type

Pest resistance

Kiran 90 33JM216Pusa Comp.3Shakthiman 2Mahi KanchanPEHM-5

Chandan makka 105 26 Composite, grains bold, yellow, tall

Stemborer

Chandan safed makka 2

75 28 Composite, white, bold grain, rainfed

Chandan makka 3

95 55 compositeBold, orange

Navjot 90 38 Composite, Ameti70 90 31Kanchan 3 78 25Pravhat 92 24Prakash 85 24

No hybrid in the list as these are developed by private companies.

Selection of seedCertified seeds of improved varieties should be used for sowing. Before planting, the seed lot must be tested for its germination percentage and the seed quantity to be adjusted accordingly. For getting the highest yield it is necessary to use new hybrid seed every year. Hybrid seed must be purchased each year but even with composites no mixture should be allowed in the field and at the threshing floor. It is advisable to change the seed of composite also after every three to four years.

Crop establishmentSeeding rate 20-25 kg/ha for non-hybrid composite and 12-15 kg/ha for hybrids. 65,000-75,000 plants/ha. Row to row is 60-75 cm. 20-25 cm plant to plant

Fertilizer requirementsHybrids and composite varieties of maize exhibit their full yield potential only when supplied with adequate quantities of nutrients of proper time. A crop of maize yielding about 14 tonnes of dry matter (both grain and stover) takes up about 161 kg N, 34 kg P and 110 kg K per hectare. The exact

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quantity of the fertilizer that has to be applied to the soil will depend not only on the plant requirements of individual nutrients but also on how much of them the soil can supply. Thus manures and fertilizers both play an important role in the maize cultivation. A liberal quantity of bulky manures should be applied in the field if available. Add 10 to 15 t/ha of well decomposed organic matter in the form of farm yard manure (FYM) or compost before sowing. Application of FYM or green manure provides good tilth and improves the water-holding capacity of the soil, aeration, and drainability. Maize rarely gives good performance without heavy application of organic manure, in addition to the recommended rates of chemical fertilizers (80-120 kg N, 50-60 kg P2O5 and 30-40 kg K2O2 per ha). Maize is sensitive to zinc deficiency and might require supplemental application of zinc at 25 kg/ha of zinc sulfate, particularly on light sandy soils and where no manure is added. 60-80 kg N for composite and 80-100 hybrids, P is 30-40 for composite or 40-50 for hybrids, K 20-25 for composite and 25-30 hybrids.

75-40-25 early maturing varieties, late maturing 100-50-40. If soil test detect deficiency of zinc then 25 kg/ZnSO4/ha.

IrrigationMaize is very susceptible both to excess water and moisture stress. Never allow water to stand in a maize field at any stage of its growth. Water stagnation even for 6 hours continuously and sufficiently damage the crop. Maize can tolerate heavy rains, provided water does not stand in the field for long periods. Therefore, drain away excess water by making a drain of adequate capacity at the lower end of the field. A good crop of maize require about 46 to 60 cm of water during its life cycle. Do not allow maize plants to wilt due to water shortage at any stage of the life cycle. The tasselling to silking stage is most critical as water shortage. The same for 6-8 days can pull down the yield by 50%. Irrigate the crop whenever it is needed normally 4-5 irrigations in the rabi season.

WeedsWeeds are much greater in the kharif season than in the rabi after paddy rice. The abundant rainfall in kharif encourages rapid weed growth. Weeds emerge with the germination of maize seeds and grow along with plants till the early growth period. This causes severe crop weed competition. Failure of

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timely weed control would not only offer direct competition to the maize plant but also indirectly through reduction in fertilizer use efficiency. Losses through weed competition in early stages cannot be offset by keeping the field weed free later. In case the weeds are not brought under control at right time, there is 50-60% reduction in yield. It is very difficult and economically not feasible to keep the crop weed free throughout the growing season. The maize crop kept weed free for 30 to 45 days after planting is almost similar in yield as that kept weed free for entire crop season. Two to three manual weedings would be needed for this purpose. Generally the khurpi, hand hoe, and spade are used for weed control in maize. At many places, people use cultivator or country plow in between the rows of maize. Sometimes due to continuous rains during the early period of maize growth, it becomes impossible to enter in the field.

Insect pestsMaize crop is subjected to attack by a number of insect pests. Some of the major insect pests. The most common are a variety of stemborers (different from the common stemborer on rice) as well as termites, cutworms, armyworms, and grasshoppers. In no case however is it economical to apply insecticides for control as the crop can generally tolerate the damage. Insecticides are generally ineffective.Stemborer, corn earworm

DiseasesMaize has a number of plant diseases such as leaf spots, leaf blights, stalk rots, and mildews but in all cases these will need to be controlled with resistant varieties thus it is essential that farmers continue to test new varieties in small plot trials to identify the best adapted strains. Planting the same varieties year to year will lead to adaptation of the diseases thus resistance is not permanent.

HarvestingHarvest maize crop when husk has turned yellow and grains are hard enough having less then 30 per cent moisture. Do not wait for stalks and leaves to dry because they remain green in most of the hybrids and composites.Remove the husk from the cobs and then dry them is sun for seven to eight days. Thereafter grains are removed either by beating the cobs by sticks or with the help of maize shellers. By following improved cultivation practices as indicated above, it gives 50-60 quintals of grain per

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hectare in case of hybrids and 45-50 quintals in case of composites under irrigated conditions. Leaf spot use Dithane M45 2 kg/ha

Sorghum Ragi or JowarIGAU varietiesPR202HR374VL147

MilletsSmaller Millets Kodo dokon) Papspalum scorbiculatum - Kutki

Comments: Deep roots give drought tolerance; biomass increases organic matter in the soil and stalks provide fodder in dry season

Planting method/tillage: Maturity: 5-6 monthsSoil: light soilsClimate: Yield: 0.3-0.5 t/haPrice: Irrigation:

IGAU varietiesJK76JK47JK8Bhadia and SithaiMai and Haruna

Millets are small grain, interior cereals, with deep root systems that can absorb water from deeper layers. Hence, millets are somewhat drought tolerant and are suitable for planting in upland conditions in Chhattisgarh. Suitable soils include Bhata and skeletal or gravelly sandy soils of low inherent fertility. Millets complement rice, with the latter planted on the best lands and the former planted on marginal lands. Millet biomass helps to build the organic

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matter content of soil, while also providing the food and fodder for cattle during the dry season.

Kodo and Kutki are two inferior millets with good flavor and tasteful fodder in addition to the grain, which is consumed by poor farmers in the form of chapattis, dumping porridge, which can be converted also into good quality weaning baby food. Two varieties ‘Mai’, and ‘Haruna’ are cultivated in Chhattisgarh. Mai usually is mixed with arhar, while Haruna usually is planted on Bhata soils and ridges of Matasi soils in flooded paddy fields. Kodo and Kutki were planted on 238 ha in 2000-01. Total production in 1999-2000 was 66,000 tonnes. The average productivity in that year was in the range of 0.3 to 0.5 tonnes per hectare.

Kodo (dokon) (Papspalum scorbiculatum) is the primary small millet produced in Chhattisgarh, occupying about 86,500 hectares and generating 89,000 tonnes. The crop is sown without fertilizer and planted in July after the monsoon is established. The crop matures in about five to six months. Rajnandgaon, Durg, and Raigarh are the leading production districts, Kutki closely resembles Kodo, but is a different species. Kutki is grown primarily in Raigarh. Harvesting is performed by pulling the plants by hand and stacking the plants before threshing. The two main varieties in Chhattisgarh are Bhadia and Sithai.

Kulthi

IGAU varietiesAK21MarukulthiBK1

Lathyrus or keshari

Lathyrus also known as Indian pea, grasspea or keshari is a much-branched suberect, straggling or climbing herbaceous winter annual. It is a particularly important crop in areas that are prone to drought and famine, and is thought of as an 'insurance crop' as it produces reliable yields when all

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other crops fail. The seeds are boiled and consumed as a pulse and can be used in dahl preparation and bread making. Leaves can be used as a pot-herb and can be consumed as a vegetable after boiling. It is insect pollinated. It makes a good green manure and thrives best in areas with 10-25°C. It is the most hardy of the pulses and can withstand flooding depths of one foot as well as drought conditions when other pulses will succumb. The seeds of some Lathyrus species contain a toxic amino acid and if eaten in large quantities can cause lathyrism, a serious neurodegenerative disease that causes paralysis of the lower body. The disease has been seen to occur after famines when Lathyrus seed has been the exclusive or main nutrient for extended periods. Breeding programs produce lines of Lathyrus that produce less ODAP.

SoilsIt is a hardy crop suited to dry climates, producing good seed crops on poor soils. Lathyrus is commonly cultivated on heavy clay soils. Black deep retentive soils are considered best for grasspea.

Recommended varieties

Variety ODAPYieldt/ha Plant type

Maturity days Resistance

Prateek Low 1.3 50-70 cm tall, bold grains, dirty color

110-115 Downy mildew

Ratan Low 1.3 Tall, broad leaves, green, pods are large, Non shattering

100-110

Sowing methodSeeds may be broadcast into rice field 20 days before harvest as a relay crop or sown in furrows about 3 cm apart in a well-prepared field.

Seed ratesSeeding rates vary from 40-90 kg/ha depending on the method of cultivation, whether in pure stand or intercropped, purpose of cropping (food or feed) and seed size.

Fertilizer requirement

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Some say inoculation is essential before sowing, especially in virgin soil. Lathyrus is reported to add 67 kg/ha of nitrogen to the soil from symbiosis with Rhizobium. Except for lime on acid soils, other nutrients are rarely needed. Phosphorus application is recommended.

WeedsThe crop comes up as a thick mass over the entire surface and under ideal conditions can smother out weeds.

HarvestSeeds of grasspea ripen in 4-6 months and are harvested as soon as the leaves begin to turn yellow and when pods are not fully ripe as fully ripe pods dehisce and scatter the seeds. At the seeding rate of about 14 kg per hectare in mixed cultivation, yield is about 300 kg/ha and as a pure stand range from 0.9-1.5 t/ha kg, while crops sown from inoculated seeds yielded up to 2 t/ha.

Gram or chana

Chana is the most widely cultivated pulse in the state. Gram is the primary crop choice of Chhattisgarh farmers for double cropping. Gram is a hardy crop with low water needs, and it fits well in the crop rotation after rice. It is well suited for low rainfall areas, but it does well also in irrigated conditions. Gram can be grown in a wide range of climates, but mild cool weather and comparatively dry climates with mean temperatures of 20-250C are preferred. Severe winters or frost can damage the crop.

Gram requires well-drained, well-aerated deep soils with good moisture retention. It grows well on loam, sandy loam, and silty-clay loam soils. Presently, the yields of gram in Chhattisgarh are low because the crop is sown late and subjected to varying degrees of moisture and thermal stress. Performance can be improved by advancing the date of sowing, providing irrigation, and increasing the use of fertilizers to recommended levels. There is good potential to increase the area of gram production if one to two irrigations can be assured at key times, such as pre-sowing and at flowering and pod formation.

SoilsHeavier soils such as dosa and kanhar result in better production as they allow the crop to be established on

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residual moisture from the rice crop and have better water holding capacity for crop development.

Land preparationIf zero-tillage is not undertaken (which would be preferred), the farmer should plow 2-3 times in different directions for good tillage. The field should then be levelled by the patta to break up the large clods, a task which seals the surface to conserve soil moisture. If the crop is planted in light soil a light irrigation will be needed for land preparation and tillage.

Recommended varieties

VarietyDuration days

Yield quint/ha Seed type

Pest resistance

JG74 110-115 15-20 medium WiltJG315 115-120 12-15 medium WiltJG11 95-100 15-17 medium WiltGCP101 115-120 15-20 medium WiltVaibhab 110-115 15-20 bold WiltBG372 110-115 14-15 bold WiltSweta 90-100 10-12 kabuli Wilt

tolerantJGK1 125-130 15-20 kabuli WiltJGG1 120-125 20-25 gulabi Wilt

Medium grain types fetch the lowest price in the market but they are more resistant to pests. Bold grains are more susceptible to pests such as pod borer and fetch a higher price. Highest prices are the kabuli types and gulabi which are used in the snack food market. Most medium varieties are used to make flour and are indigenous and they have a hard seed.

SowingSeed rate is 75 kg /ha for all seed types. The bold types will grow to fill in open spaces as the medium types branch less. If one is sowing late or relay cropping then increase the seeding rate to 100 kg/ha.

Seeds should be treated with 3 g or Thiram fungicide/kg seed before sowing to control for damping off diseases.The seed should also be treated with Rhizobium bacteria poweder at 5 g/kg seed.

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In addition the farmer can treat the seed with PSB which is a Pseudomonas bacteria that will thrive on the surface of the roots in the tiny hairs where it feeds on soil minerals making them more soluble in water and therefore more nutrients will enter the plant. It thus acts as a biological fertilizer.

Before treating seeds with such powders add a little water to dampen the seeds for better sticking ability. Then let the seeds dry overnight or in the shade. Do this right before sowing.

Rows should be 25-30 cm apart made by furrows and seeds should be sown in the furrows 10 cm apart.

Best time to sow is between 15 Oct-30 November with 10 December as the absolute last date to sow in order to obtain optimal yield.

Fertilizer requirementBoth organic and inorganic fertilizers are recommended. FYM or compost should be applied in the rice as well as to the rabi crop as much as possible. It should be incorporated deep into the soil during initial land preparation.If the farmer uses Rhizobium powder as a seed treatment then the dosage of nitrogen is reduced as a high dosage will inactivate the bacteria. Therefore apply 20 kg N, 50 kg P and 20 kg K/ha. All of the fertilizer should be incorporated into the soil during land preparation.

If chana is to be relay cropped after rice then apply an extra 20 kg/ha to the rice crop.

IrrigationIrrigation has to be controlled therefore the fields should be divided into compartments of approximate sizes of 10 m long and 4 m wide. Shallow bunds need to be constructed around each compartment that can be irrigated separately from the others.

Another method is to designate every seventh row as an irrigation furrow.

Chana can grow on only one irrigation after sowing at 45 days after crop emergence. If the soil is dry during the time of land preparation then a light irrigation is needed. Otherwise the best yields are from irrigations at 45 and 75

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days after crop emergence. Avoid overuse of irrigation water as waterlogging will kill seedlings.

WeedsWeed growth is seldom high after flooded rice. If weeds develop then they should be removed by hand or implement.

Insect pestsThe main insect pest is the pod borer which is multi-colored with groups of stiff hairs. It is not smooth skinned like cutworms or armyworms although all of these insects have longitudinal stripes along their bodies. Damage is done by the worms eating the flowers, young pods, and the seeds of mature pods. Significant loss can result particularly from a late planting.

Damage is greater on the larger seeded varieties. Farmers need to sow on time as late sowings are often devasted from heavier insect populations.

The best insecticide is nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) which is commercially available. It is a natural viral disease of the pest and only affects worms. It is highly contagious once in the local population is infected. Diseases worms become watery and their bodies flatten. Such worms can be collected and several ground up and placed in sprayers and sprayed on other fields to spread the infection to more worms. Otherwise Confidor is recommended.

Diseases

Damping offThis is common fungal disease that affects emerging seedlings particularly in very moist soil conditions. The affected seedlings wilt and fall over. Their roots turn black and if older plants are infected they will droop. Upon dissecting the stem the insides are light brown to black in color. The seed treatment should control it. All of the varieties listed have some resistance to this fusarium wilt. Crop rotation is also effective with a three year period where the land is not cultivated to pulses.

Collar rotThis fungus appears where soils are moist and temperatures are > 30oC. An infected plant becomes pale yellow and the collar of the stem shrinks in size and then decays. One can see the white fungal growth on the plant with small round

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balls appearing which are the fruiting bodies of the fungus. The fungus is spread in plant residue from previous crops.

Control is by sanitation of removing crop residue after harvest and the use of 0.3% of Ridomil fungicide spray.

HarvestGram yields often exceed more than 1 t/ha and sometimes reach 1.4 to 1.7 t/ha.

Lentil

Lentil is a hardy crop that can be grown successfully on residual profile soil moisture in heavy clayey paddy fields. Lentil is the second most preferred legume pulse grain crop in Chhattisgarh, after gram, for double cropping. Lentil generally is sown by broadcast method by sprinkling seeds in a standing crop of rice, about 25-30 days prior to harvest of rice and before draining out the ponded water.

SoilThe best soils are heavier ones kanhar and dosa with pH 5.8-7.5. Neither highly acidic or basic soils are recommended but slightly acid is best.

Land preparation2-3 plowings followed by pata to break the clods.

Nutrient requirements5 cartloads of FYM incorporated at land preparation. If it is acidic soil then lime should be used.

Planting method/tillage: Relay cropped broadcast 20 d before harvest

Recommended varieties

VarietyDuration days Resistance

Seed type

Quintals/ha

JL1 100-110 Rust, wilt Bold, brown

10-12

JL3 100-110 12-15IPL81 113-115 Rust, wilt

tolerant12-15

L4076 115-120 Rust, wilt Bold 15-18

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K75 110-115 Wilt 12-15Jawarhar 110-115 Rust, wilt BoldDPL62 120-122 Rust, wilt Bold 12-15

Sowing30-35 kg/ha, if late sown then 40 kg/ha. Treat the seed with Bavistan 3 g/kg. Also inoculate the seed with Rhizobium preparation.The biofertilizer PSB is also recommended as a further seed treatment at 5 g/kg seed.

Sow in furrows by drilling. Sowing should finished by mid-November.

Fertilizer requirement20-40-20-20 kg/ha NPKS all applied during land preparation to cover with soil so that it will be in the root zone and more will be available to the plant

IrrigationIf the soils are dry then a light irrigation is needed for land preparation. First irrigation after crop emergence is at branching time 45 days with the second 70-75 days to stimulate greater pod set.

Insect pestsAphids and thrips sometimes occur on the crop and can be knocked back by soap sprays. To prepare soap spray purchase a blue bar soap and cut one quarter of the bar. Fill the sprayer with water and then rub the soap with ones fingers with your hand under the water to disperse the soap. A follow up spray may be needed as this is not as toxic as a commercial insecticide but it is very inexpensive.

Pod borer is probably the most serious threat to yield. The best insecticide is nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) which is commercially available. It is a natural viral disease of the pest and only affects worms. It is highly contagious once in the local population is infected. Diseases worms become watery and their bodies flatten. Such worms can be collected and several ground up and placed in sprayers and sprayed on other fields to spread the infection to more worms. Otherwise Confidor is recommended.

DiseasesDamping off Seed treatment would prevent

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Fusarium wilt Resistant varieties or

Rust Resistant varieties or Bavistin or Benlate sprays

HarvestHarvest when mature and store in 9-11% moisture. A good yield is 1.5 t/ha.

Green gram Moong

Recommended varieties

Variety Duration Seed type Resistance Yield (q/ha)

BM4MuskanHUM12HUM1Pusa Vishal 70-75 YM resistant, PM

tolerant10-15

PragyaK851 75 Medium grain Yellow mosaic tolerant 8-10ML131 80 Medium grain Yellow mosaic tolerant 7-8Malviya Jyoti 75-80 Medium grain Yellow mosaic,

powdery mildew tolerant

10-12

Pusa 16 75-80 Bold YMV tolerant 10-12TARM1 80-85 Medium height,

small grainPM resistant 8-10

Field Pea or Mutter

Field pea is another important pulse legume crop grown in Chhattisgarh. Two types of peas are generally cultivated worldwide. One is the garden pea and other is field pea. Garden pea has green seeds and is used as a vegetable and also for canning purposes. Field pea is used as a pulse (dal) and also as forage or green manure crop. Field peas are hardy plants and are grown on a large scale even without

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irrigation and withstand frost except at the flowering stage. Field pea can be grown in rotation with rice in fallow fields under rainfed conditions, or in rotation with maize, rice, or other kharif crops in irrigated areas. Pea is generally grown mixed with chick pea, barley, wheat, oats, rape and mustard crops. Seeds are greyish-green, greyish-brown or greyish-yellow.

ClimateField pea requires a cool growing season with moderate temperatures throughout the growing season. For germination, about 22°C is considered favorable. Field pea requires a cool climate during its vegetative stage.High temperatures are more injurious than frosts. Peas are most sensitive to moisture stress at flowering state. High humidity is harmful as it favors incidence of disease. The optimum monthly temperature suitable for its growth is 13-18°C.

SoilIt also requires a well-drained, sandy loam to clay-loam soil, with only a moderate amount of clay. Field pea is highly sensitive to waterlogging conditions, hence a well drained loam soil is considered best for pea cultivation. They tolerate a moderate soil pH range (6.0 to 7.5). The optimum pH is 6.5.

Land preparationField is prepared as in the case of other rabi crops. After rice harvest, the field should be plowed with disc or moulboard plow. Where tractor is available one deep plowing followed by 2-3 harrowings and plankings should be give to prepare a well pulverised seed-bed. Where bullocks are the source of power, deep plowing followed by 2-3 harrowings or three to four cross plowing with local plow should be done. Field should be well levelled. Field should be prepared after pre-irrigation to ensure adequate moisture at the time of sowing.

Recommended varieties

VarietyDurationdays

Yield (q/ha) Seed type Resistance

Plant type

Ambika 110-115 15-16 Round smooth, white

Powdery mildew

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Shubhra 100-10 15-18 Round, smooth, white,bold

Powdery mildew

tall

Rachana 115-120 16-19 Powdery mildew

tall

JP885 115-120 12-15 Powdery mildew

tall

Aparna 110-115 12-15 Powdery mildew tolerant

dwarf

KPMR144-1 115-120 15-20 Powdery mildew

dwarf

KPMR400 120-125 15-20 Powdey mildew

dwarf

Crop establishmentSowing of pea should be done according to prevailing temperature in a particular area, It should be sown when daily maximum temperature is below 30°C and the daily minimum temperature comes down to 20°C. If pea is sown above this temperature range than crop will have more incidence of wilt disease. Dwarf varieties should be sown closer. For good nodulation seed should be treated with proper strain of bacterial culture before sowing.

Seed rate is 80-100 kg/ha. Spacing row to row at 30 cm and then drilled in the furrows.

Fertilizer requirementBeing a leguminous crop, the field pea does not require high doses of nitrogen. About 20 t/ha of organic manure should be incorporated in the soil at the time of land preparation. This should be supplemented with 20-30 kg nitrogen as a starter dose per hectare as a basal dressing at the time of sowing which can meet plant requirement before the formation of nodules.

Phosphorus and potassium are the other two important major nutrients required for better growth and maximum yield. These should be applied as a basal dose under the soil. Apply 60-70 kg P205 and 30-40 kg K2O per hectare. Broadcast the fertilizer on the soils before the last harrowing.

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In case of zinc deficiency, 0.5 per cent zinc sulphate and 0.25 per cent lime should be sprayed after the appearance of calcium deficiency symptoms characterised by chlorosis and stunted growth.

Irrigation Pea requires 2-3 irrigations after crop establishment, the first during pre-flowering, and a second at pod formation, and a third irrigation might be required on soils with poor moisture holding capacity. Special precaution should be taken while irrigating a pea crop. Light and uniform irrigation should be given. Waterlogging condition is pea field even for a day causes considerable loss in the yield since this crop is highly sensitive to poor drainage conditions. Poor drainage leads to reduction in the number of branches and pods per plant.

WeedsThe pea field should be free from weeds from crop emergence up to 40-50 days after sowing. Later on crop itself checks the growth of weeds by covering the ground surface. There is drastic reduction in yield under heavy infestation. Therefore, the field should be kept free from weeds by giving two weedings and hoeings after three and six weeks of germination.

Insect pestsPea aphids suck the sap of the cells, owing to which the leaves turn pale and yellow. In case of severe infestation the plant growth is checked. Use a soap spray if aphids become abundant. To prepare soap spray purchase a blue bar laundry soap and cut off one sixth of the bar. Fill the sprayer with water and then rub the soap with ones fingers with your hand under the water to dissolve the soap. A follow up spray may be needed as this is not as toxic as a commercial insecticide but it is very inexpensive.

Pod borer chews holes in the pods to feed on the grains inside. Generally a late sown crop is damaged more by this pest. Apply Confidor to control it.

DiseasesPowdery mildew is caused by a fungus and is a serious disease of pea crop. The symptoms first appear on the leaves and then on other green parts of the plant. They are characterised by white powdery, patchy growth on both the surfaces of the leaf and also on the tendrils, pods, and stem. In advanced stage, entire plant surface may be covered with white powder. The number and weight of the pods are reduced. In case of severe infection the plant dies prematurely.1) Use a resistant or tolerant variety2) Avoid late plantings.3) After harvest, collect the plants left in the field and place them in the compost pile.4) The disease can be controlled by 2-3 sprays of any of the wettable sulphurs like Sulfex, Elosal or Hexasual at the rate of 3 kg/ha with a spray volume of 300 liters/ha. Give the first spray after appearance of the disease in the crop. Second spray should be given 14 days after the first spray and the third spray only if there is a need for it.

HarvestThe picking of green pods should be done by giving a simple jerk to the pedicle and with minimum possible disturbance to

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the plants. Field peas should be harvested when they are fully ripe and threshed after sufficient drying in the sun.

With improved package of practices, field peas can yield about 20-25 quintals of seed and about same quantity of crop residue from one hectare of land.

Pigeon pea

Arhar or tur is an important pulse crop, as it contributes to the daily food of both rich and poor residents of Chhattisgarh. It is highly valued in the market and it usually is grown in combination with mai kodo and other crops such as jowar (sorghum), til, maize, and groundnuts. Arhar can be grown anywhere in Chhattisgarh. It is grown as a monoculture but more frequently on rice bunds and on black soils after rice.

ClimateIt requires high relative humidity of 80-90% in early stages, and 60-70% relative humidity during maturation.

SoilsArhar can be grown on a wide range of soils, although it performs best on fertile, well drained loams.

Recommended varieties

VarietyDuration days

Yield (q/ha) Resistance Plant type

Type 21 150-170 14-17 Wilt tolerant

Medium height

Prabhata 135-150 12-15 Wilt tolerant

Densely branched

Upas 120 135-150 12-15 Wilt tolerant

Kharif sowing

Pragati 130-140 12-15 Wilt resistant

Dwarf, determinate, good for ratoon

Asha 180-200 20-25 Wilt tolerant

Kharif sowing on rice bunds

C11 180-200 20-25 Wilt resistant

On rice bunds

148 160-180 15-18 Wilt tol Hilly regions

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BDN2 160-180 15-20 Wilt resistant

Kharif sowing

Lakshmi 180-200 20-26 Wilt res Suitable for rice bunds

BSMR846 180-200 20-22 Wilt resistant

Dense branching

MA6Pusa992GT101KM7 180-200 20-25 Wilt res Indeterminant

for rice bunds

Bahar 200-250 22-30 Resistant to seed sterilty

For rice bunds

Amar 200-230 25-30 Resistant to seed sterilty

Tall and upright

Long-duration varieties (180-240 days) are preferred for mixed cropping when arhar is harvested in January or February, or as a mixed crop at the end of September or in early October. Early maturing short duration varieties (120-150 days) are preferred for single cropping. Those varieties are harvested in October or November.

Crop establishmentSowing best in June-July at 18-20 kg/ha 40-60 between rows.

Fertilizer requirements20-25 N, 45-50P , 15-20K

Irrigation

Insect pestsAhar can be damaged heavily by gram caterpillar or pod borer Helicoverpa armigera which feeds on flowers and seed.

Diseases

Black gram or urd

Recommended varieties

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Variety MATURIY Yield q Resistance TPU4 70-75 10-15Barakha 70-75 12-15 Yellow

mosaic resistant

KU96-3 70-75 12-15 Yellow mosaic resistant

GautamLBG17PU30 65-70 10-12 Yellow

mosaic resistant

Rapeseed and Mustard

This is the most important group of oilseed crops in Chhattisgarh. These are deep rooted (tap root) crops that can extract moisture from deeper layers and survive and thrive under a steadily receding moisture regime, provided they are sown early on ample stored soil moisture. Rape seed and mustard are generally grown mixed with Rabi crops like wheat, barley and chick pea. There is a lot of confusion and misunderstanding about the names and kinds of rape and mustard that are grown in India. The same local name may be used for different forms and different local names are used for the same form in different areas. (B. campestris var toria) is rapeseed rai (small seed) while B. juncea is mustard Sarson (larger seed). They are actually two separate species although very similar in growth habit.

ClimateRape seed and mustard and crops of tropical as well as temperate zones. The crop requires cool, dry weather, mild winters clear, and dry weather with plentiful of bright sun shine accompanied with adequate soil moisture to increase the oil yield. Rapeseed and mustard crops grow well in areas having 25-40 cm of annual rainfall or an equivalent amount of stored soil moisture. Rapeseed is more liable to suffer from wet and cold and is, therefore, usually sown earlier and harvested before the onset of frost. Rapeseed and mustard are long day in periodic response.

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SoilsRape seed and mustard are capable of growing under a wide range of soil conditions varying from sandy loam to clay loam soils but they thrive best on light loam soils. They neither tolerate waterlogging conditions nor do well on heavy soils. Plants can tolerate moderate salinity reasonably well but a soil having neutral pH is ideal for their proper growth and development.

Rapeseed and mustard grow best on well drained, light to medium textured soils and best if sown on residual moisture from rice crop. They require heavy clay loam soils with good moisture retention, without any irrigation until late in the season. The rapeseed and mustard crops of India shed their leaves after pod formation and, hence, their transpiration rates become subdued during the reproductive phase.

Land preparationA clean and well pulverised seedbed of good tilth is needed for better germination. The land should be well prepared first by plowing deep with a soil turning plow, followed by two cross harrowings. Each plowing should be followed by planking so that the soil is well pulverised and levelled. Care should be taken to see that weeds and stubbles are well removed from the field and the soil contains adequate moisture to ensure good germination.

Recommended mustard varieties

VarietyDuration (days)

Yield (q/ha)

Oil content

Plant and seed type

Varuna 105JT1Lakshmi 100-105 18-20 40% oil Thick stem, base

of branches are violet, bold brown

Pulsa Bold 110-120 20-25 41% oil Bold, blackPusa Jai KisanAgraniGM3Kranti 110-115 18-20 40%Vardhan 100-105 12-15 42% Brown grain, med

size, good for late sowing to mid Dec

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Rapeseed

VarietyDuration (days)

Yield (q/ha)

Oil content

Plant and seed type

T9 95-100 8-10

Sowing Planting time is the single most important variable affecting the seed yield of rape seed and mustard to a great extent. The seed of the crop is very small and needs a well-prepared seed bed with ample moisture in the top 7-8 cm for seed placement. Since the rate of development of oil in seed is greatly influenced by the variation in atmospheric temperature, humidity, and other biotic factors, sowing either too early or too late have been reported to be harmful. Delay in planting reduces the yield on account of its depressing effect on the plant growth, flowering duration, seed formation and seed size. Therefore, for getting good yields or rapeseed and mustard timely sowing is a must. Sowing must be completed in the first fortnight of October.

Seed rate and spacing Spacing has no absolute value in the cultivation of rape and mustard as it fluctuates a great deal with the growth habit of variety, date of sowing, manuring, and irrigation practices. Generally rapeseed is planted in rows 30 cm apart while mustard is sown in rows 45 cm apart. Thinning is done three weeks after sowing to maintain a plant to plant distance of 10 to 15 cm. In case of mixed cropping they are generally sown in rows 1.8 to 2.4 m apart in the main crop. Five to six kg seed should be sown in rows at a depth of 2.5-3.0 cm in case of a pure crop. When sown mixed with some other crop, 1.5 to 2 kg seed per hectare is sufficient. Sowing could be done either behind the local plow or through seed drill. Before sowing seed should be treated with Thiram or Captan at the rate of 2.5 g per kg of seed.

Fertilizer requirementRapeseed and mustard hold great potential for expansion with an increase in irrigation facilities. High yields up to 2.0 to 2.5 t per hectare can be achieved only when the crop is grown with an assured (minimum) of two irrigations and when the full complements of nitrogen and phosphorous are

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applied. Unlike other oilseed crops, rapeseed and mustard are heavy feeders and require fertilization equivalent to high yielding varieties of wheat, rice or maize. In addition to phosphorous, the crop also requires substantial sulfur that can be obtained from gypsum (18%), single super phosphate (12% sulfur and 16% P2O5), or ammonium sulfate nitrate (CAN) containing 15% sulfur and 25% nitrogen.

Rape seed and mustard respond well both to organic and inorganic manures. If available, apply 15-20 t of farm yard manure or compost at the time of field preparation. These crops show good response to chemical fertilizers. For good harvest, apply 60-90 kg nitrogen, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O per hectare. Split application of nitrogen has been found very useful for rape and mustard crop. Under irrigated conditions half of the nitrogen and full dose of phosphorus and potash should be applied as basal dose at the time of sowing by placement method. The remaining half of the nitrogen should be applied at the time of first irrigation. Rape seed and mustard have higher requirement for sulphur, therefore, nitrogen should preferably be applied through ammonium sulphate and phosphorus from single superphosphate.

IrrigationGood yields can he achieved if the fields are bunded and levelled before the monsoon and plowed two to three times during the monsoon season, bulky organic manures are applied in soil to improve moisture storage capacity of soil and evaporation losses of moisture are minimised by the use of intercultivation or mulching on the soil surface. Rape seed and mustard respond to irrigation as well. Application of even a small quantity of water has shown very encouraging results in these crops. Two irrigations, the first at pre-bloom and the second at pod filling stages are beneficial.

WeedsWeeds are generally not important when rapeseed and mustard follow paddy rice. If weedy however losses can reach 20-30 per cent reduction in yield. Care should be taken to remove all weeds in the early stages of crop growth to avoid competition on the reserve moisture. One intercultural operation with hand hoe is very beneficial. This, besides creating a soil mulch and thus reducing moisture losses through evaporation helps in better growth and development of crop plants, thining operation should be accompanied by with interculture to provide the plants proper space within the rows.

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Insect pestsThese crops are subjected to the attack of insect pests right from the seedling stage to the pod formation stage. The most common are aphids which remove plant sap and if very numerous weaken the plant. If sowing is delayed there is great danger of attack of aphids. The crop does not have to be aphid free to obtain its yield potential thus sprays of soap solution or neem are sufficient. These are low toxicity materials and do not kill the important pollinators such as bees. Care has to be taken to spare bees. Bees are most active in the mornings so in all cases if one needs to spray more potent materials then late in the afternoon is the best time. To prepare soap spray purchase a blue bar soap and cut one quarter of the bar. Fill the sprayer with water and then rub the soap with ones fingers with your hand under the water to disperse the soap. A follow up spray may be needed as this is not as toxic as a commercial insecticide but it is very inexpensive.

Bugs such as the painted bug also feed on seeds but again it would take a very high population to lead to yield loss.

Diseases A number of diseases have been recorded on these crops. Of these, alternaria blight, downy midlew and white blister are the most important diseases which take a heavy toll of the crop. It is important therefore to test new varieties in small plot trials in order have the most adapted varieties in production.

HarvestWith the use of improved varieties, agronomical and plant protecton techniques, the farmers may expect to harvest per hectare 14-20 quintals of seed of rape seed and 20-25 quintals of mustard per hectare. Avg yield is 0.4-0.5t/ha and needs controlled irrigation.

Linseed or Flax

Linseed or flax (Linum usitatisimum) is the most widely cultivated oilseed in Chhattisgarh and is called alasi. Linseed performs well with little rainfall. A large part of the crop is therefore taken as utera crop. Linseed area varies widely in Chhattisgarh, with changes in rainfall

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distribution. Linseed is an important crop and its area and production can stabilized by providing one irrigation.

SoilsIt is grown mostly on conserved soil moisture on soils of medium to high water holding capacity, such as loams, silty clay loams and clayey loams (kanhar and dosa).

Land preparationLinseed seeds are either broadcast before rice harvest (utera) or sown in rows after full tillage. For irrigated conditions full tillage is recommended. Linseed should be grown on well drained soils and land preparation is 2-3 plowings and patta levelling to break the clods and seal in moisture.

Seed rateSeeding rate for row sowing is 20 kg/ha and the seed should be treated with 3 g Bavistan/kg seed of fungicide.

SowingLinseed is sown on rice soils after harvest and mid November is the latest optimal sowing date to ensure a good harvest. Sowing is best done when soil is moist thus if the soil is dry then a light irrigation is required. Row sowing is 25-30 cm row to row with the seed dribbled into furrows.

Varietal characteristics

Variety Maturitydays

Quintals/ha Seed type

Resistance

Alasi32 104 7-8 rainfed Powdery mildew moderate resistance

Kartika 100 12-13 Wilt, rust, alternaria, powdery mildew

R552 115-120 12-15 Medium Wilt, powdery mildew, rust, Kalika fly tolerant

Kiran 115-120 12-15 Medium Wilt, powdery mildew, rust, bulb fly

LMH62 110 12-15 Wilt, powdery mildew, rust moderately resistant

Padmani 120 12-15 Wilt, powdery mildew

Fertilizer requirement

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It is recommended to supply FYM or compost to the soil to increase general fertility and soil texture. Inorganic fertilizer should be 60-30-30 kg/ha NPK. 30 kg N and all of P and K should be plowed under in the soil during land preparation. The remaining half of the N fertilizer is applied at at first irrigation. P should be in the form of SSP which contains sulfur, which is also needed.

WeedsAfter flooded rice only low weed pressure is expected. However if pressure is high then the post emergence herbicide isoproturon at 1 kg ai/ha 25-30 days after crop emergence can be applied to control grasses and broad leaves.

In some areas cuscuta or dodder parasitic weed is present. It is generally transmitted through seed, thus farmers should use certified seed. Also remove the weed from the crop when it is seed to prevent its spread.

IrrigationFields should be divided into compartments by making small bunds to contain irrigation water to prevent over watering. The size of the compartments should be 10 m long and 4 m wide. Only one compartment is irrigated at a time and avoid overwatering. The first irrigation is 30-40 days after crop emergence and the second at 60-70 days. If only one irrigation is available then it should be applied at 40-45 days.

Insect pestsKalika fly is the linseed budfly (Dasyneura lini) which is a small gall midge. The worm feeds on buds and flower. To control it sowing should be early after the rice harvest 15-30 Oct. One can also intercrop with safflower in a ratio 2 linseed:1 safflower plants or arranged 4:2. Resistant varieties are available such as RLC27, R17, Garab, Kiran.Natural control occurs with ladybird beetles or parasitic wasps thus reduced insecticide usage is warranted to conserve these friendly insects. If the situation requires an insecticide application then dimethoate or confidor sprays can be applied beginning at bud formation and second after 10 days. Follow dosage recommendations on the pesticide label.

Cutworm can also be a pest which defoliates the crop. The large worms feed at night and hide at the base of the plant

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during the day. Spray only the affected areas in the field. Spray in the late afternoon just before the larvae climb up the plants. Confidor can be applied, follow the directions on the label.

Termites feed on the roots and if the infestation is high one can spray confidor using a high volume in a band along the edge of the rice bund where termites dwell. If termites are a perennial problem neem cake mixed in soil 40-50 kg/ha can be applied during land preparation.

DiseasesFour plant fungal diseases can occur on linseed.

Rust occurs on branches, leaves, pods where one can see their pustules. If rust covers the plant it can result in death. Many varieties are resistant as we see in the table listing the varieties. Also the recommended inexpensive seed treatment of Bavistin is effective. If infection still becomes a worry then a fungicide can be sprayed. A sulfur containing fungicide would be effective as would Dithane containing maneb. Follow the directions on the pesticide label but normally two sprays at a 8-10 day interval, would be required.

Fusarium wilt can attack a young or old crop but at generally at branching time. The whole plant can succumb. However the recommended Bavistan seed treatment would have prevented a problem. Summer plowing is also a preventative practice along with crop rotation with an interval of 2-3 years.

Alternaria fungus causes a leaf spot symptom and can also be prevented by a seed treatment either 3 g of either Thiram or Bavistan/kg seed. If the infection spreads then one can spray a fungicide such as Dithane or maneb twice with a 8-10 day interval.

Powdery mildew turns the leaves white particularly on the undersides. Infection results in small grain and wrinkled grain. A prevenative is early sowing or using one of the resistant varieties listed in the variety characteristics table. As a last resort a fungicide containing sulfur can be sprayed twice at a 8-10 day interval.

HarvestA yield of over 1 t/ha can be expected with good management.

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Soybean

Can tolerate flooding early in crop growth but nodultion is less.

Climate

SoilGrown in black soils but during the vegetative stage the soils are saturated and nodulation rate is less.

Recommended varieties

Variety Maturity Yield Plant type ResistanceJS93-5 95-100 15-22 Violet

flower, yellow seed, black embryo, 4 seeded pod

IS9JS335 90-103 15-25 Violet

flower,Resistant to bacterial pustule, blight, leaf scald

PK1029NRC37JS80-21 115-125 15-25 Violet

flower, Tolerant bacterial pustule, leafhopper

PK472 95-110 12-20 White flower

Res mosaic, bacterial diseases

MACS124 110-120 15-22 Violet flower

Res to bact pustule

Indira Soya9

115-125 15-25 Violet flower

Res to rust, bacterial

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pustule

Crop establishment sow seeds at base of rice stubble with jabber

Fertilizer requirement

Irrigation2-3 times if sown in residual moisture in rice field

Weeds

Insect pests

Diseases

Harvest Average yields are 0.9-1 t/ha

Groundnut

Groundnut (mungphali) is another important oilseed crop in Chhattisgarh that is cultivated during the mild rabi season; it is essentially a tropical plant and an important cash crop with a high degree of stability.

There are three types of varieties in groundnut: bunch types with an erect plant habit, spreading, and semi-spreading types. The bunch types have light green foliage, comparatively broad leaflets and mature early. But they are usually susceptible to tikka disease. The spreading types usually have dark green foliage with smaller leaflets. These are usually late in maturity. The semi-spreading varieties are intermediate between the bunch and the spreading types.

The pods begin in the orange veined, yellow petaled, pea-like flowers, which are borne in auxiliary clusters above ground. Following self-pollination, the flowers fade. The flower is borne above ground and after it withers, the stalk elongates, bends down, and forces the seed underground. When the seed is mature, the seed coat changes color from white to a reddish brown. The stalk at the base of the seed elongates rapidly, and turns downward to bury the fruits several inches in the soil to complete their development.

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ClimateGroundnut requires a long and warm growing season. The most favorable climatic conditions are a well distributed rainfall of at least 50 cm during growing season, abundance of sunshine, and relatively warm temperatures. Groundnut temperature requirements are similar to those for maize (mean temp around 240 C and night temp above 150 C). A temperature range of 140 to 160C is good for seed germination and growth. Lower temperatures are not suitable for its proper development. During the ripening period it requires about a month of warm and dry weather. Temperatures above 450C can cause injury. The crop performs well in moist, humid climates and requires 60 to 125 cm of well distributed rains during the rainy season.

Land preparationAlthough groundnut is a deep rooted crop but due to its underground pod forming habit, deep plowing should be avoided as this encourages development of pods in deeper layers of soil which makes harvesting difficult. One plowing with soil turning over followed by two harrowings would be sufficient to achieve a good surface tilth up to 12-18 cm depth. One or two summer cultivations will minimise weeds and insect pests to a great extent in problem areas.

Recommended varieties

Variety Maturity (days) CharacteristicsAK159TAG24 100-105 Wet seasonTAG26TG37-AICGS11 100-105 Summer sowingICGS37 100-105 Summer sowingICGS44 100-105 Summer sowingICUG 92035

GC6Juna Garh11 100-105 Tolerant to low

temp, both wet and dry seasons

Sowing

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The quality of seeds is of utmost importance for establishing the optimum plant stand. Pods for seed purposes should be stored unshelled in a cool, dry, and ventilated place. For seed purposes, pods should be shelled by hand one week before sowing. Hand shelling ensures little damage to seeds. Pods shelled long before sowing time are liable to suffer from loss of viability and storage damages. Discard very small, shrivelled, and diseased kernels. Only bold seeds should be used for sowing.

Treat the selected kernels with 5 g of Thiram or Captan or Ceresan per kg of seed to check various seed and soil borne diseases. Seed should be inoculated with a proper strain of Rhizobium culture particularly in those places where groundnut is to be grown for the first time.

Soak groundnuts in water overnight. Groundnuts should sprout within 5-8 days. In bunch types, the row to row distance is 30-40 cm and in spreading types 45-60 cm. For this, 80-100 kg of seeds per hectare will be enough for bunch types and 60-80 kg for spreading types. Plant to plant distance would be 15 cm for bunch and 20 cm spreading types.Row to row 25 cm and plant to plant 10 cm, hilling up twice

Sowing should be about 5 cm deep. Cover furrows with soil and lightly pack. Plants emerge in 10 to 15 days depending on soil and weather conditions.  When plants are about 2-3 cm high, thin stand.

Fertilizer requirementsJust like the other legumes, groundnut meets the major part of its nitrogen requirement through the nitrogen fixation. However an application of 20-40 kg nitrogen per hectare as a starter dose is given in the initial stage in poor fertility soils. 10-15 t/ha FYM may be added per hectare during land preparation as groundnut is grown on lighter less fertile soils. If nitrogen is to be applied through fertilizers, prefer ammonium sulphate. It provides sulphur in addition to nitrogen. Apply 50-60 kg P205 and about 30-40 kg K20 per hectare to meet the requirement of the crop. The fertilizers should be placed at the time of sowing about 4-5 cm in the side of the seed and 4-5 cm below the seed level. Calcium too has pronounced effect on proper development of pods and kernels. Therefore, care should be taken to ensure that soil has sufficient calcium. Apply gypsum at the rate of 125 kg/ha.20-60-20.

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When blossoms appear on the groundnut plants, apply gypsum [calcium (CaSO4) sulphate] in a 14-inch band over the plants (does not burn) at the rate of 125 kg/ha. This is essential for the formation of the groundnut kernels. The target soil pH is 6.0, Boron should be a part of the fertilization program, especially for groundnuts grown on sandy soils. Calcium is a critical soil nutrient needed in groundnut production, especially for pod filling and hull brightness. The calcium must be in the pegging and pod development zone for it to be effective because very little of the nutrient is translocated from the roots or other plant parts to the developing pods. To supply the needed calcium, gypsum should be applied at early bloom and before pegging. Dry, bagged gypsum may be banded (18-inch band) over the row at the rate of 250-400 pounds per acre.

Boron should be a part of the fertilization program, especially for groundnuts grown on sandy soils. About 0.5 pound of elemental boron should be applied in the pre-plant fertilizer or as a foliar spray by the time of first flowering. Manganese deficiency may occur if groundnuts are grown on certain soils that have been limed to a pH of 6.2 or higher. Groundnut gives good yields in the soil with pH between 6.0-6.5. Manganese deficiency can be corrected with a foliar spray of manganese sulfate or other suitable material.

IrrigationGroundnuts require five months of warm weather, and an annual rainfall of 500 to 1000 mm (20 to 40 in) or the equivalent in irrigation water. Groundnuts must be supplied with irrigation at regular intervals to ensure normal vegetative growth, flowering and pod development. Moist soil is a pre-requisite at peg-formation stage for easy penetration of the pegs into the soil for fruit bearing. Irrigate 4-6 times: (peg formation, flowering, pod development (twice),and 5 days before harvest).

WeedingNormally, one or two hand hoeings and weedings should be done, depending upon soil type and extent of weed infestation. First hoeing should be done three weeks after sowing and the second, three weeks thereafter before commencement of flowering. Care should be taken that soil should not be tilled at pod formation stage. The earthing up should be taken up simultaneously with intercultural

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operations. The basic idea of earthing up is to promote easy penetration of pegs in soil and also to provide more area to spread.

Insect pestsThere are few insect pests if grown after rice on previously flooded soils.

Diseases Seed and pre-emergence fungi cause seed and pre-emergence rots. Due to these diseases patchy stand of the groundnut crop is usually seen. This is because of poor seed germination and seedling rots. The seedlings which make their way on the soil surface remain stunted and seldom develop to maturity. If this occurs then in subsequent crops treat the seed with Thiram at the rate of 3 g per kg seed.

Tikka or leaf spot disease is caused by a fungus. It spreads rapidly at a temperature above 22°C and when the relative humidity is higher. Small dark brown circular spots appear on the leaves. When the attack is severe, defoliation occurs and only the stem remains. The yield of susceptible varieties is substantially reduced.Control Measures: (1) Treat the seed with Thiram at the rate of 5 g per kg of seed.(2) Collect the affected plant debris and burn them.(3) Two sprays of 0.05% Bavistin has been found very effective against this disease. (4) Grow tolerant varieties like T-64, C-501, MH-4, TMV-6 and TMV-10.

HarvestingThe outer shell reaches full size well before the individual groundnuts mature. Each plant produces between 25 and 50 nuts. Mature plants may be as large as 36 inches in diameter and about 18 inches tall. The pods ripen in 120 to 150 days after emergence. If the crop is harvested too early, the pods will be unripe. If they are harvested late, the pods will snap off at the stalk, and will remain in the soil. The entire plant, including most of the roots, is removed from the soil during harvesting.

When a groundnut is ripe, the veins of the hull are prominent and the inside of the hull has turned dark. If the inside of hull is white, the pod is immature. Pull a plant to examine pods for readiness. It is necessary to dig the pods at the right time for obtaining higher yields of pods

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and oil. Nut takes two months to attain full development. A fully mature pod will be difficult to split easily with finger pressure. This stage is achieved when vine begins to turn yellow and leaves start shedding. Harvesting should be done when good percentage of nuts are fully developed and fairly intact. In case of bunch types, the plants are harvested by pulling. Harvesting of spreading type of groundnut is done by spade, local plow or with the help of blade harrow or groundnut digger. Leave the harvested crop in small heaps for two three days for curing. After curing, collect the crop at one place and detach the pods either by hand or using groundnut plucker for separating the pods from the plants.

Dig when about 2/3 of the pods on a plant are mature. Groundnuts bloom and peg over a long period of time (60-100 days after planting), and all pods do not mature at the same time. Groundnuts grown for the fresh market are normally harvested at an earlier stage of maturity than groundnuts grown for the dry market,

Allow plants, with groundnuts still attached, to "cure" in full hot sun for 4 to 7 days (may be left, turned groundnuts side-up on the garden row) or inside a dry, well ventilated area. Ventilation is important to the curing process of reducing the initial moisture level of about 50% to a safe storage level of about 10%. Inside curing may take from 2 to 4 weeks. Poor storage of groundnuts can lead to an infection by the mold fungus, releasing the toxic substance aflatoxin. The aflatoxin-producing molds exist throughout the groundnut growing areas and may produce aflatoxin in groundnuts when conditions are favorable to fungal growth. When the curing process is completed, groundnuts may be separated from the plant and used or stored.

By adopting the above mentioned agronomical practices, it will be possible to obtain about 15-20 quintals of pods per hectare from bunch type varieties and 20-30 quintals per hectare from spreading varieties. General yield in CG is 18-20 q/ha.

Sunflower

Sunflower (surajmukhi) is another important crop being grown and promoted in irrigated command areas. The presence of other flowering crops and honey bees in abundance during

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flowering of sunflower helps in obtaining a good set of seed. Therefore growing of mustard and other flowering crops in nearby fields contributes to satisfactory pollination. Sunflower is a photo-insensitive crop, therefore, it can be grown successfully in any season. With the exception of freezing temperatures, the sowing of sunflower can be done in any month of the year.

There are three main varietal groupings:1) Large white seeded type: having high oil and content,2) Small black seeded type: best for eating seeds, and3) Intermediate type with striped seeds: good for both eating and oil purposes.

Some workers have divided all the varieties into two distinct groups according to habit of growth: Group I: having tall, unbranched single headed types with well developed achenes.Group II: having comparatively shorter, branched growth and with many heads.

ClimateThe crop does best with mild winters, with growth beginning in the cold season (early winter months) and harvest occurring in hot, dry months. Sunflower can tolerate high temperatures, even up to 38-400C without many adverse effects. Sunflower requires a cool climate during germination and seedling growth. Seedlings tolerate frosts moderately well until they reach the four to six leaf stage. Sunflower requires warm weather from the seedling stage up to flowering stage and warm and sunny days during flowering to maturity. High humidity accompanied with cloudy weather and rainfall during flowering results in poor seed set. The amount of linoleic acid decreases with high temperature at maturity.

SoilsSunflower can be grown on a wide range of soils and tolerates a moderate pH range and some salanity. It thrives best on deep loam soils with good drainage and irrigation facilities.The optimum range of soil pH for this crop is 6.5 to 8.5.

Land preparationSunflower requires well pulverised and weed-free land with adequate moisture supply. The first plowing should be done by the mould-board plow and subsequently two to three

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plowings could be done by local plow followed by planking. There should be sufficient moisture at the time of sowing for proper germination. Under irrigated conditions where sunflower is to be taken during rabi, sowing should be done after pre-irrigation. Sunflower seeds have thick hulls and imbibe water at a slow rate. It is, therefore, necessary to ensure sufficient moisture for proper germination at the time of sowing.

Recommended varieties

Variety Duration days

Yield q/ha irrigated

Yield (q/ha) rainfed

Kargil Hybrid

Modern 110-120 10-12 6-8 CompositeJwala Mukhi 100-110 18-20 8-10 compositeMSFH8 105-110 16-18 7-8 hybridMSFH17 100-110 18-20 8-10 hyKBSH1 90-100 16-18 8-10 hyKBSH44 105-110 18-20 7-8 hy

SowingA seed rate of 8-10 kg per hectare is sufficient to ensure good crop stand. Sunflower should be sown 60 cm apart in lines with a plant to plant spacing of 20 cm. The seed should be sown at 3-4 cm depth for better stand. After 10-12 days of germination, extra seedlings should be uprooted to provide a space of 20 cm between plants in rows. The seed before sowing should be treated with Apron 35 SD at the rate of 6 g per kg of seed. Bold and certified seeds should be used.

IrrigationSunflower is a crop of medium water requirement. Pre-sowing irrigation is necessary to get uniform germination and better stand. The crop may be irrigated thrice after 40, 75 and 110 days of sowing which will roughly coincide to four to five leaf stage, flowering, and grain filling stages of the crop. Sunflower crop is highly sensitive to water stress between flowering and grain filling stages and at least one of the irrigation must be applied during this period.

Fertilizer requirementsSunflowers produce well following rice, provided that soil nutrients are adequate. Sunflower requires substantial

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amounts of potash, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Sunflower is an exhaustive crop and responds well to nitrogen phosphorus and potash. A crop of sunflower yielding 14 quintals of grain per hectare exhausts 175 kg N, 65 kg P2O5 and 225 kg K2O from one hectare land. Therefore, it is necessary to add adequate an amount of manures and inorganic fertilizer. Nitrogen is essential for vegetative growth but to improve the seed size and its proper filling and to increase oil content liberal supply of phosphorus is essential. Potash also helps in grain filling and disease resistance. A dose of 60-80 kg nitrogen, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O per hectare has been found optimum for sunflower. Two-thirds of the nitrogen and whole of phosphorus and potash should be applied as basal dose during land preparation. The remaining dose of nitrogen should be topdressed at the time of second irrigation (flowering stage).

WeedingIntercultural operations are essential to minimise the competition of sunflower plant with the weeds. Weedfree conditions up to 60 days after sowing results in better yield performance. When the plant attains a knee high stage earthing should be done along the rows. This provides safeguard against lodging which is likely to occur at heading stage if winds of high velocity blow. Use of alachlor or pendimethalin at the rate of 1.5 kg a.i. per hectare applied as pre-emergence has been found effective in controlling weeds in sunflower crop. Fluchloralin (Basalin) at the rate of 1 kg a.i. per hectare dissolved in 800-1000 litres of water could also be used as pre-planting.

Insect pestsThere are few insect pests on sunflower if grown after flooded rice. If there is a need to control them remember that the seeds are pollinated by bees so spray in the late afternoon.

DiseasesNo serious diseases have been recorded.

HarvestingThe sunflower crop is ready for harvest when moisture in seed is 20%. Phenotypically the heads are ripe when back of the head turns yellowish-brown. All heads may not be ready for harvesting at one time. Harvesting may, therefore, be done in two or three instalments to avoid shattering. The harvested heads should be dried well in sun and then only

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threshed by beating the centre of the head with a small stick. The commercial crop may be threshed with available threshers by reducing their speed. Further, sun-drying of the seed is desirable before storage or oil extraction. Moisture in seed should not exceed ten per cent.  A good crop of sunflower raised property and nursed appropriately should yield over 20 quintals per hectare. Farmers should avoid incorporating sunflower crop residue into the soil. It should be taken from the field and put in the compost pit.

Safflower

Recommended varieties

Sweta 135-140 Aphid tolerantJSF1JSI7 135-140 No thornsBSN129 135 Aphid tolerant Hybrid

Sesame til

Comments:Planting method/tillage: Maturity: Soil: Climate: Yield: Price: Irrigation: IGAU varieties

MaturityNirmalaTKG22TKG55PrachiGT10Jawahar Til7 90-95 KharifT25 95-100 KharifRoma 85-90 Kharif ,rabiJT21

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Gujarat1 95-100 Kharif

Niger

Rainfed cropYield: 0.5 t/ha

IGAU varieties

IGP76 105-110 6-8 46%GA10 100-110 7-9 42%JNS1 90-100 6-8 41%BN1JNS6 90-100 6-8 42%Utakmand 100-105

Yields average 0.5t/ha

Tomato

Tomato is one of the most widely grown vegetables in the world. The popularity of tomato among consumers has made it an important source of vitamins A and C in diets. Tomato varieties are grouped into one of three market classes: 1) fresh market – fruit are usually red but vary in color, shape, and size;2) cherry – a small-fruited (less than 30 g) fresh market type borne on long clusters; and3) processing – fruit have intense red color and high solids content suitable for making paste, catsup, or sauce.

Tomato varieties are also classified according to plant habit:

1) determinate, 2) semi-determinate, or 3) indeterminate.

Determinate and semi-determinate varieties produce stems that end with a flower cluster. Determinates are short and bushy while semi-determinate varieties grow slightly taller. Indeterminate varieties continually produce new leaves and flowers, and can grow very tall. Indeterminate varieties set

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fruit over a longer period. This longer harvest period is an advantage if market prices fluctuate, because income tends to even out. Indeterminate varieties should be staked and pruned and usually require more labor.Leafy vegetables or radish can also be grown as intercrops in tomato successfully.

Most tomato varieties are adapted to the dry season when the environment for production is more favorable. Successful wet season production requires a combination of a suitable variety and special management practices, such as use of fruit-set growth regulator, raised beds, and grafting.

ClimateTomatoes grow best under temperatures of 20–27°C. Fruit setting is poor when average temperatures exceed 30°C or fall below 10°C. Bright sunshine at the time of fruit set helps to develop dark red colored fruits.

SoilTomatoes prefer a well-drained soil because they are sensitive to waterlogging. Optimum soil pH is 6.0-7.0.

Recommended varietiesHybrid varieties are gaining popularity because they often produce higher yields and more uniform fruit compared to inbred lines. However, a particular hybrid is not always superior to a particular inbred variety. Hybrid seed is usually more expensive than inbred varieties. Seeds of inbreds may be saved for future sowing.

VarietyPusa rubiMoney makerSweet 72Hybrid Vaishali

Seedling productionTomato seeds are sown on nursery beds to raise seedlings for transplanting in the field. Choose a well-drained area not recently cropped with a solanaceous crop. It is preferred if the seedbed is established on rice soil as the flooding kills diseases that linger in the soil. If the seedbed is in non-rice soil burn a 3-4 cm layer of rice straw on the seedbed before sowing and forming a raised seedbed of 15 cm or higher to improve drainage to reduce soilborne disease problems. Raised beds are 3m long, 60 cm wide and 10-15 cm

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in height. About 70 cm distance is kept between two beds as a walking space to carry out operations such as watering, weeding, etc. The surface of beds should be smooth and well levelled. To avoid damping off, drench the seed bed first with water and then with Bavistin (15-20 g/10 litres of water).

Seed rate 500 g/ha but for hybrid 200 g/haSpacing row to row 75 cm, plant to plant 60 cmNPK 100-50-50Hormone Plano Fix 4.5-10 ml

About 250 g of seed (approximately 70,000 seeds) are required to produce enough seedlings to plant one hectare of an indeterminate variety and 125 g of seed for a determinate variety. Sow seeds 2 cm deep in rows 10 cm apart at a rate of 750-900 seeds per m2. Cover the bed surface with a thin layer of compost or rice straw mulch. Do not allow the soil to dry and form a crust on the surface that might hinder seedling emergence. Water the seedbed regularly by watering can as per the need so that the soil is moist but not waterlogged. Thin the seedlings 2-3 days after the first true (non-cotyledon) leaves appear. Harden the seedlings by reducing water and exposing them directly to sunlight 6-9 days before transplanting.

Seedlings will emerge within 8 days at the optimal soil temperatures of 20-30°C. Seedlings grown in beds suffer root damage when the plants are pulled out for transplanting thus it is recommended to add compost or FYM to the soil before sowing to reduce plant injury when seedlings are pulled.

At the 2-leaf stage, irrigate the seedlings once with a 0.5% ammonium sulfate solution (5 g ammonium sulfate dissolved in 1 liter water), 0.25% urea solution (2.5 g urea dissolved in 1 liter water), or 0.1% Nitrophosphate solution (1 g dissolved in 1 liter water). Do not over-apply nitrogen or the plants will grow tall and spindly.

Seedling death (damping-off) or poor growth can be due to fungal infection. If this is a problem experienced in your area then fungicides can be applied. Easiest is to treat the seed before sowing. Seed can be also treated with broad-spectrum fungicides, such as captan and/or thiram to reduce losses from damping-off. If not a fungal spray such as Ridomil Gold (mefenoxam) can be applied to the seedbed at or

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before seeding to control damping-off.

Land preparationThe field is plowed to fine tilth by giving 4-5 plowings with a sufficient interval between two plowing. Planking should be done for proper levelling. Shaping the land into beds and growing tomatoes on top of the bed facilitates furrow irrigation of the crop and drainage after heavy rain. Beds can be prepared in many ways. Bed height varies with the season: 20 cm in the dry season and 35 cm in the wet season. A mulch of rice or wheat straw is used to cover the soil surface to reduce fertilizer leaching, conserve moisture, and reduce weeds.

Transplanting The seedlings with 5-6 true leaves are ready for transplanting. Thoroughly water the seedlings about 12 hours before transplanting to the field. A good seedling is in the 4- or 5-leaf stage (about 4 weeks old), vigorous and stocky (see photo).

 

A pre-soaking irrigation is given 3-4 days prior to transplanting.

SpacingSpacing depends upon the type of variety grown and the season of planting. Normally the seedlings are transplanted at a spacing of 75-90 x 45-60 cm. Transplanting should preferably be done in the late afternoon.

Fertilizer requirementTomato plants should be fertilized with organic (animal manure) and/or chemical fertilizers to produce high yields. For a good yield, 15-20 tons of well-decomposed FYM is incorporated into the soil. The fertilizer dose depends upon the fertility of soil and amount of organic manure applied to the crop. Generally, application of 120 kg N, 80 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O per hectare is recommended for getting optimum yield. Half dose of N and full dose of P and K is given at the time of planting. The balance half of N is given as top dressing 30 days after transplanting. For hybrid varieties,

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the recommended dose per hectare is 180 kg N, 100 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O. 60 kg N and half of P & K are given at the time of transplanting. Remaining quantities of P & K and 60 kg N is top dressed 30 after transplanting. A third dose of 60 kg N is applied 50 days after transplanting.

Water managementInsufficient water at any growth stage will reduce yield and fruit quality. Tomato is most sensitive to water deficit during flowering, somewhat sensitive immediately after transplanting and during fruit development, and least sensitive during vegetative growth. Because indeterminate varieties flower and form fruit continuously, they are always sensitive to water deficits.

Tomato grows well in moist but not soggy soil, and well-timed furrow irrigation is effective. Wilting in the late morning indicates that the crop should be irrigated. As a general rule in the dry season, irrigate weekly for the first month after transplanting, and then every 10 days until crop completion. The root zone of young transplants is shallow so irrigation should be frequent and just enough to recharge the root zone. As the crop develops, the root zone enlarges and less frequent but heavier irrigation is required. Tomato plants are sensitive to waterlogging and flooded fields should be drained within 1-3 days. Heavy irrigation provided after a long spell of drought causes cracking of the fruits. Hence it should be avoided. Flowering and fruit development are the critical stages of tomato therefore; water stress should not occur during this period.

StakingDue to the tall habit and heaving bearing nature of the hybrids staking is essential. Staking or trellising tomato plants with bamboo poles, wood stakes, or other sturdy material provides support and keeps the fruit and foliage off the ground. Staking can increase fruit yield and size, reduce fruit rot, and ease spraying and harvesting. Indeterminate varieties should be staked to facilitate pruning, pinching, harvesting, and other cultural practices. Determinate varieties should be staked in the wet season to prevent fruit contact with the soil. Staking facilitates intercultural operations and helps in maintaining the quality of the fruits. It is done 2-3 weeks after transplanting. Staking can be done either by wooden stakes or laying overhead wires to which an individual plant is

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tied. In case of indeterminate types, 2-3 wires are stretched parallel to each other along the row and plants are tied to these wires.

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 Table 1. Staking arrangements.  

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PruningPruning (selective removal of side shoots to limit plant growth) may cause fruit to mature earlier and grow to greater size and uniformity. Pruning improves air circulation within the canopy, which reduces foliar diseases, and facilitates spraying and harvesting. Indeterminate varieties should always be pruned so they do not produce too much vegetative growth.

Prune indeterminate plants to one stem during the cool-dry season and maintain two branches per plant (main branch and second branch below the first fruit cluster) during the hot-wet or hot-dry seasons. Two branches provide more shade to the fruit, thereby reducing sunburn and blotchy ripening. If the market prices are greater for larger fruit, it is possible to increase fruit size by keeping four fruits per cluster and pinching off extra flowers.

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Growth regulators

Effect of growth regulators in tomato crop is as follows:

Plant-growth

regulators

Concentration (mg/litre)

Method of application Attributes affected

Gibberellic acid (GA)

10-20 Foliar spray Higher yield at low temperature

40-100 Seed treatment Seed germination

Ethephon100-500 Foliar spray Flowering, fruiting and

yield

1,000 Pre-harvest spray Fruit ripening

PCPA 50-100 Foliar spray at low flowering

Tomato fruit set at and high temperatures.

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Fruit-set growth regulator. High (exceeding 30°C) or low (below 10°C) temperatures will reduce tomato fruit-set. Under such conditions, application of growth regulators with trade names such as Tomatotone or Tomatolan can increase yields. In general, heat tolerant varieties respond best to growth regulators. If Tomatotone or Tomatolan are not available, the growth regulator CPA (4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid) can be prepared

1. Purchase CPA from a chemical supply company.

2. Dissolve 1.5 g CPA in 100 ml of distilled water and shake until dissolved.

3. Add more distilled water until the total solution is 1000 ml. This results in 0.15% or 1500 parts per million (ppm) CPA “stock solution.” The stock solution should be refrigerated until use.

4. CPA concentration can range from 15 to 75 ppm. Optimal CPA concentrations depend on varieties, growing environments, and cultural practices. Generally, extreme temperatures require higher concentrations of CPA.

Prepare the growth regulator solution according to instructions on the label. Pour it into a spray bottle. Over the nozzle, fit a paper cup large enough to enclose the flower cluster. Clusters are treated when 3-5 flowers have opened. Fit the cup over the cluster and apply one squirt. Direct the spray toward the calyx, not inside the flowers.

Treat each cluster only once; multiple applications to the same cluster may cause fruit deformities. Avoid spray drift to the foliage. Once diluted, the growth regulator lasts a maximum of four weeks if refrigerated, but it is best to use it within one week.

5. Just before CPA application to flowers, dilute the stock solution as follows:

For 15 ppm CPA, dilute 10 ml of the stock solution to 1000 ml with distilled water. Add 0.2 ml of Tween 20 (surfactant that helps CPA adhere onto flower).

For 30 ppm CPA, dilute 20 ml of the stock solution to 1000 ml with distilled water. Add 0.2 ml of Tween 20.

For 75 ppm CPA, dilute 50 ml of the stock solution to 1000 ml with distilled water. Add 0.2 ml of Tween 20.

WeedingWeeds should be controlled in tomato crops because they compete for light, water, and nutrients. The field should be kept weed-free, especially in the initial stage of plant growth as they reduce tomato plant growth drastically. Frequent shallow cultivation should be done at regular interval so as to keep the field free from weeds and to facilitate soil aeration and proper root development. Deep cultivation is injurious because of the damage of roots and exposure of moist soil to the surface. Two-three hoeing and the earthing up are required to keep the crop free of weeds.

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Mulches suppress weed growth on the beds. Remove weeds from furrows by hand pulling or hoeing.

Insect pestsIt is recommended to regularly scout tomato fields and properly identify disease and insect problems before taking control measures. The main insect pest of tomato is the tomato fruit worm which feeds on flowers, young fruit, and tunnels into mature fruit ruining its saleability. There are NPV nuclear polyhedrosis virus commercial prepartations if available are the best control measure. If not then a spray of imidoclorpid (Confidor) will be able to control the pest if detected when the larvae are small. Larger larvae are difficult to control with any product.

Diseases and nematodesPrevalent diseases vary according to location and environment, but bacterial wilt, bacterial spot, tomato yellow leaf curl virus, fusarium wilt, and gray leaf spot are common in the tropics and subtropics. Some varieties are resistant to multiple diseases. Tomatoes benefit from crop rotation. Growing tomato after paddy rice, for example, reduces the incidence of diseases and nematodes. Avoid planting tomato in a field planted the previous season with tomato, pepper, brinjal, or other solanaceous crop. These crops share some insect and disease problems. Tomato should not be grown successively on the same field and a break of at least one year is required between planting of tomatoes or other Solanacesous crops (eg. chillies, brinjals, capsicum, potato). Most of the diseases that will occur on rice soils are fungal therefore it is necessary to apply one recommended for the problem.

Nutrient disordersBlossom end rot is a physiological disorder of tomato that can appear on fruits at any time in their development, but most commonly appears when fruits are one-third to one-half grown. The initial symptoms are water-soaked spots on the blossom end of the fruit. These spots later enlarge and become black. Secondary infection by other decay causing organisms usually follows. The cause of this disorder is considered to be calcium deficiency in the developing fruit. Extreme fluctuations in moisture, root pruning and excessive nitrogen fertilization can also result in blossom end rot.Control: Avoid excessive application of nitrogen particularly in ammonium form. Application of lime or calcium based fertilizers (eg. calcium ammonium nitrate) as basal dose is commonly used to control this physiological disorder. Foliar spray of calcium chloride (3 g/litre of water) also can be done.

Catface is a condition involving malformation and scarring of fruits, particularly at blossom ends. Affected fruits are puckered with swollen protuberances and can have cavities extending deep into the flesh. Generally, any disturbance to flowers can lead to abnormally shaped fruits. Extreme heat, drought, low temperature, and contact with hormone-type herbicide sprays may cause flower injury.Control: Other than keeping herbicides away from flowers, the only control for catface is planting less susceptible tomato varieties.

Puffiness as the name implies, fruit appear bloated and angular. When cut, cavities may be present that lack the normal "gel" and the fruit as a whole is not as dense. Puffiness results from incomplete pollination,

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fertilization, or seed development often as a result of cool temperatures that negatively impact fertilization. Similar to growth cracking, high nitrogen and low potassium can also lead to puffiness. Some tomato cultivars are more susceptible to this disorder than others.

Sunscald. Tomato fruits nearing maturity when exposed to the sun are prone to scald. The tissue has blistered water-soaked appearance. Rapid desiccation leads to sunken area which usually has white or grey color in green fruit or yellowish in red fruits. Any factor causing a loss of leaves, such as disease, will expose fruits to sunlight and increase chances for sunscald.Control: Maintaining a continuous disease control program will lessen chances of foliage loss. Covering exposed fruits with straw, if plants are not staked reduce the incidence of sunscald.

Cracking results from extremely rapid fruit growth brought on by periods of abundant rain and high temperatures, especially when these conditions take place following periods of stress. Cracks of varying depth radiate from the stem end of the fruit, blemishing the fruit and providing an entrance for decay-causing organisms. It is common during rainy season when temperature is high, especially when rain follows long dry spell. Radial cracking is more likely to develop in full ripe fruit than in mature green. Fruits exposed to sun develop more concentric cracking than those, which are covered with foliage. Fruits exposed to sun develop more concentric cracking than those, which are covered with foliage.

HarvestingFruits are normally harvested early in the morning or evening. The fruits are harvested by twisting motion of hand to separate fruits from the stem. Harvested fruits should be kept only in basket or crates and keep it in shade. Since all the fruits do not mature at the same time, they are harvested at an interval of 4 days. Generally there will be 7-11 harvests in a crop life span. Tomato can be harvested at different stages, depending upon distance and time needed to market the fruit. For long distance transport, fruit can be harvested at the breaker stage (not more than 10% of the surface is tannish-yellow, pink, or red). Fruit for local sale can be harvested at later ripening stages.

Poor care of fruit after harvest will lead to poor fruit quality. Avoid fruit injury and do not mix damaged and undamaged fruit. Harvest during cool periods, such as late afternoon or early morning. Shade the harvested fruit and avoid exposing fruit to temperatures higher than 25°C. If possible, store the fruit in a ventilated place with a relative humidity range of 85-90% to slow water loss.

Depending on the variety, fruits become ready for first picking in about 60-70 days after transplanting. The stage of harvesting depends upon the purpose to which the fruits are to be used. The different stages of harvesting are as follows:

Dark green color is changed and a reddish pink shade is observed on fruit. Fruits to be shipped are harvested at this stage. Such fruits are then sprayed with ethylene 48 hours prior to shipping. Immature green tomatoes will ripen poorly and be of low quality. A simple way to determine maturity is to slice the tomato with a sharp knife. If

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seeds are cut, the fruit is too immature for harvest and will not ripen properly.

Breaker stage a dim pink color observed on ¼ part of the fruit. Fruits are harvested at this stage to ensure the best quality. Such fruit are less prone to damage during shipment often fetch a higher price than less mature tomatoes.

Pink stage when pink color observed on ¾ part of the fruit. Reddish pink fruits are stiff and nearly whole fruit turns reddish

pink. Fruits for local sale are harvested at this stage. Fully riped fruits are soft having dark red color. Such fruits are

used for processing.

Brinjal

Brinjal came originally from India and is a self pollinating crop. A long growing season of about 120 days is required for successful production.

ClimateBrinjal is a warm weather plant that grows best under temperatures of 21° to 29°C. It cannot tolerate frost, and the growth of young plants will be retarded when night temperatures are below 16°C. Cool temperatures and cloudiness can reduce fruit set. Brinjal can tolerate drought and excessive rainfall, but struggles to grow when temperatures exceed 30°C. When temperatures and humidities are high, brinjal becomes more vegetative.

SoilsBrinjal can be grown on all types of soils. However, it grows best in loose, friable, well-drained silt loam or clay loam soils rich in organic matter. An early crop gives good yield in light soils. The crop is moderately tolerant to acidic soils and a pH range of 6.0-6.8 is considered as optimum better growth and development. A sandy loam soil is ideal when an early yield is desired. Heavy clay and saturated soils should be avoided due to the build-up of root-rotting diseases.

Recommended varietiesSelect a variety that is most suitable to your market. Other desirable characteristics for varieties include high productivity, resistance to diseases, early maturity, strong growth habit, and tolerance to heat.

VarietyMukat KeshiRaipuri HaraBilaspur SafedHybrid H4

Seed rate 500 g/acre60 cm rows and plant to plant 60 cm100-60-50

Seedling productionNo treatment is needed if you are sowing fresh, vigorous seed in sterilized soil. Otherwise, soak seeds in warm water (50°C) for 30 minutes, rinse them in cold water, and dry them before sowing. Seeds may be further treated

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with Thiram to prevent seedling rot. The optimum temperature for germination is at 24 to 29°C. At this temperature, seedlings should emerge in six to eight days. Use fresh seed; seeds older than two years will be less vigorous.

Transplants are usually used to establish a uniform and complete stand of plants. Transplants grown in containers are ideal because they allow field planting without disturbing the root system. Well-decomposed FYM or leaf mould may be mixed with the soil at the time of bed preparation. The bed area can be incorporated with fertilizers at 40 g/m2 ammonium sulfate, 50 g/m2 superphosphate, 30 g/m2 potassium chloride, and 2 kg/m2 of compost. Thin seedlings at the first true leaf stage. They will be ready for transplanting in five to six weeks after sowing.

The seedbeds should be fertile and well drained. Raised beds of size 7.2 x 1.2 m and 10-15 cm in height are prepared. Thus, ten such beds are sufficient to raise seedlings for planting one hectare area. About 70cm distance is kept between two beds to carry out operations of watering, weeding, etc.

About 250-300 g of seed are sufficient for raising seedlings for one hectare of land. Prior to sowing seeds are treated with fungal culture of Trichoderma viride (4 g/ kg of seed) or Thiram (2g/ kg of seed) to avoid damage from damping-off disease. Sowing should be done thinly in lines spaced at 5-7 cm distance. The surface of beds should be smooth and well levelled. Seeds are sown at a depth of 2-3 cm and covered with a fine layer of soil followed by light watering by water can. The beds should then be covered with dry straw or grass or sugarcane leaves to maintain required temperature and moisture. The watering should be done by water can as per the need till germination is completed. The cover of dry straw or grass is removed immediately after germination is complete. During the last week in nursery, the seedlings may be hardened by slightly withholding water.

Land preparationThe field is plowed to fine tilth by giving 4-5 plowing with a sufficient interval between two plowing. Planking should be done for proper levelling. The field is then divided into beds and channels. Well-decomposed FYM is thoroughly incorporated at the time of land preparation.

TransplantingThe ideal transplant is a seedling with 3-4 true leaves, stocky and disease-free, and without flower buds. Begin hardening plants by slightly witholding water 6-9 days before transplanting to reduce transplanting shock. Expose seedlings to stronger sunlight by removing the netting or cover. Thoroughly water seedlings 12-14 hours before transplanting to the field. Transplanting should be done in the late afternoon or on a cloudy day in order to minimize transplanting shock. Transplant seedlings by digging a hole deep enough to bury a plant so that its first true leaf is just above the soil surface. Press the soil firmly around the root. Irrigate furrows immediately after transplanting to establish a good root-to-soil contact.

Spacing depends upon the type of variety grown and the season of planting. Recommended plant spacing varies depending on variety, soil type, and cropping system. Raised beds are recommended in brinjal production.

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Commonly beds are 1.5-m-wide (furrow to furrow) that are 20-25 cm high. A pre-soaking irrigation is given 3-4 days prior to transplanting. A single row of plants is planted in the middle of the bed. Normally the long fruited varieties are transplanted every 45 cm, the round varieties every 60 cm and high yielding varieties at every 90 cm spacing. Straw mulch is overlaid after transplanting. Mulching is recommended to reduce weeds, prevent soil compaction, and conserve soil moisture.

Fertilizer requirementsAdequate application of manures and fertilizers is very important for successful crop production. Being a long duration crop, brinjal requires a large quantity of fertilizers. Fertilizer rates depend on the soil, fertility, organic matter content, and texture.

Organic fertilizers such as compost or FYM at 10 t/ha improve the overall structure and condition of the soil.

Generally, application of 150 kg N, 100 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O is recommended for optimum yield. For hybrid varieties, the recommended dose is 200 kg N, 100 kg P2O5 and 100 Kg K2O.

The percentage of the inorganic fertilizer should be as follows regardless of rate at the given growth stage:NutrientnNutrnutriengNutrien

Basal 3 weeks after trans-planting

6 weeks after trans-planting %ds

During harvest period

N 30330 0 15 15 40

P 50 0 50 0

K 30 15 15 40

In sandy loam soils , typical fertilizer rates are 170 kg/ha of N, 70 kg/ha of P2O5, and 180 kg/ha of K2O.

Staking and pruningOne month after transplanting, a bamboo stake (1.2 m) is placed nearby each plant to support the plant from fruit load. Pruning is recommended to produce bright-colored, high quality fruit. Maintain three branches per plant: two branches from the primary division of the main stalk and one branch below this division. All the other lateral branches are removed periodically. Remove older leaves from the lower portions of plants to allow for more air circulation and lighting within the canopy.

IrrigationIrrigation is essential for brinjal cultivation wherever little or no rain is available during the growing season. Irrigation is most critical during the time of flowering and fruit set. A lack of water during this period could lead to the development of blossom end rot and malformed fruit. Reduction of fruit size and yield are also caused by moisture stress. Wilting during the late morning is a good indication that the crop needs

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irrigation. Brinjal is a medium-rooted crop with a root zone depth of 90 cm in well-drained soil. Irrigate soil to at least 45 cm deep.

Continuous supply of moisture should be maintained around the root zone of the plant. A light irrigation is given on the first and third day after transplanting. Thereafter irrigation is given at an interval of 8-10 days during winter and 5-6 days during summer.

Weed controlBrinjal is slow to become established and cannot compete with aggressive weeds thus all weeds must be removed from early growth to in the late growth stages. Frequent shallow cultivation should be done at regular interval so as to keep the field free from weeds and to facilitate soil aeration and proper root development. Deep cultivation is injurious because of the damage of roots and exposure of moist soil to the surface. Two-three hoeing and the earthing up are required to keep the crop free of weeds.

DiseasesBrinjal should not follow other solanaceous crops (tomato, pepper, potato) since these crops share many of the same disease and insect pests. The incidence of bacterial wilt and nematodes can be reduced if brinjal is planted after paddy rice.

Damping off fungi. Two types of symptoms are observed:1) Pre-emergence damping off results in seed and seedling rot before these emerge out of the soil.2) Post-emergence damping-off phase is characterized by infection of the young tissues of the collar at the ground level. The infected tissues become soft and become water soaked. The collar portion rots and ultimately the seedlings collapse and die.

These soil fungi linger in the soil for years thus ways to limit them are crop rotation, use of organic fertilizers, draining the soil or avoiding overwatering during the young stage and seed treatment or sterization. Healthy seed should be selected for sowing. The seed should be treated with Thiram @ 2g/kg of seed before sowing or application of the biocontrol agent Trichoderma viride in soil @ 1.2 kg/ha is also found effective to control damping-off to considerable extent. Continuous raising of nursery in the same plot should be avoided.

Bacterial wilt. It is important to manage both the seedbed and field for soil pests such as wilt in non-paddy soils. It is not a problem in paddy soils if the seedbed also is placed on paddy soils. The diseases is very destructive, especially in the hot, wet season. Plants wilt and die suddenly. When newly infected stems are cut crosswise and placed in water, a dingy grayish or yellowish ooze appears. The pathogen is soil-borne with a wide host range. Sow resistant varieties, rotate with non-Solanaceous crops, use raised beds for improved drainage, and graft plants onto resistant rootstocks. Wilting is characterized by gradual, sometimes sudden, yellowing, withering and drying of the entire plant or some of its branches.Control: Removal and destruction of the affected plant parts and using disease resistant varieties help to reduce the disease incidence. Crop rotation with bhendi, tomato, potato should be avoided.

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Insect pestsBrinjal fruit and shoot borer is the most serious constraint to the crop. Its larvae attack the terminal shoots and bores inside, resulting in the withering of the shoots. It also bores into the young fruit and feeds inside which makes the fruit unmarketable. Wilted shoots are readily visible. There may be small darkened holes surrounded with brownish areas on fruit surface and/or fruit stalk. The inside of the fruit is hollow and filled with frass. The fruit is not marketable. Look for wilted shoots. The larva can be found feeding inside. Fruit damage will not be obvious. The first indication is a small hole in the fruit stalk or in the fruit itself. This is where the insect has entered. Cut the fruit near this entry hole and you will find areas where the larva has tunneled. The tunnels contain frass and insect remains. If you continue to cut around this area you may locate the live larva.

Infestations usually begin when the crop starts to flower. The first symptoms are freshly-wilted shoots. No control is needed before this time. Insecticides used before symptoms appear are wasteful and will kill natural enemies of the borer. Initially when brinjal fruits have not yet developed, all larvae go to the tender shoots and feed inside these plant parts. Later when plants start bearing fruits, most larvae prefer to feed on the more tender fruits. Larvae also feed on flowers, reducing fruit set and yields. When larvae become mature, they exit the fruit or shoot by making a hole and descending to the soil for pupation. Exit holes are clearly visible in fruits, but may not be obvious in shoots because of the hairiness of shoots. After an infestation begins, it can continue until the last harvest.

Most farmers spray their brinjal crop with chemical insecticides to protect their crop from the borer. Some farmers use these pesticides indiscriminately, often using wrong chemicals and at wrong dosages. Many farmers spray their brinjal crop two or more times a week. Such pesticide use is expensive, and damaging to human health and the environment. Such indiscriminate pesticide use allows the borer to become tolerant to these chemicals. As a result, it makes it impossible to control this insect pest again economically with the same chemicals.

The prompt destruction of damaged shoots on a community-wide basis are alternatives. Resistant cultivars are being developed and can be used if available otherwise the current recommendations are based on sanitation: Before plants start fruiting, larvae feed inside tender shoots. These damaged shoots are readily visible as dried tops of branches. On a weekly basis cut and destroy these larval-infested shoots immediately to prevent the larvae from developing and reproducing. Do not leave the cut shoots in the field. They must be destroyed, preferably by burning. If burning is not possible, bury them at least 20 cm deep in soil or shred them into tiny pieces. Unless destroyed, the larvae in the shoots can pupate in the soil, become moths, and infest new plants.

These shoot-pruning activities are especially important in the early season. Once fruiting begins, most larvae will prefer to enter in fruits rather than shoots. Newly-infested fruits are difficult to detect. Continue cutting shoots at least once a week until final harvest. This cutting will not harm the plant. Any infested fruits found during harvest should also be culled and destroyed. After the final harvest, the old plants should be

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uprooted and burned promptly because they may harbor larvae which could become a source of future infestation.

However, it is important that all farmers in the community observe these steps. This is because fruit borer adults fly readily from one field to the next. Therefore, if some brinjal growers in the middle of a large area do not follow these steps, their brinjal crop will be infested by the borer and these fields will spread the pest epidemic to neighboring fields.

HarvestingHigh quality brinjal is firm, heavy (in relation to size), glossy with a desirable color, and free of cuts and scars. Once the color of the skin begins to dullen, the seeds darken and the flesh becomes spongy and bitter. Brinjal fruits are harvested once they have reached sufficient size for marketing (usually three to four weeks after flowering). The fruits become ready for first picking in about 120-130 days of seed sowing depending on the variety. The harvesting of the fruits should be done as soon as it attains a good size and color. Fruits are harvested when they become greenish yellow or bronze and their flesh turns dry and tough. Pressing the thumb against the side of the fruit can indicate the maturity of the fruit. If the pressed portion springs back to its original shape, the fruit is too immature. Harvesting is done by hand using a sharp knife or clippers, leaving the calyx attached to the fruit. Harvest once or twice a week.

Yields are commonly in the range of 30 to 40 tons/ha. 6-12 marketable fruits may be expected per plant for the large-fruited varieties, weighing 300-400 g each. The elongated varieties may produce twice as many fruits, with individual fruits weighing 100-150 g each.

Bhendi

The bhendi plant comes from Africa originally and is pollinated by insects.

ClimateBhendi requires long warm growing season during its growing period. It gives good yield in warm humid condition. It grows best within a temperature range of 24-27°C. It can be successfully grown in rainy season even in heavy rainfall area. Bhendi is highly susceptible to frost injury. Seeds fail to germinate when temperature is below 20°C.

SoilBhendi can be grown in a wide range of soils. However, it grows best in loose, friable, well-drained sandy loam soils rich in organic matter. It also gives good yield in heavy soils with good drainage. A pH range of 6.0-6.8 is considered as optimum. Alkaline, saline soils and soils with poor drainage are not good for this crop.

Land preparation The land should be well prepared with 2-3 plowings. Well decomposed FYM (25 t/ha) is incorporated at the time of land preparation. Bhendi is sown on ridges or on flat soil. If soil is heavy, sowing should be done on ridges. Application of organic manure like neem cake and poultry manure improves the plant growth and the yield in this crop. It is possible to reduce the use fertilizer by using neem cake and poultry manure.

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VarietyPusa SawaniParbhaniKrantiSeed rate 20 kg/haSpacing 30 x 15 cm or 45 x 15 cm100-50-50

SowingBhendi requires about 3.5-5.5 kg seeds/ha during summer seasons and 8-10 kg seeds/ha for rainy season crop. The seed rate generally varies with germination percentage, spacing and season. Before sowing the seeds are soaked in a solution of Bavistin (0.2%) for 6 hours. The seeds are then dried in shade. The seeds are dibbled on the either side of the furrows at a spacing of 60 x 30 cm in kharif season and 30 x 30 cm in summer season. While hybrid varieties are planted at a spacing of 75 x 30 cm. A pre-soaking irrigation 3-4 days before sowing is beneficial. The seeds germinate in about 4-5 days.

Fertilizer requirementBoth organic and inorganic fertilization is needed to supplement the soil. The fertilizer dose depends upon the fertility of soil and amount of organic manure applied to the crop. About 20-25 t/ha of FYM is mixed at the time of land preparation. Generally, application of 100 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K2O is recommended for optimum yield. Half dose of N and full dose of P and K are applied at the time of planting. The balance half of N if given 30 days after sowing followed by earthing up operation. Fertilizers are applied by opening up a deep narrow furrow on one side of each sowing ridge.

For hybrid varieties the recommended dose is 150 kg N, 112 kg P2O5 and 75 Kg K2O/ha. Out of this dose, 30% of N and 50% of P & K is applied as basal dose. Remaining 50% of P and 40% of N and 25% of K is applied as first top dressing four weeks after sowing. Balance quantity of 30% N and 25% K is applied as second top dressing about 7 weeks after sowing.

Water managementIrrigation frequency varies with the season and the soil type. A light irrigation is given soon after seed sowing to ensure good germination. The crop is irrigated at an interval of 4-5 days in summer. Moisture stress at fruit setting stage reduces the fruit quality and the yield. Normally the crop is irrigated by adopting the furrow method of irrigation.

Weed controlIt is necessary to keep the crop weed free during the first 20-25 days of plant growth. A total of 3 to 4 hand or tool weedings are needed. The first weeding is done when the seedlings are two weeks old and subsequent weddings are done at an interval of 25 days.

Plant diseases and nematodesThe root-knot nematode are microscopic worms that enter the roots causing characteristic root knots or galls. Their feeding blocks the flow of applied fertilizer and water to the plant from the soil. The aerial

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symptoms consist mainly of stunted plant growth and yellowing of leaves. Nematode attack in the seedling stage leads to pre- and post-emergence

Insect pestsFruit borer usually occurs during humid conditions after the rainfall. The adult female lays eggs individually on leaves, floral buds and on tender fruits. Small brown caterpillars bore into the top shoot and feeds inside the shoot before fruit formation. Later on they bore into the fruits and feed within. Affected fruits become unfit for consumption.Control: The infested fruits and shoots should be removed regularly and buried deep in the soil. Spraying with Endosulfan 35 EC (2 ml/litre of water) or Quinalphos 25 EC (2 ml/litre of water) or Carbaryl (4 g/litre of water) effectively controls the pest. Before spraying all the affected plant parts should be removed.

Leafhopper attacks the crop at its early stage of growth. Small, greenish leaf hoppers; nymphs and adults are found on the under side of the leaves. The adults and the nymphs suck the cell sap from the leaves. As a result the leaves curl upwards along the margins and have a burnt look which extend over the entire leaf area. The affected plants show a stunted growth.

Whitefly are minute milky white sucking insects whose nymphs and adults remove the cell sap from the leaves. The affected leaves curl and dry and plants become stunted. White flies are also responsible for transmitting yellow vein mosaic virus.Control: Soil application of Carbofuran (1 kg a.i./ha) at the time of sowing and 4-5 foliar sprays of Dimethoate (0.05%) or Metasystox (0.02%) or Nuvacron (0.05%) at an interval of 10 days effectively controls the whitefly population.

Plant diseases and nematodesThere are few fungal and bacterial diseases of bhendi. The root-knot nematode enters the roots causing characteristic root knots or galls. The aerial symptoms consist mainly of stunted plant growth and yellowing of leaves. Nematode attack in the seedling stage leads to pre- and post-emergence damage resulting in reduced crop stand. Cultural control methods such as rotation with non-host crops such as cereals, fallowing and deep plowing 2-3 times in summer months is recommended. Application of Nemagon (30 litres/ha) with irrigation before sowing is recommended to protect the seedling in its early stage of plant growth.

HarvestingThe fruits are ready for harvest in about 45-60 days after sowing depending upon variety and season. Size of the pod and stage at which it is harvested varies with variety/hybrid and market preference. Generally, medium sized (7-10 cm long) tender pods, which can be easily snapped from the plant, are harvested. As all the fruits do not mature at the same time, harvesting is carried out once in 3-4 days. Frequent picking promotes fruit development and prevents the pods from growing too large.Yield of the Bhendi varies greatly depending upon variety and season of cultivation. On an average bhendi yields 7.5-10 t/ha while the yield of hybrid varieties ranges from 15-22 t/ha.

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Chilli

ClimateHot and humid. Ideal 15-35oC 600-1200 mm rainsCannot tolerate dew. If the low humidity and high temp no flower

Soil typeSand and loam are best and good drainage. PH 5.8-6.5

Pusa JwalaJapani LoungiG3VharniJawahar 218Jawahar 283Coimbatore 2NS1701NS1101JyotiSuper hotGolden hotAgani Rekha

Crop establishmentSeed rate 1 kg/ha, for hybrid 300 g/ha

Seedbed 4-6 week old seedlings for transplantingSpacing 35 x 45 cm, hybrid 45x60 plant to plantRow to row 45-60 normal, 60-120 cm for hybrid

Fertilizer requirement

Green kg/ha Red kg/haimproved Hybrid improved Hybrid

N 60-80 100-150 60-80 100-120

P 80 80 80-100 80-100K 40-60 60-80 60-80 80-100

Irrigation6-8 times

Insect pestThrips and aphidWhitefly

Diseases Anthracnose disease Dithane M45

Harvest

Green fresh 75-160 q/haDry red 20-30 q/ha

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Onion

Onion plants originally came from the area that is now Iran and Pakistan are cross pollinated by insects.

Land preparation The field is plowed to fine tilth by giving 4-5 plowing with a sufficient interval between two plowings. The plowing should be shallow as most of the onion roots penetrate to a depth of not more than 5-6 cm. Planking should be done for proper clod breaking and levelling. The field is then divided into beds and channels.

Sowing Seedlings obtained from seed sown nursery are usually transplanted in flat beds of size 1.5 x 4 m. 8-9 weeks old seedlings are used for the rabi crop with a spacing of 10 x 10 cm. If bulblets are used for planting, ridges are prepared at 30-45 cm distance and bulblets are planted at 10-12 cm distance. Bulblets with 2-2.5 cm diameter are ideal for planting. For planting one hectare area 750 kg of medium sized bulbs are required. Irrigation should be given immediately after transplanting. In some places, beds are first irrigated and then the seedlings are transplanted.

Pusa redNasik red

Seeding rate 8-10 kg/haDistance 15 row, 10 plant100-50-100

Broadcasting in beds/direct sowingSeeds of big onions are sown directly in lines (30 cm apart) which are thinned later to give proper spacing for development of the bulbs. Seeds of small onions are broadcasted in small flat beds which are thinned later. For broadcasting directly in the field or sowing in the row, 20-25 kg seeds per hectare are used. In other cases seeds are sown in lines 30 cm apart. After sowing, hand hoeing is done to cover the seeds with soil to a depth of 2.5-3 cm. Hand watering or light irrigation is given immediately after covering the seeds. Weeding is recommended at 10 days interval for preventing smoothering of seedlings by weeds.

Fertilizer requirementNormally, 25 t/ha of FYM should be applied one month before transplanting/planting or sowing and mixed well in the soil. In bulblet method of planting, whole quantity of phosphorus, potash and half of nitrogen should be mixed in the soil before transplanting. The remaining half of nitrogen should be given as top dressing 20-25 days after planting. In case of transplanting method, the top dressing is taken up in two split doses and first dose should be applied at 30 days after transplanting whereas the second dose is at 45 days after transplanting. The top dressing must be completed before initiation of bulbing.

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Micronutrient deficiencies are not observed if sufficient quantities of organic manures are applied into the soil. However, in case of deficiencies specific micronutrient should be applied based on the soil analysis.

Weed controlThe field should be kept weed-free, especially in the initial stage of plant growth, as weeds compete with the crop and reduce the yield drastically. Being closely planted and a shallow rooted crop, hand weeding particularly when the crop is in full vegetative stage, is difficult and expensive. Maintaining a weed free field should not be hard after flooded rice due to the weed shift effect from changing from wetland to dryland.

Insect pestsThrips can be a problem if they become numerous. They can be suppressed using laundry bar soap with repeated sprays. To prepare soap spray purchase a blue bar soap and cut one quarter of the bar. Fill the sprayer with water and then rub the soap with ones fingers with your hand under the water to disperse the soap. A follow up spray may be needed as this is not as toxic as a commercial insecticide but it is very inexpensive. If one needs to use an insecticide Confidor is the safest.

Cutworms can attack in the crop and as they feed at night the insecticide should be applied in the late afternoon. Confidor is also effective against these pests.

DiseasesDamping-off disease is more prevalent under high soil moisture and moderate temperature along with high humidity. Two types of symptoms are observed:Pre-emergence damping-off results in seed and seedling rot before these emerge out of the soil.In post-emergence damping-off the pathogen attacks the collar region of seedlings on the surface of soil. The collar portion rots and ultimately the seedlings collapse and die. Control is with healthy seed should be selected for sowing. The seed should that should be treated with Thiram @ 2g/kg of seed before sowing. Continuous raising of nursery in the same plot should be avoided. The topsoil of nursery should be treated with Thiram @ 5g/m2 area of the soil and nursery should be drenched with the same chemical @ 2g/litre of water at fortnightly interval. Soil application of the biocontrol agent Trichoderma viride @ 1.2 kg/ha is also found effective to control damping-off to considerable extent.

Purple blotch (Alternaria) is an important disease prevalent in all the onion growing areas. Hot and humid climate with temperature ranging from 21-30°C and relative humidity (80-90%) favor it development. The symptoms occur on leaves and flower stalks as small, sunken, whitish flecks with purple colored centres. The lesions may girdle leaves/stalk and cause their drooping. The infected plants fail to develop bulbs .The intensity of disease varies from season to season. Control is through the use of healthy seeds for planting and crop rotation of 2-3 years with non-related crops checks the disease. Spraying Mancozeb (0.25%) or Chlorothalonil (0.2%) or Iprodione (0.25%) after one month from transplanting at fortnightly interval to reduce the disease incidence. The sticker triton/sandovit should also be mixed in spray solution.

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DisordersBolting. Under this condition bulbs become light and fibrous and show very poor keeping quality. Bolting may occur due to heredity differences in variety, extreme fluctuations in temperature, stunted growth of plants in seed beds, poor seed quality, and very low temperature in the beginning of the growth.

Splittings and doubling of bulbs is caused by diverse climatic conditions and imbalanced nutrient supply. Mechanical injury to plants during hoeing and weeding initiates new growth and causes splitting and doubling of bulbs.

HarvestingOnion is harvested depending upon the purpose for which the crop is planted. The crop is ready for harvesting in five months for dry onion. However, for marketing as green onion, the crop becomes ready in three months after transplanting. When the bulbs developing from the leaf bases of onions are fully formed, the leafy green tops begin to yellow and eventually collapse at a point a little above the top of the bulb, leaving an upright short neck.When the tops "go down" in this way, the bulbs are ready for harvesting. Because all the onions in a crop do not mature at the same time, large-scale commercial growers harvest them when about half the tops have gone down.Best time to harvest rabi onion is one week after 50% tops have fallen over. Onions for sale as dried bulbs or for storage should be harvested progressively after tops have started falling over.

Since onion bulbs are normally formed at the soil surface, it is sometimes possible in sandy soils to pull the mature bulbs by hand. Where conditions make hand pulling impossible, crop is harvested by loosening the bulbs with a fork or hoe before lifting them. The harvested crop is left in windrows in the field for a few days until the tops are dry. The windrows should be made so that the green tops cover the bulbs to protect them from sunburn. The leaves are cut leaving about 2-2.5 cm tops above the bulb after complete drying. This practice helps to increase the dry matter content. If tops are cut too close, the neck does not close well and provides entry for decay organisms.Early harvest results in sprouting of the bulbs and late harvest results in formation of secondary roots during storage.

An irrigated onion crop in the rabi season gives a yield of 25-30 t/ha. Onion raised as an intercrop gives a yield of 5-9 t/ha. The small sized, pungent, local cluster type onion yields half as compared to the large sized varieties.

Post harvest managementCuring. The only post-harvest treatment required for the long storage of bulb onions is a thorough curing of the bulbs. Curing is a drying process intended to dry off the necks and outer scale leaves of the bulbs to prevent the loss of moisture and the attack by decay during storage. The essentials for curing are heat and good ventilation, preferably with low humidity. This dries out the neck and the two or three outer layers of the bulb. The outermost layer, which may be contaminated with soil, usually falls away easily when the bulbs are cured, exposing the dry under-layer,

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which should have an attractive appearance. Onions are considered cured when neck is tight and the outer scales are dried until they rustle. This condition is reached when onions have lost 3 to 5% of theirweight.

If onions cannot be dried in the field, they can be collected in trays, which are then stacked in a warm, covered area with good ventilation. In cool, damp climates, onions in bulk ventilated stores are dried with artificial heat blown through the bulk at a duct temperature of 30oC.Onions can also be cured by tying the tops of the bulbs in bunches and hanging them on a horizontal pole in a well-ventilated shades. Curing in shade improves bulb color and reduces losses significantly during storage.

Grading. Onions after curing are graded manually before they go in to storage or for marketing. Thick neck, bolted, doubles, injured and decayed bulbs are picked out so also misshapen small bulbs. Sorting and grading is done after storage also to fetch better price. The outer dry scales usually rub off during the grading process, giving the onions a better appearance for market. It has been experienced that if storage is arranged after proper sorting and grading losses in storage are reduced.

For local markets the onions are graded based on their size:Extra large onion (>6 cm dia.)Medium (4-6 cm dia.)Small (2-4 cm dia.)

The extra large onions have great demand and fetch a very good price.

General characteristics:The bulbs shall:1. be reasonably uniform in shape, size color and pungency of the variety /type2. be mature, solid in feel, reasonably firm with tough clinging skins.3. be throughout cured and dried.4. be free from dust and other foreign material.5. be free from defective, diseased, decayed and damage6. be free from moulds, soft rot and insect attack.7. percentage of seed stem or bolted bulbs shall not exceed 20% in Nasik kharif onions.

Garlic

Local

15 cm x 10 cm100-50-100

Cabbage

Cabbage originated in Europe and is cross pollinated.

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Heading cabbage is a cool season, annual vegetable.

ClimateCabbage grows best under temperatures of 15–20°C degrees. In the tropics, the production of this vegetable is typically limited to highland areas. When grown in the lowland tropics, crops easily succumbs to diseases and may fail to form heads. There are now heat-tolerant lines that overcome some of these problems

Soils Cultivation is done mainly on sandy to heavy soils rich in organic matter. Early crops prefer light soil while late crops thrive on heavier soils due to retention of moisture. On heavy soils, plants grow more slowly and the keeping quality is improved. A pH range of 6.0-6.5 is considered optimumal for growing cabbage.

Land preparation Choose a site with good drainage and access to irrigation water. Rotate cabbage production with unrelated crops to prevent a build-up of pests and diseases. Whenever possible, green manure crops should be included in the rotation to improve fertility of the soil. The field is plowed to fine tilth by giving 4-5 plowings with a sufficient interval between two plowing. Planking should be done for proper levelling. The transplanting is done on ridges as rains can occur anytime during the cropping period.

VarietyPusa DrumheadGolden acre

Seeding rate 600 gDistance 54x54 cm100-50-50MgSO4 spray to give solid head formation

SeedbedCabbage seeds are sown on nursery beds to raise seedlings for transplanting in the field. Raised beds of size 3 x 0.6 m and 10-15 cm in height are prepared. About 70cm distance is kept between two beds to carry out intercultural operations such as watering, weeding, etc. The surface of beds should be 2 smooth and well levelled. Well-decomposed FYM @ 2-3 kg/m is added at the time of bed preparation. Raised beds are necessary to avoid problem of water logging in heavy soils. Form the seedbed with a plow by opening furrows to a depth of 20 cm during the dry season or at least 30 cm during the wet season. The distance between centers of two adjacent furrows is about 150 cm.About 300-500g of seed are sufficient for raising nursery required to plant one hectare.

SowingTo minimize damping-off and other seed-borne diseases, soak the seeds in 50°C hot water for 25 minutes and then in 1% sodium hypochlorite (80% water, 20% clorox household bleach) solution for 10 minutes (sometimes this treatment is already done by the seed supplier). Or seeds may also be coated with a fungicide. Prior to sowing seeds are treated with fungal

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culture of Trichoderma viride (4 g/kg of seed) or Thiram (3g/kg of seed) to avoid damage from damping-off disease. Sowing should be done thinly in lines spaced at 5-7 cm distance. Seeds are sown at a depth of 1-2 cm and covered with a fine layer of soil followed by light watering by water can. The beds should then be covered with dry straw or grass or sugarcane leaves to maintain required temperature and moisture. The watering should be done by water can as per the need till germination is completed. The cover of dry straw or grass is removed immediately after emergence of seed sprout. If there is over crowding of seedling due to thick sowing, the extra seedlings should be thinned out

Fertilizer requirementA combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers is recommended. Organic fertilizers improve soil structure, provide micronutrients, and improve the efficiency of nutrient uptake in the soil. The inorganic fertilizer dose depends upon the fertility of soil and amount of organic manure applied to the crop. Inorganic fertilizers provide major nutrients to plants in a form that is quickly available. Compost at 10 t/ha is incorporated before planting spring and winter crops. This is broadcasted on the bed and mixed in the top 10 cm of soil. No matter the season, an application of 60–90 kg P2O5 and 60 kg K2O/ha is done before planting. Do not apply too much basal nitrogen as it may increase internal head rot during the hot season. Head cabbage develops most of its mass during the final third of its production period. Sidedressings at 10 and 20 days after sowing can increase yields with 30 kg N/ha are suggested to curb overgrowth of the seedlings. This is done followed by earthing up to cover the fertilizer.

TransplantingSeedlings are ready to be transplanted after 3-4 weeks. Older seedlings when transplanted result in poor growth and yield. Just before transplanting, however, water the seedlings until the growing medium is thoroughly wet, or else the root system will be easily damaged. The ideal transplant is 5–6 leaved, well hardened, vigorous and free from diseases . Transplant in the late afternoon to reduce shock caused by heat and sunlight. Plants are planted in twin rows on raised beds.

The planting distance may vary according to variety, planting season and soil conditions. The following distances are generally recommended on the basis of maturity of varieties:

Maturity Recommended spacing (cm)

Early 45 x 45 or 60 x 30

Mid 60 x 45

Late 60 x 60 or 75 x 60

Water the plants and then irrigate the field after planting is completed. Irrigate each hill slightly using a small watering can so that the root system will adhere to the field soil immediately after transplanting, and then furrow-irrigate the field. If transplanting and top irrigation were done in the later afternoon, furrow irrigation can be postponed until the next morning.

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Earthing up is done 30 days after transplanting. At the time of earthing up the plants are supported with soil to avoid toppling of the plant during head formation.

IrrigationCabbage requires an ample water supply especially just after transplanting and at heading stage. Wide or rapid fluctuation in soil moisture is not desirable. Furrow irrigation is practiced once every 10 days during the dry-cool season and once a week during the hot-dry season. First irrigation is given just after transplanting of seedlings and subsequent irritations are given at an interval of 10-15 days depending upon the season and soil conditions. Care should be taken to avoid water stress from the time of head formation to the head maturity period. At the time of crop maturity, irrigation should be avoided as excess irrigation at this stage causes splitting of heads. As a rule, the plants are irrigated if wilting occurs in the midday or early afternoon. Whenever irrigating, supply an adequate amount of water to saturate all the cultivated soil. Frequent but insufficient irrigation should be avoided.

Cabbage is vulnerable to even a brief period of flooding. Raised beds, cleanly weeded furrows, and clean, large drainage canals help to quickly drain off excessive water after heavy rain.

MulchingRice straw is recommended for all seasons. Mulch provides partial weed control no matter the season. In the dry season, mulch also conserves and stabilizes soil moisture conditions. During the rainy season, mulch hastens the establishment of transplants by promoting root development in the upper layers of the soil. Mulch is also good for preserving the structure of the plant bed during the monsoon season. Apply straw perpendicularly to the rows at a rate of 5 t/ha. Mulching should be done within a few days after transplanting.

WeedsTry to maintain a weed free condition.Frequent weeding is necessary in furrows. Weeds in furrows sometimes become unmanageable especially during the rainy season. Normally, the crop is kept free of weeds by 2-3 hand weedings and 1-2 hoeings.

Insect pestsInsect pests must be controlled to ensure good yields of marketable heads. If applying insecticides, carefully follow the instructions on the label. Do not spray while leaves are wet. Most insecticides are poisonous so care should be taken during and after the spray.

Diamondback moth (DBM) is the most serious pest of cabbage in the tropics and subtropics. Larvae of diamondback moth eat nearly every part of cabbage plants at any stage of growth. Damage is most serious in the dry season. After emerging from eggs, DBM larvae feed on the underside of outer leaves, chewing out small holes between veins. On young plants, the growing tips are eaten and seedlings appear stunted. The control of DBM is very difficult since it is resistant to many insecticides. You can reduce DBM populations by regularly cultivating weeds and removing plant debris from the field. Regularly scout the field. If DBM populations rise, use natural

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insecticides such as neem or Bacillus thuringiensis. These pest-specific insecticides will not harm the valuable natural parasites of DBM.

Leaf webber is one of the most destructive pests of cabbage. Eggs are laid in clusters on the undersurface of the leaves and held together by gelatinous glue. Green caterpillars web up the leaves and live inside the knotted mass. Flowering and pod formation is adversely affected.Control is to remove and destroy webbed bunches of leaf help to check the further spread of the pest. Dusting the crop with Carbaryl (4%) or spraying with Malathion (0.05%) is effective.

Aphids yellow-green in color as nymphs and adults suck plant sap to weaken plants. Affected parts become discolored and malformed. High humidity favors rapid multiplication of this pest. The aphids are mostly observed on the lower surface of the leaves. They can be controlled by detergent soap. To prepare soap spray purchase a blue bar soap and cut one quarter of the bar. Fill the sprayer with water and then rub the soap with ones fingers with your hand under the water to disperse the soap. A follow up spray may be needed as this is not as toxic as a commercial insecticide but it is very inexpensive.

DiseasesDamping off disease causes severe damage in the nursery. Cool, cloudy weather, high humidity, wet soils, compacted soil, and overcrowding especially favor its development. Damping-off kills seedlings before or soon after they emerge. Infection before seedling emergence results in poor germination. If the decay is after seedlings emergence, they fall over or die which is referred to as "damping-off." The destructiveness of the disease depends on the amount of pathogen in the soil and on environmental conditions. Seedlings that emerge develop a lesion near where the tender stem contacts the soil surface. The tissues beneath the lesion become soft due to which the seedlings collapse. Control in the nursery is that the soil used for preparing raised beds should be well- drained. Excessive irrigation should be avoided to reduce humidity around the plants. Seed treatment with antagonist fungal culture of Trichoderma viride (3-4 g/kg of seed) or Thiram fungicide (2-3 g/kg of seed) and soil drenching with Dithane M 45 (0.2%) or Bavistin (0.1%) affords protection against the disease. The nursery should be regularly inspected for the disease affected seedlings. Such seedlings should be removed and destroyed.

Black rot bacterial disease is common in areas having a warm and wet climate but would be less of a problem in rice soils. Plants can be infected during any growth stage and the symptoms resemble nutritional deficiencies. Infected seedlings become yellow, drop lower leaves, and may die. Leaves may be affected on only one side of a seedling. Plants infected because of contaminated seed may not develop symptoms for many weeks. The classic symptom of black rot is caused by local infection that results when bacteria enter leaves through natural openings of leaf margins. The infected tissue turns pale green-yellow and then turns brown and dies. Affected areas are usually wedge- or V-shaped. These areas enlarge as the disease progresses, and severely affected leaves may drop off. The veins in infected leaves, stems, and roots sometimes become black. The heads of the infected plants remains small and its quality is reduced making it unfit for marketing. An integrated control approach is needed first with use of tolerant varieties. Considerable reduction in disease has been observed

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when seeds are treated with Agrimycin-100 (100ppm) or Streptocycline (100 ppm). Planting should be done on raised beds to facilitate drainage. Cultivation in the fields where crucifers have been continuously grown during last 2 years should be avoided. Plants should be thoroughly inspected for black rot symptoms and the affected plants should be removed and destroyed.

HarvestCabbage is ready for harvest at 90-120 days after planting and should be harvested promptly when the heads are firm and mature. Delaying harvest, even a few days beyond maturity can result in split heads and increased incidence of field disease. Harvesting immature heads, however, reduces yield, and the heads are too soft to resist handling damage. Immature heads also have a shorter shelf life than mature heads. The head is harvested by bending it to one side and cutting it with a knife. The stalk should be cut flat and as close to the head as possible, yet long enough to retain two to four wrapper leaves. Extra leaves act as cushions during handling and may be desired in certain markets. The head should not be removed by snapping or twisting it since this practice damages the head and results in inconsistent stalk length. Broken stalks are also more susceptible to decay. As the heads are not ready for harvest at the same time, therefore they are harvested in stages based on the maturity of the heads. Harvested produce should always be stored in shade before packing.

Yield of the cabbage varies greatly depending upon variety, maturity group and season of cultivation. Average yield obtained from early varieties is 25-30 t/ha and that of late type is 40-60 t/ha.

Cauliflower

Cauliflower is related to cabbage and also came from Europe and is cross pollinated.

Climate In India, cauliflower is grown in large areas having a cool and moist climate. The cauliflower varieties are very sensitive to temperature. For good seed germination, a temperature of 10-21°C is required. A temperature range of 15-21°C is considered as optimum for growth and curd formation of the crop. Temperature below 10°C during growth delays maturity and undersized small unmarketable buttons are formed. High temperature during maturity will result in yellowish leafy curds. It is therefore essential to choose proper variety to be sown at proper time.

Soil Cultivation is done mainly on sandy to heavy soils rich in organic matter. Early crops prefer light soil while late crops thrive better on heavier soils due to retention of moisture. On heavy soils, plants grow more slowly and the keeping quality is improved. A pH range of 5.5-6.5 is considered as optimum for growing cauliflower. Plants growing in saline soils are prone to diseases.

Land PreparationThe field is plowed to fine tilth by giving four to five plowing with a sufficient interval between two plowing. Planking should be done for proper

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levelling. The transplanting is done on the flat land, ridges or in furrows depending on climate and soil conditions. For early planting, ridge method is suitable especially in areas where the rains occur at the time of planting. In saline soils, planting in furrows and in dry areas transplanting on flat beds is recommended.

VarietyEarly KwariAghaniSnowball 16

Seeding 600 g/haRow to row 45 cm, plant to plant 30 cm125-50-50

Crop establishmentThe seeds are generally sown in a seedbed and 4-6 week old seedlings are transplanting to the field. Cabbage seeds are sown on nursery beds to raise seedlings for transplanting in the field. Raised beds of size 3 x 0.6 m and 10-15 cm in height are prepared. About 70 cm distance is kept between two beds to carry out intercultural operations such as watering, weeding, etc. The surface of beds should be smooth and well levelled. Well-decomposed FYM @ 8-10 kg/m is added at the time of bed preparation. Raised beds are necessary to avoid problem of water logging in heavy soils. To avoid mortality of seedlings due to damping off, drenching of the beds three weeks before sowing with Bavistin (15-20g/10 litres of water) is recommended.

About 300-500 g of seed are sufficient for raising nursery required to plant one hectare. Prior to sowing seeds are treated with fungal culture of Trichoderma viride (4 g/ kg of seed) or Thiram (3g/ kg of seed) to avoid damage from damping-off disease. Sowing should be done thinly in lines spaced at 5-7 cm distance. Seeds are sown at a depth of 1-2 cm and covered with a fine layer of soil followed by light watering by water can. The beds should then be covered with dry straw or grass or sugarcane leaves to maintain required temperature and moisture. The watering should be done by water can as per the need till germination is completed. The cover of dry straw or grass is removed immediately after emergence of seed sprout. If there is over crowding of seedling due to thick sowing, the extra seedlings should be thinned out.

Irrigation is withheld 3-4 days before transplanting. However, before transplanting the beds are thoroughly irrigated to facilitate the removal of seedlings from the seed bed with out much injury tothe roots. Transplanting should be done preferably in the morning or late evening. Before transplanting, the roots of the seedlings are dipped in a solution of Bavistin (2g/litre of water). Irrigation should be given immediately after transplanting. In some parts of the country, beds are first irrigated and then the seedlings are transplanted

The planting distance may vary according to variety, planting season and soil conditions. The following distances are generally recommended on the basis of maturity of varieties:

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Maturity Recommended spacing (cm)

Early 45 x 45 or 60 x 40

Main & Late 60 x 60 or 60 x 45

Normally the seedlings should be transplanted within 4-6 weeks of sowing. In case of early crop 5-6 weeks old seedlings have better establishment and less mortality in the field while in mid-season and late varieties 3-4 weeks old seedlings may be transplanted.

Earthing up is done 30 days after transplanting. At the time of earthing up the plants are supported with soil to avoid toppling of the plant during head formation. During rainy season, the roots of plants in ridge planting get exposed. Adequate earthing up covers such exposed roots.

Blanching generally occurs in early and mid season maturity group with spreading and open plant type. Blanching is an important operation to protect the curds from yellowing due to direct exposure to sun. The curds may also loose some of their flavor because of this exposure. To avoid this, the tips of the leaves are drawn in and tied together or the curds are covered with leaves 4-5 days prior to harvest. In some varieties the curd remains naturally protected and surrounded by inner whorls of leaves. These are called self-blanching types.

IrrigationFirst irrigation is given just after transplanting of seedlings and subsequent irritations are given at an interval of 8-10 days depending upon the season and soil conditions. For early and mid-season crop usually lesser number of irrigations are needed because of rains. Moisture during both growth and curding phase should be adequate to maintain an even growth and proper development of curd.

Fertilizer requirementsThe fertilizer dose depends upon the fertility of soil and amount of organic manure applied to the crop. For a good yield, 15-20 t/ha of well-decomposed FYM is incorporated into the soil about 4 weeks before transplanting. Generally, application of 80-120 kg N, 60-100kg P2O5 and 60-120 kg K2O per hectare is recommended for optimum yield. Half the dose of N and entire amount of P and K is given at the time of transplanting. The balance N is given six weeks after transplanting or at the time of earthing up. Top dressing should be applied in bands and after each application earthing up of plants is necessary.

WeedsNormally, the crop is kept free of weeds by 2-3 hand weedings and 1-2 hoeings. Hoeing should not be deep to avoid injury to the roots. Usually in medium heavy and clay soils, there is crust formation soon after transplanting. This crust must be broken otherwise water and air penetration in root system is hindered which will adversely affect plant growth.

Insect pestsInsect pests must be controlled to ensure good yields of marketable heads. If applying insecticides, carefully follow the instructions on the label.

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Do not spray while leaves are wet. Most insecticides are poisonous so care should be taken during and after the spray.

Diamondback moth is the most serious pest of cauliflower in the tropics and subtropics. Larvae eat nearly every part of cabbage plants at any stage of growth. Damage is most serious in the dry season. After emerging from eggs, the larvae feed on the underside of outer leaves, chewing out small holes between veins. On young plants, the growing tips are eaten and seedlings appear stunted.

The control is very difficult since it is resistant to many insecticides. You can reduce populations by regularly cultivating weeds and removing plant debris from the field. Regularly scout the field. If populations rise, use natural insecticides such as neem or Bacillus thuringiensis. These pest-specific insecticides will not harm the valuable natural parasites. If these products are not available then Confidor can be applied.

Leaf webber is one of the most destructive pests of cauliflower. Eggs are laid in clusters on the undersurface of the leaves and held together by gelatinous glue. Green caterpillars web up the leaves and live inside the knotted mass. Flowering and pod formation is adversely affected.Control is to remove and destroy webbed bunches of leaf help to check the further spread of the pest. Spraying with Confidor is effective.

Yellow-green aphid nymphs and adults suck plant sap to weaken plants. Affected parts become discolored and malformed. High humidity favors rapid multiplication of this pest. The aphids are mostly observed on the lower surface of the leaves. They can be controlled with bar laundry detergent.

Diseases Damping off disease causes severe damage in the nursery. Cool, cloudy weather, high humidity, wet soils, compacted soil, and overcrowding especially favor its development. Damping-off kills seedlings before or soon after they emerge. Infection before seedling emergence results in poor germination. If the decay is after seedlings emergence, they fall over or die which is referred to as "damping-off." The destructiveness of the disease depends on the amount of pathogen in the soil and on environmental conditions. Seedlings that emerge develop a lesion near where the tender stem contacts the soil surface. The tissues beneath the lesion become soft due to which the seedlings collapse. Control in the nursery is that the soil used for preparing raised beds should be well- drained. Excessive irrigation should be avoided to reduce humidity around the plants. Seed treatment with antagonist fungal culture of Trichoderma viride (3-4 g/kg of seed) or Thiram fungicide (2-3 g/kg of seed) and soil drenching with Dithane M 45 (0.2%) or Bavistin (0.1%) affords protection against the disease. The nursery should be regularly inspected for the disease affected seedlings. Such seedlings should be removed and destroyed.

Black rot bacterial disease is common in areas having a warm and wet climate but would be less of a problem in rice soils. Plants can be infected during any growth stage and the symptoms resemble nutritional deficiencies. Infected seedlings become yellow, drop lower leaves, and may die. Leaves may be affected on only one side of a seedling. Plants infected because of contaminated seed may not develop symptoms for many weeks. The

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classic symptom of black rot is caused by local infection that results when bacteria enter leaves through natural openings of leaf margins. The infected tissue turns pale green-yellow and then turns brown and dies. Affected areas are usually wedge- or V-shaped. These areas enlarge as the disease progresses, and severely affected leaves may drop off. The veins in infected leaves, stems, and roots sometimes become black. The tops of the infected plants remains small and its quality is reduced making it unfit for marketing. An integrated control approach is needed first with use of tolerant varieties. Considerable reduction in disease has been observed when seeds are treated with Agrimycin-100 (100ppm) or Streptocycline (100 ppm). Planting should be done on raised beds to facilitate drainage. Cultivation in the fields where crucifers have been continuously grown during last 2 years should be avoided. Plants should be thoroughly inspected for black rot symptoms and the affected plants should be removed and destroyed.

HarvestCauliflower is ready for harvest at 90-120 days after planting. Depending upon the variety the curds should be harvested promptly when they are of full size but still compact, white and smooth. Delayed harvesting results in the curds turning loose, leafy. The curds are harvested by bending them and cutting off the stalk well below the curd with a sharp cutting knife, sickle or khurpi. The stalk thus left protects the curds during transport. The curd should not be removed by snapping or twisting it since this practice damages the curd and results in broken and inconsistent stalk length. Broken stalks are also more susceptible to decay. Several harvestings will be necessary in the field, as all the curd do not mature uniformly at the same time. Harvesting should be done with great care to prevent damage to the highly sensitive turgid curds. The curd portion of the head should not be used to handle cauliflower. Harvested produce should always be stored in shade before packing. Bruising is very common and leads to rapid browning and decay when careful harvest and handling practices are not followed.

Yield of the cauliflower varies greatly depending upon variety, maturity group and season of cultivation. Average yield obtained from early varieties is 6-10 t/ha. Mid season varieties, yield 12-20 t/ha while the yield of late types is 20-30 t/ha.

String bean

Pusa Barasati kharifPusa Dophasali 2 cropsBanarasiMota Phali Thick beanBhura Barbati Brown string bean

20 kg/ha75 cm x 30 cm25-60-50

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Potato

The potato is native to Latin America and is one of the most productive of crops in terms of providing high levels of food energy per area of field.

ClimatePotato is a temperate crop, but it grows under a diverse range of climatic conditions. Potatoes can be grown only under such conditions where the temperatures are moderately cool during the growing season. Therefore, the planting time varies from region to region. The vegetative growth is best at a temperature of 24°C while tuber development is favored at 20°C. Hence, potato is grown as a summer crop in the hills and as a winter crop in tropical and subtropical regions. The crop can be cultivated up to an altitude of 3000 m above the sea level.

SoilThe potato can be grown almost on any type of soil except saline and alkaline. Soils, which that are naturally loose, offer least resistance to the enlargement of the tubers are preferred. Loamy and sandy loam soils, rich in organic matter with good drainage and aeration, are most suitable for cultivation of potato crop. Soil with pH range of 5.2-6.4 is considered to be ideal.

Land preparationThe land is plowed at a depth of 24-25 cm and exposed to the sun. The soil should have a higher pore space and offer least resistance to tuber development.

Kuphari Chandra MukhiKuphari La LimaKuphari SinduriKuphari Jyoti

Seed rate 15-20 q/haSpacing 54 x 15 cm150-40-80

Crop establishmentPotato is mostly cultivated by planting tubers. Purity of the cultivars and healthy ‘seed’ tubers are the primary requirements for a successful crop. However, the seed tuber is the costliest input in potato cultivation. The seed tuber should be disease free, well-sprouted and 30-40 g each in weight. It is advisable to use the entire seed tuber for planting. Seed tubers are split into pieces and planted late in winter when they do not decay due to mild temperatures. The main objectives of splitting large size tubers are to reduce the cost of seed and to obtain uniform sprouting. Tubers should be cut longitudinally through the crown eye. Usually the seed tubers are cut with a knife and treated with a fungicide just before planting. Before cutting the seed tuber, the knife should be disinfected with potassium permanganate solution.

The shortage of good quality seed tubers, high seed cost, transportation of bulky potato seed, and virus infiltration in seed tubers are some of the important problems associated with use of seed tubers as planting material.

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To overcome the above problems true potato seed (TPS) can be used as planting material. TPS is the botanical seed developed in the berry of the plant as a result of fertilization. The technology basically consists in production of TPS and raising commercial potato crop from it. It has been shown that the use of TPS seedling transplants and seedling-tubers as seed are economical and successful approaches to commercial potato production. In the TPS technique, the normal seed rate (2.5 t/ha) of potato is drastically reduced to only about 200g of TPS, thereby, saving huge quantities of food material. About 100 g of TPS costing Rs 3000 is sufficient to plant one hectare of potato as against 2-3 t/ha of seed tuber costing Rs 20,000-30,000. Potato crop can be raised from TPS using seedling transplants or through seedling-tubers produced in preceding crop season. In former method, the TPS seedlings raised in nursery beds are transplanted in the field and grown to maturity. While, in latter, the TPS seedlings are grown to maturity in nursery beds to obtain seedling-tubers. These seedling-tubers are used as a seed for raising normal potato crop in next season.

Furrows are opened at a distance of 50-60 cm before planting. The whole or cut tubers are planted 15-20 cm apart on the centre of the ridge at a depth of 5-7 cm and covered with soil. The seed rate of potato depends upon the season of planting, duration, seed size, spacing etc. The seed rate is 1.5-1.8 t/ha for round varieties and 2.0-2.5 t/ha for oval varieties.

IrrigationIrrigation has a special significance in potato production as the plant has a shallow and sparse root system. First irrigation should be light and given 5-7 days after planting and subsequent irrigations are given at 7-15 day intervals depending upon the climatic condition and soil type.

Fertilizer requirementNutrient requirement of potato is quit high and the application of fertilizers and organic manures is considered essential to obtain economic and high yields. In light soils and places where organic manures are not easily available, green manuring is beneficial. Well decomposed FYM (25-30 t/ha) is mixed with the soil during last plowing. The optimum dose of fertilizer varies greatly depending upon the soil type, soil fertility, climate, crop rotation, variety, length of growing season and moisture supply. A fertilizer dose of 180-240 kg N, 60-90 kg P2O5 and 85-130 K2O per hectare is recommended for alluvial soils. Two thirds of N and the entire dose of P and K is given at the time of planting. The balance N is given at the time of earthing up operation. The fertilizers are applied by band placement 5 cm away from the tubers.

WeedsPotatoes should be grown in a weed free field and weeding needs to begin early in the crop. Hand weeding is sufficient.

Insect pestsThere are several kinds of aphids that feed on potato plants. Aphids transmit a virus disease and cause severe damage by sucking the juice from leaves and young stems. The plants may be stunted, with the leaves tightly curled and rolled when the attack is severe. Aphids can be knocked back by soap sprays. Purchase a blue bar laundry such as Wheel and cut one sixth of the bar. Fill the sprayer with water and then rub the soap with ones

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fingers with your hand under the water to dissolve it. A follow up spray may be needed as this is not as toxic as a commercial insecticide but it is very inexpensive.

Cutworms cause crop damage. They feed at night on young shoots or under ground tubers. In the early stages of if crop, the caterpillars cut the stem of the young plants near the ground and feed on the shoots and leaves. After tuber formation, they bore and nibble into the tubers affecting both tuber yield and market value. If damage is severe spray Confidor in the late afternoon.

Potato tubermoth (PTM) is a pest of potatoes during storage. Larvae mine the younger leaves and feed on the tubers. Larvae penetrate the leaves and feed within leaf veins or stems of the plant and on tubers in storage by depositing the eggs near the eye buds, causing irregular galleries and 'tunnels' deep inside the tuber. An integrated control approach is helpful in reducing PTM population in the field and stores. Regular monitoring of PTM adult males with sex pheromone baited water traps (4 traps/100 m3 ) in field and storage is helpful. Collection of left over tubers, use of uninfested seed tubers, deep planting, frequent irrigation wherever possible, covering the exposed tubers in the field with soil and storage of healthy tubers in moth proof structures are helpful. Spraying bioagents Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) and Granulosis virus (GV) is advocated for PTM control.

Diseases Soil borne pests such as wilt and nematodes are not a problem in soils previously grown to flooded rice.

Late Blight(Phytophthora infestans) fungus disease affects all plant parts, viz., leaves, stems and tubers. It appears on leaves as small pale green spots, which enlarge into large water soaked lesions. A white mildew (cottony growth) ring forms around the dead areas on the lower side of leaves. In dry weather, water soaked areas turn necrotic brown. On stems, light brown elongated lesions are formed which may encircle the stem. Tubers develop reddish brown, shallow to deep, dry rot lesions. The affected tuber flesh becomes 'caramalised' with a sugary texture. Frequently metallic tinge develops on the margins of the affected tissue. Tubers carrying the pathogen are the real carriers and serve as the source of the disease in the subsequent season. Infected seed tubers grow into healthy plants but under favorable conditions for the disease (10-12°C and humidity > 80%) development, the disease infects the stem and lower leaves. Control: Seed potatoes should be checked thoroughly before storage. All blighted tubers must be removed and buried deep in the soil. Ridges should be made high enough to cover all daughter tubers and reduce chance of their infection upon exposure. If the weather conditions (temperature 10-20°C, humidity >80%) are favorable for the disease development irrigation should be stopped immediately. If essential only light irrigation is given. When the disease affects 75% crop foliage, the haulms should be cut, removed from the field, and buried deep. Protective sprays with a contact fungicide, viz., mancozeb (0.2%) before appearance of the disease is effective. Subsequent sprays if necessary should be repeated at 8 to 10 days interval. In case of severe blight attack, one or two sprays of metalaxyl (0.25 %) are given to check the further spread of the disease.

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Mancozeb is applied at an interval of 15 days after the metalaxyl application.

Early blight (Alternarial solani) fungus disease mainly infects leaves and tubers. Initially the symptoms occur on the lower and older leaves in the form of small (1-2 mm) circular to oval brown spots. These lesions have the tendency to become large and angular at later stage. Mature lesions on foliage look dry and papery, and often have the concentric rings, looking like bulls eye. The symptoms on the tuber comprise of brown, circular to irregular and depressed lesions with underneath flesh turning dry, brown and corky. Lesions tend to enlarge during storage and affected tubers later become shriveled. Control is through the use of disease free seed tubers for raising the crop. The crop must be given balanced doses of fertilizers, especially nitrogen. Spraying the crop with urea (1.0%) at 45 days after sowing and giving subsequent sprays 8-10 days after the first spray helps the crop to easily escape the severe onslaught of early blight disease. In the hilly regions, spraying of copper oxychloride (0.30%) and Bordeaux mixture (1.0%), is recommended for control of early blight disease. Solanaceous crops, which act as the collateral hosts for the disease organism, hence their cultivation nearby potato fields, must be avoided.

HarvestThe time of harvest is very important in potato. Tuber development continues until the vines die. The main crop is ready for harvest within 75-120 days of planting depending upon the area, soil type and variety sown. The crop should be normally harvested when the soil is not very wet. Tubers lifted during the monsoon have a poor keeping quality and also develop various types of rots. The main crop is ready for harvest when majority of the leaves turn yellow-brown. At this stage, the tops are cut near the ground level. The potatoes are dug out from the field by plowing after 8-10 days. These potatoes are manually picked from the field and stored in shade.

The harvested potatoes are surface dried and kept in heaps for 10-15 days in shade for curing of skin. The tubers should not be exposed to direct sunlight as they become green. All damaged and rotten tubers should be removed. The produce should be kept in a cool place before sending to the market.

Bottle gourdLauki

Pusa NaveenArkabaharPunjab KomalPusa MeghdootPusa Manjari4-6 kg/ha seed rate2 m x 1.5 m spacing60-80-20 npk150-200 q/ha

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Bitter gourdKarelaYield of bitter gourd is increased by grafting with luffa (Luffa spp.). Luffa resists fusarium wilt and is more tolerant to flooding, which allows bitter gourd to survive in waterlogged soils.

Crop establishmentDirect seeding is the most common method of planting. Optimum plant density differs with variety and usually ranges from 6,500 to 11,000 plants per ha. In some intensively managed plantings, a closer spacing of 50 x 50 cm is used resulting in 40,000 plants per ha. On raised beds, sow two or three seeds per hole at a depth of 2 cm. Space holes 40–60 cm apart in rows spaced 1.2–1.5 m apart. Plant density using this spacing will range from 13,600 to 17,300 plants per hectare. When planted in warm soil, seedlings will emerge in a week or less. Thin to one seedling when they have four true leaves.

Numerous hybrid and open-pollinated varieties are available. Hybrids usually produce higher yields, but their seeds are relatively expensive and must be purchased for every planting. Open-pollinated varieties have the advantage that their seeds may be saved and used for future plantings.

The choice of variety depends on market preference in a certain region, and is based on fruit shape and color. Generally, there are three types:

1) small, 10–20 cm long, 100–300 g, usually dark green, very bitter; 2) long, 30–60 cm long, 200– 600 g, light green in color with medium

size protuberances, and only slightly bitter; and 3) triangular fruit type, cone-shaped, 9–12 cm long, 300-600 g, light to

dark green with prominent tubercles, moderately to strongly bitter. Select a variety that is well adapted to your growing conditions and preferred by consumers. Growers are encouraged to compare the performances of different varieties during different seasons to identify superior types.

Land preparationThorough land preparation and a well-prepared bed is required. Plow, harrow and lvel the field. Form 20-cm-high beds during the dry season and 30 cm or higher during the wet season. The distance between centers of adjacent furrows is about 150 cm with a 90-cm bed top.

VArietyPusa VisheshArka HaritPusa Dodmausani

4-6 kg/ha seeding rate1.5 x 2.75 m distance75-60-6075-100 q/ha avg yield

Staking and trellisingBitter gourd grows very fast and vines elongate rapidly within two weeks after planting. Thereafter, the plant sends out lateral stems. Staking and trellising will increase fruit yield and size, reduce fruit rot, and make spraying and harvesting easier. There are several methods of trellising

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with wood poles to provide support and keep the fruit and foliage off the ground. The trellis is arranged either in a lean-to or tunnel structure. The trellis should be 1.8–2.0 m high, constructed from stakes 1.2–1.8 m apart, which is almost similar to the plant row spacing.

For the lean-to type, the stakes are joined between two adjoining beds forming an A-shape structure. Horizontal stakes are installed at the top joining all other beds. The stakes support the climbing vines and lateral stems. Strings are used to secure adjoining stakes. Plantings are easier to manage and more productive when 2-m high rather than 1-m-high string trellises are used. The vines and lateral stems will then grow along the structure. Another type of trellising consists of a system of vertical strings running between top and bottom of horizontal wires, or horizontal wires running across all directions.

PruningBitter gourd develops many side branches that are not productive. To improve yield, remove lateral branches until the runner reaches the top of the trellis. Leave 4–6 laterals and cut the tip of the main runner to induce early cropping. Removal of lateral branches in the first 10 nodes has a positive effect on total yield. Without pruning, most of the female flowers occur between the 10th and 40th nodes, or at a height of 0.5–2 m.

IrrigatingBitter gourd will not tolerate drought. Maintain good soil moisture in the upper 50 cm of soil where the majority of roots are located. Fields should be furrow-irrigated every 10 days during the cool/dry season, and weekly during the hot-dry season. During the rainy season, drainage is essential for plant survival and growth.

PollinatingFlowers of bitter gourd are first developed 45 to 55 days after sowing and vines will bloom for about six months. Flowers are cross-pollinated by insects, especially bees. Pollination can be a problem during the wet season since bees are less active during overcast conditions. Each flower opens at sunrise and remains viable for only one day. Pollen loses viability as the day advances and may be fully inviable by midday. To ensure good pollination and avoid the need for hand pollination, introduce beehives or blow pollen around with an unloaded mister.

Bitter gourd bears male and female flowers are borne separately on the same plant. The male flowers normally exceed the females by about 25:1. Long days cause male flowers to bloom up to two weeks before female flowers, while short days have the opposite effect.

Spraying vines with flowering hormones after they have six to eight true leaves will increase the number of female flowers and can double the number of fruits. For example, one application of gibberellic acid at 25–100 ppm increases female flowers by 50% and can work for up to 80 days. Other hormones have similar effect, but may reduce vine length and leaf area resulting in decreased total yield. As mentioned earlier, pruning the lower lateral branches increases the number of flowers per plant by increasing the number of flowers on higher laterals.

Fertilizer requirement

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Bitter gourd requires a balance of nutrients from organic and chemical fertilizers. Fertilizer application rates depend on soil type, fertility level, and soil organic matter. In sandy soils, fertilizer application consists of a basal application followed by four sidedressings, providing a total of 184 kg N, 112 kg P2O5 and 124 kg K2O per ha. In clay or heavy texture soils, the entire amount of P, and one-third of N and K is applied before planting, either by broadcasting and tilling or by banding a few cm deep and to the side of the plant row in the bed. The balance of N and K is applied in two or more sidedressings. No matter the soil type, the first side dressing is applied when plants have four to six true leaves. Subsequent side dressings are applied at two-week intervals.

Compost or manure can be used to satisfy the basal application of organic fertilizer.

Inorganic fertilizer application ratesTiming N P2O5 K2O

Basal inorganic 36 54 36Sidedressing 1 30 7.5 15Sidedressing 2 30 7.5 15Sidedressing 3 30 7.5 15Sidedressing 4 30 7.5 15

Total 184 112 124

WeedsThe crop should be kept weed free which after paddy rice should not be a difficult task as weed pressure is reduced.

Insect pestsFruit fly is the most destructive insect pest. This fly is difficult to control because its maggots feed inside the fruits, protected from direct contact with insecticides. Bury any infested fruits to prevent the build up of fruit fly populations. To prevent flies from laying eggs inside the fruits, enclose the gourd in paper while it is on the vine. A cylinder of paper, longer than the fruit, is tied with string around the stalk. Where consumers want their bitter gourd straight rather than curved, tie a pebble at the end of a long piece of string to the flower end to weigh down the fruit and keep it from curling. Double layer paper bags may be used against fruit fly and are applied when gourds measure 2–3 cm in length.

Beetles, thrips, cutworms, bollworm, aphids are other common pests of bitter gourd. Chemical control of insect pests should be done only when significant damage occurs. Avoid pesticides that kill or inhibit the development of beneficial organisms especially the pollinators.

Diseases Bitter gourd is susceptible to many of the same diseases that affect other cucurbits. There may be viruses as well as fungi such as is infected downy mildew, and Cercospora leaf on the leaves. Soil borne pests such as bacterial wilt, fusarium wilt and nematodes will not be present in flooded rice fields. Fungal infections often occur during prolonged wet periods. Fungicide sprays may be used under such conditions to prevent infection. The use of resistant varieties is the best defense for most of these diseases.

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Harvesting and handlingBitter gourd requires close attention at harvest time. The fruits develop rapidly and must be harvested frequently to keep them from becoming too large or too bitter. Normally it takes 15–20 days after fruit set or 90 days from planting for fruit to reach marketable age, however, bitter gourd can be harvested at earlier stages depending on the purpose for which it will be used. Fruit should be light green, thick and juicy, and the seeds should be soft and white.

Harvest every 2–3 days using pair of scissors or a sharp knife to cut the fruit stalk. If a fruit remains too long on the vine, it will turn spongy, sour, yellow or orange, and split open.

Bitter gourd yield can vary depending on variety and crop management. Average marketable yields are 8–10 t/ha. A yield of 20–30 t/ha is excellent and some F1 hybrids yield up to 40 t/ha. Fruits of bitter gourd do not keep long and should be sold in the market immediately. Remove damaged and deformed fruits. Carefully arrange fruits in bamboo baskets or boxes and store in a cool place at 12–13oC with 85–90% relative humidity. Under this condition, fruit storage life can be extended 2–3 weeks. Bitter gourd is chilling sensitive and damage may occur if kept below 10oC. Do not store fruits at temperatures above 13oC, as this will result in fruits turning yellow and splitting open. Keep harvested fruits away from other fruits (such as banana, pineapple and apple) that release large amounts of ethylene, a ripening hormone.

Pumpkin

Kaddu

Pusa VishawasArka ChandanArka Suryamukhee

Seed rate 4-6 kg/ha1 m x 0.75 row to row 1 m row50-35-35200-250 q/ha

Smooth gourdSponge gourd

Pusa Chikni smooth

3-5 kg/ha seed1.5 x 0.5 m50-35-30

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125-150 q/ha

SpinachPalak

Pusa JyotiHS23Pant composite 1

25-30 kg/ha???Spacing 20 cm x 15 cm60-40-40

147

148

Appendix XI. Fertilizer chart for rabi crops. All data are in acres.Wheat a/ Sunflower b/ Chana c/ Mustard d/ Groundnut e/

Top dressing Top dressing Top dressingFirst application First irrigation First application before irrigation First application First irrigation

Basal 1/ 20-25 days later Basal 1/ at flowering All basal 1/ Basal 1/ 20-25 days later All basal 1/Field size DAP MOP 2/ Urea Urea DAP MOP 2/ Urea Urea DAP MOP 2/ Urea SSP MOP 2/ Urea Urea

NP K N N NP K N N NP K N P K N NAcres Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg Kg kg Kg Kg Kg Kg

1/4 25 decimals 0.25 14 7 9 13 8 3 1 3 9 3 1 10 5 7 71/2 50 decimals 0.5 27 14 18 25 15 7 3 5 18 7 2 19 10 15 153/4 75 decimals 0.75 41 20 26 38 23 10 4 8 26 10 3 29 15 22 221 100 decimals 1 54 27 35 50 30 13 5 10 35 13 4 38 20 29 29

1-1/4 1.25 68 34 44 63 38 16 6 13 44 16 5 48 25 36 361-1/2 1.5 81 41 53 75 45 20 8 15 53 20 6 57 30 44 441-3/4 1.75 95 47 61 88 53 23 9 18 61 23 7 67 35 51 51

2 2 108 54 70 100 60 26 10 20 70 26 8 76 40 58 582-1/4 2.25 122 61 79 113 68 29 11 23 79 29 9 86 45 65 652-1/2 2.5 135 68 88 125 75 33 13 25 88 33 10 95 50 73 732-3/4 2.75 149 74 96 138 83 36 14 28 96 36 11 105 55 80 80

3 3 162 81 105 150 90 39 15 30 105 39 12 114 60 87 873-1/4 3.25 176 88 114 163 98 42 16 33 114 42 13 124 65 94 943-1/2 3.5 189 95 123 175 105 46 18 35 123 46 14 133 70 102 1023-3/4 3.75 203 101 131 188 113 49 19 38 131 49 15 143 75 109 109

4 4 216 108 140 200 120 52 20 40 140 52 16 152 80 116 1164-1/4 4.25 230 115 149 213 128 55 21 43 149 55 17 162 85 123 1234-1/2 4.5 243 122 158 225 135 59 23 45 158 59 18 171 90 131 1314-3/4 4.75 257 128 166 238 143 62 24 48 166 62 19 181 95 138 138

5 5 270 135 175 250 150 65 25 50 175 65 20 190 100 145 1456 6 324 162 210 300 180 78 30 60 210 78 24 228 120 174 1747 7 378 189 245 350 210 91 35 70 245 91 28 266 140 203 2038 8 432 216 280 400 240 104 40 80 280 104 32 304 160 232 2329 9 486 243 315 450 270 117 45 90 315 117 36 342 180 261 261

10 10 540 270 350 500 300 130 50 100 350 130 40 380 200 290 29011 11 594 297 385 550 330 143 55 110 385 143 44 418 220 319 31912 12 648 324 420 600 360 156 60 120 420 156 48 456 240 348 34813 13 702 351 455 650 390 169 65 130 455 169 52 494 260 377 37714 14 756 378 490 700 420 182 70 140 490 182 56 532 280 406 40615 15 810 405 525 750 450 195 75 150 525 195 60 570 300 435 43516 16 864 432 560 800 480 208 80 160 560 208 64 608 320 464 46417 17 918 459 595 850 510 221 85 170 595 221 68 646 340 493 49318 18 972 486 630 900 540 234 90 180 630 234 72 684 360 522 52219 19 1026 513 665 950 570 247 95 190 665 247 76 722 380 551 55120 20 1080 540 700 1000 600 260 100 200 700 260 80 760 400 580 580

a/ Wheat NPK in kg/ha = 120-60-40 and kg/ac 49-25-16b/ Sunflower NPK in kg/ha 30-35-20 and kg/ac 12-14-8c/ Chana NPK in kg/ha 20-40-20 and kg/ac 8-16-8d/ Mustard NPK in kg/ha 60-30-30 and in kg/ac 26-12-12, sulfur in SSPe/ Groundnut NPK in kg/ha 30-60-20 kg/ac 12-25-81/ Basal means applying before the last plowing in land preparation to place fertilizer into the soil2/ Muriate of potash (K)For pulses it is recommended not to use mixed fertilizers such as DAP or iffco but to suply single element types eg. N from urea, P from SSP, and K from MOP. Gypsum should be used for groundnut to aide in seed set and can be from MgSO4 or CaSO4, the former is preferred. SSP contains Ca (calcium) + S (sulfur).