wru centre of excellence, bulmore, caerleon. field evaluation

WRU Centre of Excellence, Bulmore, Newport Archaeological Field Evaluation

Contents Page

SUMMARY ..............................................................................................................................................2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................................2

COPYRIGHT NOTICE.........................................................................................................................2

1 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................2

2 METHODOLOGY .........................................................................................................................3

3 RESULTS........................................................................................................................................3

3.1 TRENCHES ..................................................................................................................................3 3.2 TEST PITS .................................................................................................................................10 3.3 FINDS (BY S. H. SELL) .............................................................................................................10

4 DISCUSSION................................................................................................................................11

APPENDIX 1: SITE DATA................................................................................................................12

APPENDIX 2: FINDS DATA.............................................................................................................20

List of Tables Table 1: Summary of site context data 12 Table 2: Summary of test pits results 13 Table 3: Summary of finds archive 20 List of Figures (at end of text) Fig 1: Site location Fig 2: Trench locations Fig 3: Plan of trench 14 Fig 4: Plan of trench 17 Fig 5: Plan of trench 21 Fig 6: Plan of trench 23 Fig 7: Plan of trench 24 Fig 8: Plan of trench 34 Fig 9: Plan of trench 36 Fig 10: Plan of trench 39 Fig 11: Plan of trench 41 Fig 12: Plan of trench 42 Fig 13: Plan of trenches 78 and 79

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Summary As the third stage of a three-stage assessment programme, the Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Trust Contracts Division undertook an archaeological field evaluation of the site of the proposed Welsh Rugby Union Centre of Excellence at Bulmore, Caerleon, Newport. Stages 1 and 2 had comprised desk-based assessment and geophysical survey, during which a number of actual and potential interests were identified. The field evaluation determined that the principal archaeological resource was concentrated along Bulmore Road and to the north of Little Bulmore Farm. This comprised a Roman road lined with a series of buildings and burials. The remains encountered can be categorised as being of National Importance. Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Andy Stanton and Jim McKenzie of Celtic Manor, Adrian Lewis of Lewis Lewis Ltd., Louis Chicot of Louis Chicot Associates, Gareth Dowdell, Director of the Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Neil Maylan and Charles Hill of GGAT Curatorial Division, Dr Paul Graves-Brown the Regional SMR Officer, Trust, Dr Tim Young of GeoArch and Phil Macdonald of the National Museums and Gelleries of Wales for their help in the completion of this project. The excavations were visited by Dr Mike Yates and Kate Roberts of Cadw, Dr Julie Reynolds of Caerleon Legionary Museum, and Bob Trett of Newport Museum. The project was managed by Andrew Marvell and the fieldwork was directed by the author and Martin Lawler between November 10th and December 7th 1999. The site team were John Burton, Katherine Dvorakova, Hywel Keen and Natalie Swords. The finds were examined by Steve Sell and Natalie Swords, Jo Mackintosh helped with the post-excavation analysis and the illustrations were prepared by Paul Jones of GGAT Illustration Department. Copyright Notice The copyright to this report is held by the Glamorgan-Gwent Archaeological Trust. An exclusive licence has been granted to the Celtic Manor, the WRU and their agents to use and reproduce the information contained herein. Ordnance Survey maps are reproduced under licence agreement (AL50677), annotations are GGAT copyright. 1 Introduction The Welsh Rugby Union, through their agents, Lewis Lewis Ltd, have submitted a planning application to Newport Borough Council (99/0013F) to construct a centre of excellence on land at Bulmore, near Caerleon, Monmouthshire, (NGR ST 353 914, fig 1). In response to a brief prepared by the archaeological advisors to the local authority (GGAT Curatorial Division), Lewis Lewis Ltd have commissioned GGAT Contracts to undertake programme of archaeological investigation comprising 3 stages; desk-based assessment to be followed by geophysical survey and field evaluation as appropriate. The desk-based assessment identified a number of actual and potential archaeological interests1. Stage 2 works were considered superfluous as much of the area of high archaeological potential had already undergone geophysical survey; these results were summarised in a separate report2. Accordingly stage 3 works were commenced. These works were designed to assess the area of the development in order for sitings to be designed to minimise the archaeological impact and to test the validity of the areas of potential as identified in the stage 1 works.

1 A. M. Yates 1999(a) Archaeological Desk-based Assessment, WRU Centre of Excellence, Bulmore, Caerleon, Newport. GGAT report 99/047. 2 A. M. Yates 1999(b) Review of Available Geophysics Data, WRU Centre of Excellence, Bulmore, Caerleon, Newport. GGAT report 99/066.

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2 Methodology In order to thoroughly evaluate the site a programme of trenching and test pitting was enacted. It was planned to excavate 60 trenches, each measuring 40m by 2m to a maximum depth of 1.2m, and 16 test pits to a maximum depth of 3m to investigate the alluvial deposits of the valley floor (fig 2). During the course of the evaluation it was decided to excavate 6 additional trenches, and 1 additional test pit was dug. The recording methodology used comprised those set out in the GGAT Manual of Field Recording, and comprised a written record using GGAT pro-forma context sheets supplemented by photography and scale drawing as appropriate. It became apparent early in the evaluation process that remains of possible Schedulable quality had been uncovered, and in consultation with the archaeological advisors to the Local Planning Authority, to only do enough work to establish the extent of these remains. Accordingly excavation was ceased at the uppermost reaches of the archaeological horizons, which were not in themselves disturbed, so that only the final phase of activity in each trench was observed. Any interpretations must therefore be regarded as tentative and provisional, and it is probable that the latest deposits overly earlier phases of activity. 3 Results 3.1 Trenches The following section summarises those trenches with positive archaeological results ordered by field number. The general sequence of deposits encountered was consistent throughout the evaluation and can be described generally by splitting the site into two areas. On the flood plain of the Usk valley, topsoil overlay a shallow depth of colluvium, generally a red-brown clay loam. This overlay a depth of alluvial clays, generally blue-grey containing manganese and iron salts. The interface between the alluvial and colluvial deposits often showed signs of inter leaving, reflecting alternating episodes of alluvial and colluvial deposition. On the slopes to the south of the flood plain the topsoil overlay colluvium which in turn overlay the natural sub-strata. The colluvium was again generally a red-brown clay-loam, sometimes with greater quantities of silt and clay, containing a few flat tabular sandstone fragments. The sub-strata comprised either green marl or red clay, containing decayed fragments of bedrock, with some outcroppings of sandstone. The depth of the colluvium varied wildly, from c0.2m on the upper slopes to over 2m immediately south of Bulmore Road. This can be explained by Bulmore Road acting as a natural dam, resulting in a build-up of material on its upslope side. Where Roman deposits were encountered, they were generally stratified with the colluvial deposits. Field A Trenches 1, 4 and 77 contained archaeological remains of Roman date. No features were identified in trenches 2, 5, 6 and 7. Trench 1 This trench was excavated immediately to the southeast of the Scheduled Area, aligned northeast-southwest. Topsoil (Context 157) overlay colluvium up to 0.4m in depth (158). At the extreme northeastern end of the trench, a small ditch was present (161). This was 1.1m in width and aligned approximately northwest-southeast. Two fills were visible. The lower was a strong brown clay loam containing redeposited green marl fragments, charcoal and stone (162). This was overlain by a yellowish red clay loam containing charcoal and small stones (164). Immediately to the south of this ditch was a spread of occupation material comprising a reddish-brown clay loam containing charcoal, burnt clay, stones and a few tabular sandstone fragments, apparently set on edge (164). Also present within the trench were a small irregular pit (165), containing a dark brown clay loam with charcoal and stone, some burnt, and a large ditch (167), 5m in width, aligned northwest-southeast, containing a reddish brown clay loam with charcoal, stone and burnt stone. The archaeological features overlay/were cut into further colluvium (159) and bedrock (160).

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Trench 4 The topsoil (174), overlay colluvium 0.9m in depth (175). At the extreme southwestern end of the trench a patch of metalling was encountered (176), underlying colluvium 175. The visible width of this was 4m and it comprised small pebbles and sandstone fragments set directly on the underlying colluvium (177). Trench 77 The topsoil (169), overlay colluvium 0.7m in depth (170). At the southwestern end of the trench a metalled surface (171) was encountered. This was identical to 176 in trench 4, although here a 5m width was visible. To the north of 171 was a spread of sandstone rubble lying within the colluvial deposits, although no in-situ structural elements were visible (172). Underlying 171 and 172 were further colluvial deposits (173). Field B No archaeological features were encountered in any of the trenches in field B. Field C Trenches 13, 14, 16, 17 and 21 contained archaeological remains of Roman date. No features were seen in trench 16. Trench 13 The topsoil (079) overlay colluvium up to 0.8m in depth (080). Underlying this was a wall aligned northeast-southwest (081), comprising unmortared sandstone blocks, shaped on the facing side and well coursed, with rubble infill. The uppermost course of the wall was thinner than the underlying courses, 0.46m as opposed to 0.68m. To the south of wall 081 the colluvium shallowed and the bedrock (084) shelved up, to the north down, so that excavations to 1.2m failed to reach the base of the colluvial deposits (082), which were still yielding Roman ceramics. It is assumed that this wall represents the rear face of a building, terraced into the slopes of the hill, sealed by colluvium. It may be that floor levels survive under 082. Trench 14 (fig 3) The topsoil (006) overlay colluvium (007), 0.6m in depth. At a point 6m from the southwestern end of the trench was a wall, 0.64m in width, visible for a length of 1.2m within the trench, aligned southeast-northwest, constucted from sandstone and tile (008), with faced sides and rubble infill. To the southwest of this was a spread of colluvial material containing tile (009), with a similar, although slightly redder deposit to the north (011). This was cut by a small cremation burial some 19m northeast of wall 008. This took the form of a small ovoid pit, 0.50m by 0.58m (010), containing charcoal, burnt bone, burnt stone and sherds of amphora (018). A small patch of charcoal within the colluvium, some 4m to the northeast, may be the remnants of another cremation (019). Trench 16 Topsoil (020) overlay a 0.3m depth of colluvium (021). Cut from within this layer was a small ditch (023), aligned northeast-southwest, 1.3m in width, 0.35 in depth with shallow sloping sides and a concave base. A dump of stones against its southern (upslope), side (047), appears to have acted a crude revetment. The overlying fill was a dark brown clay loam containing burnt clay, stone and charcoal (048).

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Trench 17 (fig 4) Topsoil (025) overlay a spread of modern dumping at the northeastern end of the trench (051). Two spreads of occupation material of Roman date were present at either end of the trench. To the southwest a dark yellow-brown silty clay loam containing charcoal, stone, burnt stone and clay (049). To the northeast a dark yellow-brown silty clay loam containing charcoal, burnt stone and clay, and frequent flat tabular sandstone fragments, possibly the remnants of a surface (050). This overlay a horizon of redeposited strong brown clay loam subsoil containing charcoal and stone (056). These horizons overlay the natural subsoil; a yellow-red silty clay (053). Trench 21 (fig 5) This trench was excavated in two sections in order to avoid a water main and was positioned to examine a previously identified geophysical anomaly (PRN 07641g). No archaeological features were present within the southern section, which is not described. In the northern section topsoil (026), overlay colluvium up to 0.6m in depth (005). Two parallel walls were encountered, aligned northeast-southwest, 6.1m apart, (068 and 070). Wall 068 was 0.62m in width and constructed from unmortared flat sandstone blocks with rubble infill. Wall 070 was 0.72m in width with similar construction to 068. The northern face of 070 was partly exposed to a depth of four courses, each 0.07m in thickness. Between walls 068 and 070 was a spread of red-brown clay loam colluvium containing building stone and charcoal (069), a similar spread occurred to the south of wall 068 (067). To the north of wall 070 removal of colluvium 005 revealed a darker more organic strong brown silty clay loam some 0.35m below the uppermost surviving course of wall 070, containing charcoal and stone and tile fragments (071). The features within this trench are interpreted as a building of Roman date with a buried soil horizon surviving to its north, sealed by deposits of colluvium. The interior of the building, between walls 068 and 070, is masked by colluvium 069, and it is likely that floor layers survive. Field D Two trenches, 18 and 19, were excavated to the immediate southwest of Little Bulmore Farm, to investigate the terracing for the farm buildings. The deposits revealed were all modern in date, directly overlying the bedrock. Extensive earthmoving in the 19th and 20th Century would seem to have substantially altered the earthworks at the rear of the farm. Field E The two trenches within this field, 20 and 25, revealed no significant archaeological deposits. The remains of a small track, still visible as an earthwork within the field, was revealed in trench 20. Field F Five trenches were excavated within this field, 22, 23, 24, 80 and 83. Trenches 22, 23 and 24 contained archaeological remains of Roman date. Trench 22 The topsoil (258) overlay up to 1.1m of colluvium (253 and 259). At the nothwestern end of the trench a small patch of charcoal visible within the collvium is interpreted as a cremation burial (255). To its east was a wall aligned north-south (251). This is constructed from small unmortared sandstone blocks, was 0.72m in width and was truncated to the north, but was visible for a length of 5m within the trench. To its south the bedrock (260) had been cut into (cut 252), probably for quarrying for building material. This cut had been backfilled by colluvium (253). A linear alignment of stones was present towards the southern end of the trench (254). This was aligned east-west and incorporated an apparently unfinished coping stone (see trench 24 below), set on end. The colluvium to the south of this feature (259), was redder and siltier than that to the north. This feature may represent the remains of a revetment for terracing.

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Trench 23 (fig 6) The topsoil (124) overlay up to 1.2m of colluvium (125), which overlay the marl/sandstone bedrock (126). This had been cut into (cut 127) 16.5m from the northwestern end of the trench to create a flat terrace 8.5m in width, revetted by a retaining wall at its northwest end (129). On the extreme northwestern end of this terrace was constructed a small building, whose southeastern end was visible within the trench (128), although the southeast wall had be mostly robbed out. This building was 3.4m in width. Below the terrace, to the northwest, a series of charcoal filled pits cut into the colluvium are interpreted as cremation burials (148, 218, 149, 219 and 214). The largest of these, pit 148, showed signs of in-situ burning, its limits being marked by a lining of burnt clay and charcoal. Trench 24 (fig 7) This trench was aligned northeast-southwest, although extensions were excavated to further investigate the various archaeological features discovered. Topsoil (121) overlay colluvium (122), between 0.4 to 0.7m in depth, overlying bedrock (123). Contained within the colluvium were four coping stones or fragments thereof, collectively assigned the context number 130, with an additional smaller fragment associated with other rubble and tile to the northeast (135). In cross section these were semicircular, with flat flanges on either side of the base. Two patches of squared off sandstone blocks were also present (134 and 143). These disturbed remains are interpreted as the remains of one or more substantial structures, with a probable funeral association. Also present were three large adjoining bathstone blocks (134), partly masked by 135. Immediately to their north was a fragment of moulded bathstone, possibly part of a relief figure set in an arch, presumably a tombstone (273). It seems likely that the bathstone blocks formed the foundation upon which this monument was set. The colluvium around these remains yielded atypical amounts of post-medieval material, implying that they had been disturbed in the past. To the southwest of the bathstone monument was an amphora cremation (131). At the extreme southwestern end of the trench was a large pit (136), whose edges was lined with burnt clay and charcoal, indicating burning in-situ. Otherwise the fill comprised redeposited colluvium with stone (144). Field G Five trenches, 27, 28, 29, 30 and 31 were excavated in this field on the floodplain of the Usk. Only 1 trench, 28, contained a feature of potential archaeological interest, and is described in detail below. The overall sequence of deposits encountered within each trench was almost identical. Trench 28 The topsoil (087) overlay 0.58m of oxidised red brown silty clay loam (088), which overlay a reduced greenish grey alluvial silty clay (089). Cutting 089, at the extreme northeastern end of the trench, was a ditch (090), 1.6m wide, with sides sloping at c450. This feature was filled with material identical to 088 (091), and the cut was not discernible above the interface between 088 and 089. The approximate alignment of this feature was northwest-southeast. Field H Five trenches, 32, 33, 38, 40 and 45 were excavated within this field, although trench 40 had to abandoned almost upon commencement due to severe flooding. The only features of potential archaeological interest were present with trench 38. The broad stratigraphic sequence was consistent with trenches in field G. Trench 38 The topsoil (195), overlay a bank constructed from redeposited natural clays (196), visible as an earthwork within the field. This was 6m wide and 0.6m high, aligned northwest-southeast. Its southwestern edge overlay a U-shaped ditch (198), filled with a red brown sandy clay loam (199). This ditch was cut into the oxidised clay (197), which also underlay the bank, and underlying alluvium (200). The bank and ditch represent the ploughed out remnants of a field boundary shown on the 1st Edition OS map of the area (07636g).

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Field I Four trenches, 34, 35, 36 and 37 were excavated within this field. All contained archaeological remains of Roman date. Trench 34 (fig 8) The topsoil (221), overlay collvium (222), 0.2m in depth. This overlay a series of archaeological deposits. Two parallel walls were present within the trench, aligned northeast-southwest, and 5.5m apart, constructed from shaped sandstone facing blocks and rubble infill. The northwestern wall (226) was 0.62m in with, the southeastern (224) 0.52m. To the southeast of wall 224, was a spread of colluvial material containing building rubble, tile and charcoal (223). A similar deposit occurred between the walls (225), with a concentration of sandstone blocks (283), and to the northwest of wall 226 (227). The remains within this trench are interpreted as a building. Although no certain evidence for any internal structure was present, with the possible exception of 283, it is likely that the colluvial deposits mask such remains. Trench 35 Removal of topsoil in this trench (073) revealed a metalled surface comprising sandstone fragments, small river cobbles and a few tile fragments (074), 0.2m below the current ground surface. This is interpreted as a road surface. Trench 36 (fig 9) The topsoil (281) overlay a 0.4m depth of colluvium (282). This overlay a series of archaeological deposits of Roman date. Two parallel wall footings, 5.8m apart, aligned northwest-southeast, were constructed from angular sandstone fragments set on edge (280 and 285). The northeastern wall (280), was 0.76m in width, the southwestern 0.64m, although it thinned radically to the northwest. Between 280 and 285 was a spread of colluvium containing occupation material (288), and a patch of burnt clay (284). Immediately to the southeast of wall 285 was a dark grey silty clay loam deposit associated with some flat sandstone slabs on its southeastern side (286), this is interpreted as a drain. To the southeast of 286 was a spread of strong brown clay loam containing occupation material (287), interpreted as a buried soil. Lying within the buried soil was the remnants of a metalled surface constructed from flat sandstone slabs and river cobbles (304), although this was not fully exposed. It seems likely that the remains within this trench are part of a timber building, constructed upon stone wall footings, with a drain and activity area or working surface to the southeast. Trench 37 The topsoil (265) overlay a 0.55m depth of colluvium (266). At the extreme southeastern end of the trench was a spread of metalling , up to 2m in width, constructed from sandstone fragments and river cobbles (287). To the northwest of this the colluvium continued (288). The metalled surface is interpreted as the northern edge of a Roman road. Field J Trench 39 (fig 10) The topsoil (150) overlay colluvium (151), which overlay a series of archaeological horizons of Roman date, this varied from 0.2m in depth at the southeastern end of the trench to 0.8m at the northwestern. A pile of shaped sandstone blocks to the southeastern end of the trench is interpreted as a collapsed wall (153). To the southeast of this was the metalled surface of a road (154), 8m in width, aligned northeast-southwest. The uppermost surface as exposed in the trench comprised small, closely set, river cobbles. To the southeast of this a stretch of wall, 1.9m in length was seen, although only one face, the southwestern was seen in the trench (156). Also present southeast of the road was a buried soil (155), containing charcoal, stone and burnt stone.

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Field K Four trenches, 41, 42, 43 and 44 were excavated within this field. Trenches 41 and 42 contained archaeological remains of Roman date. Trenches 43 and 44 showed colluvial deposits overlying alluvium, with a degree of interleaving at their interface. Trenches 41 and 42 are described in detail. Trench 41 (fig 11) The topsoil (046), overlay colluvium (057), which deepened from 0.25m at the southeastern end of the trench to 1m at the northwestern, and overlay a series of archaeological deposits. At the southeastern end of the trench a 1.4m length of wall constructed from sandstone facing blocks and rubble infill (058), was present, 0.58m in width, aligned northeast-southwest. To either sides of this wall were spreads of rubble, that to the south comprising sandstone blocks and fragments of bathstone(065), that to the north comprising sandstone blocks (066). To the northwest of 066 was a possible ditch (085), 2.55m in width aligned northeast-southwest, filled with a strong brown silty clay loam containing stone fragments and charcoal (086). To the northwest of 085 was the metalled surface of the road (059), 8.2m in width, aligned northeast-southwest. The uppermost surviving surface of this feature comprised small, closely set river cobbles and sandstone fragments, although damage to this horizon revealed the presence of possible paved surfaces beneath. To the northwest of the road was a buried soil containing charcoal, sandstone fragments, burnt stone and tile (060). Trench 42 (fig 12) The topsoil (075), heavily disturbed in modern times, overlay colluvium (076), 0.15m in depth at the norteastern end of the trench, 1m at the southwest. Underlying 076 at the extreme northeastern end of the trench, was a surface constructed from flat tabular sandstone fragments and slag (178). Also present within the trench was a wall (180), some 4.5m southwest of 178 and separated from it by colluvium containing stone and charcoal (179). Wall 180 was 0.69m in width, aligned southeast-northwest, and constructed from shaped sandstone facing blocks and rubble infill. Immediately to its southwest was a metalled surface, 1.3m in width, constructed from small sandstone fragments with larger tabular sandstone edging blocks (181). To the southwest of 181 was a dark brown sandy loam buried soil containing occupation debris. The remains within this field comprise a road, possibly with several phases of use and repair, with buildings on either side, wall 058 presumably representing the southeastern side of building, now underneath Bulmore Road. Field L One trench, 46, was excavated within this field. It contained no archaeological features, but did demonstrate the extremely sharp fall away in the bedrock, presumably as a result of erosion by the river. Field M Two trenches, 47 and 48, were excavated within this field, neither of which contained archaeological remains. In both cases the sequence comprised topsoil and colluvium overlying bedrock, averaging 0.6m below current ground surface. Field N Seven trenches were excavated within this field, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54 and 55. Although the position of trench 55 was altered from the originally specified position due to the presence of utility service installations. One trench, 50, contained a feature of archaeological interest, although a series of stone field drains were noted in the southeastern part of trench 49. The general sequence revealed comprised topsoil, colluvium and bedrock. The colluvium varied from 0.4m in depth on the upper slopes of the hill to over 1m at the base.

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Trench 50 Topsoil (292), overlay colluvium (293), 0.25m in depth. This overlay a small pit (294), only partly seen in the trench, the visible portion measuring 0.6m by 0.15m, cut into the underlying colluvium (296). The fill of this pit comprised a dark grey brown clay loam containing frequent charcoal flecks, stone and burnt clay (295). This is interpreted as a possible cremation, although no burnt bone was apparent in the fill. Field O Three trenches were excavated within this field, 26, 56 and 57. Trench 56 was excavated in two sections across a trackway terraced into the hillside (07631g), no archaeological features were present within trenches 26 and 57. The track in trench 56 comprised a loosely metalled surface situated upon the bedrock terrace, and although no dating evidence was recovered, showed no signs of great antiquity. Field P One trench, 58, was excavated within this field. The statigraphic sequence comprised topsoil, collvium and bedrock. The colluvium deepened towards the downslope, northeastern, end of the trench. Field Q Neither of the two trenches, 59 and 60, excavated within this field contained any archaeological features. The stratigraphic sequence reflected that seen elsewhere; topsoil, colluvium and bedrock. The colluvium deepened from 0.2m on the upper slopes of the hill at the northeastern end of trench 60, to over 1.2m at the southwest end of trench 59. Little Bulmore Farm (fig 13) Two additional trenches, 78 and 79, were excavated adjacent to Little Bulmore Farm. Both revealed extensive modern disturbance reaching down to the bedrock. Both contained features of potential archaeological interest, although of probable post-medieval date. Trench 78 Despite the extensive disturbance, the remains of two walls were present within this trench. Wall 314 was 0.53m in width, aligned northeast-southwest, constructed from sandstone blocks bonded with coal dust mortar, almost certainly 19th Century in date. Wall 318 was also aligned northeast-southwest, 0.5m in width, with a mortar of characteristically early post-medieval date. Also present within the trench was a brick floor to the northeast of wall 314 (312). Trench 79 Again the deposits within this trench showed heavy disturbance in the recent past. Two features of potential interest were present. A linear band of rubble, associated with a possible red clay mortar containing lime, aligned northwest-southeast (319), and the remains of a metalled/flag surface, both directly overlying the bedrock (320). The mortar from 319 was a pre 18th Century in character, although no more precise dating is possible.

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3.2 Test pits Seventeen test pits, numbered 61 to 76 (including the additional 63a), were excavated into the alluvial floodplain of the Usk to a maximum depth of 3m. No archaeological features or horizons of potential archaeological interest were identified. The stratigraphic sequence was consistent throughout, comprising topsoil overlying oxidised clays and alluvial deposits. Evidence for reen casting was present in test pits 62, 63 and 67, test pits 64 and 69 lacked an iron rich deposit below the topsoil which was elsewhere present, otherwise the sequences were identical and are described in more detail in Appendix 1. 3.3 Finds (by S. H. Sell) Finds from a total of 73 contexts were presented for analysis. The bulk of the material was Roman in date. A single sherd of possible medieval date was recovered from context 282 and post-medieval material was also present, mainly from contexts 051 and 238. A single residual flint flake was the only find of prehistoric date. 3.3.1 Structural material The largest component of the Roman assemblage was brick and tile, mostly abraded. Box tiles and half-boxes predominated, with a few roof and coursing tiles, although a large fragment of tegulae was recovered from 274. Sandstone rooftile was noted, although was largely undiagnostic. One possible flooring slab was retrieved from context 318, re-used in this post-medieval wall. A number of fragments of bathstone, one decorated, were recovered (context 273, see front cover). 3.3.2 Industrial material Evidence for industrial activity in the area was provided by a scatter of slag from 178 and fragments of possible furnace or oven lining from contexts 050 and 287. 3.3.3 Metal objects Nails occurred widely in all trenches, the majority of which are probably Roman in date. A pair of iron shears were recovered from context 287. A small amount of lead was also recovered, this included a fragment of sheet, possibly derived from a coffin, in context 170. 3.3.4 Coins Three identifiably Roman coins were recovered. These comprised a bronze barbarous radiate dating from 270-275AD (context 056), a dupondius of Lucius Verus dating from 161-169 AD (066) and a bronze as of Domitian, 81-96AD (282). The as of Domitian seems early in comparison to the pottery evidence, and may be residual. 3.3.5 Ceramics The assemblage of identifiably Roman pottery amounted to 5.7kg from 47 contexts. The dates ranged from mid 2nd Century AD to late 3rd Century AD. Redwares tend towards Oxfordshire types as much as Caerleon Wares, although many examples were too poorly preserved to be distinguishable. Three Oxfordshire Ware white mortaria were also noted, probably of 3rd Century date. Among the greywares the rim and shoulder of a heavy olla (storage jar), were noted from context 042. The fabrics were mostly local and forms reflected those of the Black-burnished jars. Sherds from colour-coated Caerleon Ware flagons were noted in contexts 046 and 077.

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The Black Burnished Ware assemblage comprised a minimum of 18 vessels. Datable jars and dishes from context 050 which contained the single largest group of vessels, all dating from the 3rd Century AD or early 4th Century at latest. This dating is reflected throughout the assemblage; a jar from 286 is mid to late 3rd Century and a jar from 155 is late 3rd or early 4th Century. The Samian ware assemblage contained only a few clearly diagnostic sherds. Most of the identifiable sherds originate from Central or Eastern Gaul and included Dr37, Dr79 types (context 259, c160AD onwards) and two Dr45 mortaria fragments from contexts 286 and 287, which were in common use from the late 2nd Century onwards. The amphorae are mostly wine vessels from France and olive oil vessels from Span. A stamp (CIRCIF), was noted on an handle from context 080. A summary of the finds archive can be found in Appendix 2. A full copy of the finds archive can be found in the site archive. 4 Discussion The Roman remains discovered during the evaluation represent a resource of National Importance. They can be broadly categorised into three sections; the road, the buildings and the funerary remains. The road identified follows a line immediately north of Bulmore Road from the northern limit of the survey area until approximately NGR ST 3558 9127, southwards from which it probably follows the present line of Bulmore Road. The buildings occur either side of the Roman road from the northern limit of the survey area to ST 3555 9121, from whence onward funerary remains are present along the south side of the Road. The function of the buildings is unclear, although domestic usages and industrial activity can be postulated. The funerary remains reflect varying strata of Romano-British society, ranging from simple unenclosed cremations to the remains of substantial monumental tombs, all within close proximity to one another, although it is interesting to note that all the burials seen were cremations, no inhumations were present. The road itself is a substantial structure, approximately 8m in width, perhaps with side ditches, and with evidence for a series of surfaces. The remains immediately to the north of Little Bulmore Farm, in trench 17, seem to represent the remains of a working surface, of purpose or purposes unknown. The finds range from late 1st Century AD to early 4th Century, although the bulk of the datable objects (coins and ceramics), are 3rd Century in date. The bulk of the finds are not derived from primary contexts, so although they provide a broad date range for activity on the site, they cannot be used to provide any evidence for phasing. It is noticeable that only in the southwestern part of field C does evidence for buildings and for burials co-exist. This may indicate that the buildings in this area may be ritual rather than domestic or industrial. Elsewhere on site, no features of archaeological significance were identified. This is not surprising given the topography of the site; the steep slopes to the rear of Little Bulmore Farm and the alluvial floodplain of the river valley. The Roman occupation is restricted to the terrace immediately above the floodplain of the Usk. The site of Little Bulmore Farm itself has produced finds of Roman date, mainly tile, from residual contexts, although no features of Roman date were identified within the farm complex. However, the evaluation did demonstrate the presence of remains of probable early post-medieval date. This would tie in with the construction of the farmhouse in the early 17th Century, and its development during the last 300 years. The assessment of the areas of potential has as set out in the stage 1 works has proved valid; the archaeological remains are concentrated along a strip along Bulmore Road, within the areas of high and medium potential.3 The evaluation has refined these areas, so that part of the area defined of medium or high potential has proved negative. No significant remains were found within the areas of lower potential. Constraints upon developments would therefore seem to exist in the strip along Bulmore Road, the field between Little Bulmore Farm and Bulmore Road. The remains at Little Bulmore Farm will require mitigation if they are to be affected by the development; the farmhouse itself is a listed building (LB2).

3 A. M. Yates 1999(a), fig4, p11.

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Appendix 1: Site data A total of 398 context records (including 63 from the test pits), 32 scale drawings. 8 each of black and white print and colour slide films, averaging 36 exposures, and 1 soil sample were retrieved during the evaluation. The context record is summarised below: Table 1: Summary of site context data

Context Trench Type* Description 1 21 L Topsoil 2 21 L Subsoil 3 21 L Subsoil 4 21 L Rubble spread 5 21 L Colluvium 6 14 L Topsoil 7 14 L Colluvium 8 14 S Wall 9 14 L Colluvium 10** 14 L Fill of 018- Cremation 11 14 L Colluvium 12 15 L Topsoil 13 15 L Colluvium 14 15 L Bedrock 15 15 L Bedrock 16 15 C Drain 17 15 L Fill of 016 18 14 C Cremation 19 14 L Burnt spread- possible cremation 20 16 L Topsoil 21 16 L Colluvium 22 16 L Stone spread within colluvium 021 23 16 C Ditch 24 16 L Large boulder within colluvium 021 25 17 L Topsoil 26 21 L Topsoil 27 7 L Topsoil 28 7 L Colluvium 29 7 L Colluvium 30 7 L Colluvium 31 7 L Colluvium 32 7 L Bedrock 33 6 L Topsoil 34 6 L Colluvium 35 6 L Colluvium 36 2 L Topsoil 37 2 L Colluvium 38 2 L Colluvium 39 2 L Colluvium 40 3 L Topsoil 41 3 L Colluvium 42 3 L Colluvium 43 3 L Colluvium 44 3 L Colluvium 45 5 L Topsoil 46 41 L Topsoil 47 16 L Fill of ditch 023 48 16 L Fill of ditch 023 49 17 L Spread of occupation material 50 17 L Spread of occupation material 51 17 L Modern disturbance- fill of 052 52 17 C Modern disturbance 53 17 L Colluvium 54 1 C Ditch = 167 55 1 L Fill of 054 = 168 56 17 L Disturbed natural 57 41 L Colluvium 58 41 S Wall

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59 41 S Road 60 41 L Buried soil 61 5 L Colluvium 62 5 L Colluvium 63 5 L Colluvium 64 5 L Bedrock 65 41 L Rubble spread 66 41 L Rubble spread 67 21 L Rubble spread 68 21 S Wall 69 21 L Rubble spread 70 21 S Wall 71 21 L Buried soil 72 34 L Colluvium 73 35 L Topsoil 74 35 L Road 75 42 L Topsoil 76 42 L Colluvium 77 42 L Buried soil 78 42 L Alluvium 79 13 L Topsoil 80 13 L Colluvium 81 13 L Colluvium 82 13 S Wall 83 13 L Colluvium 84 13 L Bedrock 85 41 C Ditch 86 41 L Fill of 085 87 28 L Topsoil 88 28 L Oxidised clay 89 28 L Alluvium 90 28 C Ditch 91 28 L Fill of 090 92 29 L Topsoil 93 29 L Oxidised clay 94 29 L Alluvium 95 31 L Topsoil 96 31 L Oxidised clay 97 31 L Alluvium 98 30 L Topsoil 99 30 L Oxidised clay 100 30 L Alluvium 101 27 L Topsoil 102 27 L Oxidised clay 103 27 L Alluvium 104 8 L Topsoil 105 8 L Colluvium 106 8 L Bedrock 107 9 L Topsoil 108 9 L Colluvium 109 9 L Bedrock 110 10 L Topsoil 111 10 L Colluvium 112 10 L Bedrock 113 11 L Topsoil 114 11 L Colluvium 115 11 L Bedrock 116 12 L Topsoil 117 12 L Colluvium 118 12 L Bedrock 119 58 L Topsoil 120 58 L Bedrock 121 24 L Topsoil 122 24 L Colluvium 123 24 L Bedrock 124 23 L Topsoil 125 23 L Colluvium 126 23 L Bedrock 127 23 C Terrace 128 23 S Building

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129 23 S Retaining wall for terrace 127 130 24 S Disturbed coping stones 131 24 C Cremation 132 24 L Fill of 131 133 24 C Foundation cut 134 24 S Bathstone foundation stones within cut 133 135 24 L Collapsed masonry 136 23 C Pit 137 81 L Colluvium 138 81 L Bedrock 139 82 L Topsoil 140 82 L Colluvium 141 82 L Bedrock 142 81 L Topsoil 143 24 L Collapsed masonry 144 24 L Fill of 145 145 24 C Pit 146 24 L Masonry 147 23 L Fill of 148 148 23 L Pit 149 23 L Charcoal spread- possible cremation 150 39 L Topsoil 151 39 L Colluvium 152 39 L Colluvium 153 39 L Collapsed wall 154 39 S Road 155 39 L Buried soil 156 39 S Wall 157 1 L Topsoil 158 1 L Colluvium 159 1 L Colluvium 160 1 L Bedrock 161 1 C Ditch 162 1 L Fill of 161 163 1 L Fill of 161 164 1 L Occupation 165 1 C Pit 166 1 L Fill of 165 167 1 C Ditch 168 1 L Fill of 167 169 77 L Topsoil 170 77 L Colluvium 171 77 S Metalling 172 77 L Rubble spread 173 77 L Colluvium 174 4 L Topsoil 175 4 L Colluvium 176 4 S Metalling 177 4 L Colluvium 178 42 S Stone and slag surface 179 42 L Colluvium 180 42 S Wall 181 42 S Metalling 182 43 L Topsoil 183 43 L Colluvium 184 43 L Alluvium 185 43 L Bedrock 186 44 L Topsoil 187 44 L Colluvium 188 44 L Alluvium 189 59 L Topsoil 190 59 L Colluvium 191 59 L Bedrock 192 60 L Topsoil 193 60 L Colluvium 194 60 L Bedrock 195 38 L Topsoil 196 38 L Bank 197 38 L Oxidised clay 198 38 C Ditch

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199 38 L Fill of 198 200 38 L Alluvium 201 33 L Topsoil 202 33 L Oxidised clay 203 33 L Alluvium 204 32 L Topsoil 205 32 L Alluvium 206 32 L Oxidised clay 207 32 L Alluvium 208 26 L Topsoil 209 26 L Colluvium 210 26 L Bedrock 211 57 L Topsoil 212 57 L Colluvium 213 57 L Bedrock 214 23 L Charcoal spread- possible cremation 215 83 L Topsoil 216 83 L Colluvium 217 83 L Bedrock 218 23 L Charcoal spread- possible cremation 219 23 L Charcoal spread- possible cremation 220 221 34 L Topsoil 222 34 L Colluvium 223 23 L Colluvium 224 34 S Wall 225 34 L Colluvium 226 34 S Wall 227 34 L Colluvium 228 35 L Topsoil 229 35 S Road 230 25 L Topsoil 231 25 L Colluvium 232 25 L Colluvium 233 25 L Colluvium 234 25 L Bedrock 235 46 L Topsoil 236 46 L Colluvium 237 46 L Colluvium 238 46 L Colluvium 239 46 L Gravel lens 240 46 L Alluvium 241 46 L Alluvium 242 46 L Bedrock 243 20 L Topsoil 244 20 L Colluvium 245 20 L Colluvium 246 20 L Colluvium 247 20 L Bedrock 248 20 S Drain 249 20 S Drain 250 20 L Stone spread 251 22 S Wall 252 22 C Quarrying 253 22 L Colluvial fill of 252 254 22 S Wall 255 22 L Burning- possible cremation 256 24 L Fill of 257 257 24 C Disturbance around 134 258 22 L Topsoil 259 22 L Colluvium 260 22 L Bedrock 261 19 L Topsoil 262 19 L Colluvium 263 19 L Colluvium 264 19 L Bedrock 265 37 L Topsoil 266 37 L Colluvium 267 37 S Metalling 268 37 L Colluvium

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269 18 L Topsoil 270 18 L Platform 271 18 L Modern disturbance 272 18 L Bedrock 273 23 S Monumental carved stonework 274 48 L Topsoil 275 48 L Colluvium 276 48 L Bedrock 277 47 L Topsoil 278 47 L Colluvium 279 47 L Bedrock 280 36 S Wall footing 281 36 L Topsoil 282 36 L Colluvium 283 35 L Stones 284 36 S Burnt clay 285 36 L Wall footing 286 36 L Fill of possible drain 287 36 L Buried soil 288 36 L Colluvium 289 19 L Topsoil 290 19 L Colluvium 291 19 L Bedrock 292 50 L Topsoil 293 50 L Colluvium 294 50 C Pit- possible cremation 295 50 L Fill of 294 296 50 L Colluvium 297 50 L Bedrock 298 53 L Topsoil 299 53 L Colluvium 300 53 L Bedrock 301 55 L Topsoil 302 55 L Colluvium 303 55 L Bedrock 304 36 L Metalling 305 54 L Topsoil 306 54 L Colluvium 307 54 L Bedrock 308 52 L Topsoil 309 52 L Colluvium 310 52 L Bedrock 311 78 L Topsoil 312 78 S Brick surface 313 78 S Cobble and brick surface 314 78 S Wall 315 78 L Levelling layer- ash 316 78 L Gritty clay 317 78 L Clay and rubble layer 318 78 S Wall 319 79 S Wall 320 79 L Flag surface 321 80 L Topsoil 322 80 L Colluvium 323 56 L Topsoil 324 56 L Subsoil 325 56 L Bedrock 326 56 S Metalling 327 79 L Asphalt 328 78 L Construction trench for 318 329 51 L Topsoil 330 51 L Colluvium 331 51 L Bedrock 332 45 L Topsoil 333 45 L Oxidised clay 334 45 L Alluvium 335 45 L Alluvium

* L= layer, S= structure, C= cut feature ** sampled context

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Table 2: Summary of test pits results

Context No Depth Thickness Description Notes Trial Pit 61

523 0.15m 0m - 01.15m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. No lower iron-stained horizon.

524 2.15m 0m - 2.30m Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay. As 502 525 0.7m 2.3m - base of

trench at 3m Soft, moist, dark grey (N4) reduced silt clay. As 503.

Trial Pit 62 Near bend in river embankment. Sides stable. 526 0.25m 0m - 0.25m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. 527 0.15m 0.25m - 0.4m Grey-brown slightly clayey silt loam. Sharp upper boundary,

undulating lower boundary over 3cm.

528 0.19m 0.4m - 0.59m Dark brown (7.5YR 4/4) plastic clay with no inclusions. Frequent Fe and Mn flecks.

As 501.

529 1.66m 0.59m - 2.25m Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay. As overlying 528, with reduced iron staining and Mn flecks.

As 502. Some water inflow at 2m.

530 0.75m 2.25m - base of trench at 3m

Soft, moist, dark grey (N4) reduced silt clay. As 503.

Trial Pit 63 536 0.2m 0m - 0.2m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. 537 0.12m 0.2m - 0.42m Grey-brown slightly clayey silt loam. Sharp upper boundary,

undulating lower boundary. As 527.

538 0.15m 0.42m - 0.57m Dark brown (7.5YR 4/4) brown plastic clay with no inclusions. Frequent Fe and Mn flecks.

As 501.

539 1.53m 0.57m - 2.1m Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay. As 502. 540 0.9m 2.1m - base of

trench at 3.0m Soft, moist, dark grey (N4) reduced silt clay. As 503

Trial Pit 63A Near river embankment. Sides stable. Positioned too close to TP 62, so renumbered TP 63A. 531 0.25m 0m - 0.25m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. 532 0.22m 0.25m - 0.47m Grey-brown slightly clayey silt loam. Sharp upper boundary,



As 501.


trench at 3m. Soft, moist, dark grey (N4) reduced silt clay. As 503.

Trial Pit 64 516 0.15m 0m - 0.15m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. 517 2.25m 0.15m - 2.4m Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay.

No iron-stained horizon. As 502. Firm. No groundwater seepage. Beginning to change to a gley at 2.1m.

518 0.6m 2.4m - base of trench at 3m.

Soft, moist, dark grey (N4) reduced silt clay. Organic stained.

Some water at 2.5m.

Trial Pit 65 Sides collapsing from just below topsoil. 519 0.22m 0m - 0.22m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. 520 0.18m 0.22m - 0.4m Dark brown (7.5YR 4/4) brown plastic clay

with no inclusions. Frequent Fe and Mn flecks.

As 501.


trench at 3m. Soft, moist, dark grey (N4) reduced silt clay. Organic streaks.

As 503.

Trial Pit 66 552 0.22m 0m - 0.22m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. 553 0.14m 0.22m - 0.36m Grey-brown slightly clayey silt loam. Sharp upper boundary,



As 501.


trench at 3m. Soft, moist, dark grey (N4) reduced silt clay. As 503.

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Trial Pit 67 541 0.28m 0m - 0.28m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. 542 0.16m 0.28m - 0.44m Grey-brown slightly clayey silt loam.

Becoming a firm clay/ silt clay. Sharp upper boundary, undulating lower boundary. As 527.

543 0.14m 0.44m - 0.58m Dark brown (7.5YR 4/4) brown plastic clay with no inclusions. Frequent Fe and Mn flecks. Much iron staining.

As 501.


trench at 3m Soft, moist, dark grey (N4) reduced silt clay. As 503.

Trial Pit 68 546 0.25m 0m - 0.25m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. Continual

surface water. 547 0.75m 0.25m - base of

trench at 1m Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay. As 502. Trial pit constantly

flooded. Abandoned at 1m. Trial Pit 69

557 0.25m 0m - 0.25m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. 558 1.85m 0.25m - 2.1m Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay. As 502. Sides tending to

collapse below topsoil. 559 0.4m 2.1m - base of

trench at 2.5m Soft, moist, dark grey (N4) reduced silt clay. As 503.

Trial Pit 70 512 0.15m 0m - 0.15m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. Continual

groundwater flow. 513 0.13 0.15m - 0.28m Dark brown (7.5YR 4/4) brown plastic clay


As 501. Sides unstable below topsoil.

514 2.22m 0.28m - 2.5m Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay. As 502. Becoming soft at 1m. Water issuing from sides at 1.5m and 2.1m.

515 2.5m (base of trench)

Beginning a change to gley, but still oxidised. Sides collapsing and too much water to bail out. Abandoned at 2.5m depth.

Trial Pit 71 Continual inflow of surface water. 508 0.1m 0m - 0.1m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. 509 0.1m 0.1m - 0.2m Firm, dark brown (7.5YR 4/4) plastic clay


Sharp contact above and below. As 501.

510 1.8m 0.2m - 2m Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay. As 502. Sides unstable at 0.4m depth. Becoming greyer at 1.2m

511 1m 2m - base of trench at 3m

Soft, moist, dark grey (N4) reduced silt clay. As 503. Sides collapsing.

Trial Pit 72 Continual surface water. 550 0.25m 0m - 0.25m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. 551 0.75m 0.25m - base of

trench at 1m Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay. As 502. Trench abandoned

at 1m. Trial Pit 73 Excavated slightly to west of designated position to avoid a field grip.

504 0.11m 0m - 0.11m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. 505 0.09 0.11m - 0.20m Dark brown (7.5YR 4/4) brown plastic clay


Sharp contact above and below. As 501.

506 2m 0.2m - 2.2m Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay. As 502. Sides collapsing at 1.2m. Changing to a grey reduced silt clay at 2.05m.

507 0.8m 2.2m - base of trench at 3m

Soft, dark grey (N4) reduced clay. Organic streaks.

Trial Pit 74 500 26cm 0m - 0.26m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. 501 11cm 0.26m - 0.37m Dark brown (7.5YR 4/4) plastic clay with no

inclusions. Frequent Fe and Mn flecks. Sharp contact above and below.

502 58cm 0.37m - 0.95m Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay. Water appearing at 1m. Gradual gleying from 1.2m.

503 2.55m 0.95m - base of trench at 3.5m

Soft, dark grey (N4) reduced clay with organic streaks.

Trial Pit 75 Continual surface water. 548 0.28m 0m - 0.28m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500.

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549 0.72m 0.28m - base of trench at 1m.

Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay. As 502. Trial pit abandoned at 1m depth.

Trial Pit 76 560 0.18m 0m - 0.18m Brown clay loam. Topsoil. As 500. 561 0.18m -2.1m Reddish brown (5YR 4/3) oxidised silt clay. As 502. 562 1.92m 2.1m - base of

trench at 3.0m Soft, moist, dark grey (N4) reduced silt clay. As 503

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Appendix 2: Finds data Table 3: Summary of finds archive Category No. of Contexts No. of items Weight (kg) Min. Count Prehistoric Flint 3 3 0.017 Roman Brick and tile 47 359 19.762 Bone 6 17 0.073 Shell 1 2 0.004 Iron Objects 21 77 1.186 30 (nails) Slag/Oven Lining 7 44 0.324 Charcoal 5 18 0.010 Lead 4 4 0.196 Glass 1 1 0.002 Stone (constructional) 27 44 7.662 Stone (monumental) 1 8 100+ Coins 3 3 Redware and Buffware 20 52 0.461 5 Greyware 19 53 1.069 5 Black-burnished 22 139 1.121 18 Samian 23 35 0.289 7 Amphora 17 227 2.557 Mortaria 3 11 0.214 2 Imports 1 1 0.002 Post-medieval Brick and tile 5 14 0.508 Glass 3 11 0.377 Clay pipe 5 8 0.027 Early post-medieval 1 1 0.004 Local Coarseware 10 73 1.68 11 North Devon Gravel-Tempered Ware

2 2 0.008

Drelft 1 1 <0.002 Stonewares 1 2 0.006 Yellow Glazed Buffware 2 5 0.012 White Earthenware 2 5 0.017 4 Modern Ceramics 3 4 0.023 Other 3 4 0.035 Objects of Copper Alloy 2 2 0.010 Coins 2 2 Undiagnostic Ceramics 19 127 0.548

A detailed account of the finds by context can be found in the site archive.

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