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BOLIVIA:V.
L. SECRETARIA NACIONAL DE MEDIO AMBIENTEMINISTERIO DE MINERIA Y METALURGIA
Swedish Environmental Systems
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SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
OF
THE MNING AND INDUSTRIAL (LMANUFACTURING) SECTORS
lECHNICAL APPENDICES: Volume No. 2
June 1993
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| SECORAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSEENT OF THE MINING AND INDUSTRIALSECTORS IN BOLIVIA
Swedish Environmental SystemsJune 1993
I! TECHNICAL APPENDICES: Volume No. 2
IVA Laboratory facilities and capacities in Bolivia (Rudolf Reuther)
IV.5 Estimate of costs of remediation of tailings dams in Bolia (Anders Swartling)
IV.6 Ihe working environment in BoLivia; experiences and impressions (BengtKnaborg)
1V.7 Mining versus agrculture in the Andacaba-La Lava area (Bo Lundberg)
rV.8 The Milluni tailings dam as source of water for La Paz (Bo Lundberg)
I IV.9 Environmental concerns in zhe Oruro area and Lake Poopo (Bo Lundberg)
IV.10 The environmeatal situation in Potosi (Bo Lundberg)
IV.AI Environmental siuataion in Bolivi manufaring industry (Lars Landner)
IV.12 Environmental code of practice for mining ventures (Anders Swartling, BoLundberg)
IV.13 Solid and hazardous waste disposal in Bolivia (Rudolf Reuther)
I
APPENDIX IV.4
SC-CTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MINING AND INDUSTRIALSECTORS IN BOLIVIA
LABORATORY FACILITIES AND CAPACIES IN BOLIVIA
1)y Rudoir Reuther
I
II
jInlroductimun
During the course of the "Sectciral Environmental Assessment of the Mining and Industrial Sectors inBolivia", it became more anid more evident, that such an efrort sliould also inclide a first survey ofthe available national laboratory capability, which is absolutely necessary to give us a measure of thescope and seriousness of past and current pollution phenomena identified.
For this reason, more than a dozen analytical laboratories were visited. They were selected accordingto the following criteria:
o liability with regard to environmental regulationso involvement in current environmental programso high standardization, qualification and equipment
Particular attention was paid to the existing institutional preparedness and motivation to communicatewith and participate in devel(kpment projects designed to increase and improve the nalional networkingcapacity within environmental monitoring and control.
In addition, the degree of willingness to actively assist the WB team in sampling and analysis was alsotaken as an 'on-tie-spot' criterion for a final evaluation.
In the following, a summary of major facts and findings is given for those laboratories, which werevisited during the time of project implementation.
Eaaviromnental laboraturies visited and selected for furtiler evaluation
On major objective with these information gatherings was to identify, at an early stage, thoseinstitutions, which have the potential to develop into future authorized analytical laboratories as wellas to a central organization as claimed by the 'Reglamento Sobre Lanzamiento de DesechosIndustriales Sobre los Cuerpos de Agua' Such a national Reference Laboratory would have theresponsibility to coordlinate hoth regional and local monitoring activities on a national scale and wouldequally ensure the quality assurance of environmental analysis conducted in the country by authorizedlaboratories.
The examples presented here, should be re-evaluated according to the preliminary classificationsuggested (1: not considered for the present, El: considered with reservation, 111: considered asappropriate).
For further planning and action, it is essential to build-upon already existing facilities with a goodpersonnel potential to develop. However, it has lo he said, that a highly entugh to prevent a drain ofwell-trained scientists and technicians.
Of course, this first survey of the laboratory capability related to environmental monitoring andimpact assessment in Bolivia is still rather incomplete and nothing more thar. a rough estimation ofthile situation. It has to be complemented and further developed considering the rapidly growingdeemand and requirement for sound analytical services, both with regard to base line conditions,applied research and ithe creation of effective environmental control instrUments.
I
Summary of laboratories visited
Instituto de Ecologia, Universidad Mayor de San Andreso Campus Universitario, Cota Cota, Calle 27, Casilla 10077, La Pazo visited: 13.11.1992 and 12.02.1993o met with: Dr. Margot Franklin (head of limnological laboratory, biologist),
Roberto Apaza (biologist), Dr. JUrgen Czerwenka (GTZ coordinator, biologist);Ellen Rades (German academic exchange, microbiologist), Julio Pinto (biolo-gist), Dr. Justo Zapata (Institute of Chemistry, chemist)
o biomonitoring: contamination and impact studies using bio-indicatorso heavy metal analysis in water, sediment and biota ('Hilluni lakes' study)o central laboratory for biologist, with mainly organic chemical analysis,
under construction (GIZ funding of 200.000 US$)o planned for 1993: gas chormatograph for organochlorines & organophosphates,
for 1994: CHN-analyzero preparation of 'Lago Poopo' project (FONAMA financing ca.10.000 US$/year):
food chain contamination by mining activities; plankton, benthos, fish,macrophytes and sediment sampling and analyses
o good biological sampling equipment, very limited for chemical analysis atpresent
o project financing: mostly without salaries, lacking of one technician andone chemist for organic residue analysis
o classification a III: high motivation of leading staff, paired with a highdegree of qualification
Instituto de salud Ocupacional (INSO), Hinisterio de Saludo Zona de liospitales., Avenida Saavedra, Miraflores, La Pazo visited: 13.11.1992o met with: Dr. Y. Nacif (director), Antonio Quisbert (technician)o chemical control and toxicological analysis of human blood, hair and
urine, drinking water and food (e.g. blood-Pb levels, Hg in hair)o main targets: battery, textile and mining industry, sewage systems and
water treatment plants (in cooperation with SANAPA)o 4 chemists (2 tecnicos superiores, 2 adyudantes)o 1 IR PE M 1330, 1 GC PE, 1 Polarograph, precise fractionation system,
balances, dithizone metal analysiso 25o samples/month (lig in urine and As in blood: ca. 10 US$/analysis)o classification - II: qualified staff, but seemingly not very well motivated,
poor equipment maintenance
Instituto de Ingenieria Sairtaria (I.I.S.), Universidad Mkayor de San Andres
o University main bailding, Avenida Villazon 1955, Casilla 1755, La Pazo visited: 13.11.1992o met with: Jose Diaz (engineer, head of laboratory) and some co-workersIP o beside university training & education, water and solid waste analysis,
technical assistance in design and performance of water treatment plants,water supply and waste disposal facilities, including microbiologicalmeasurements
o 8 engineers, I chemist, 1 microbiologist, 13 technicianso study on Rio Choqueapu with Japanese JICA and La Paz municipalityo participation in a river water quality survey (CETESB)(with 'INSO')o water supply program with SAMAPA and ANESAPA ('Asociacon Nacional de Empresas
de Agua Potable y Aclantarillado')o main office in Bolivia for 'PROEC' (WHO, lexico): heavy metalso AAS PE 2380, spectrometry, turbidimetry, flocculation testing, incubators,
oven.s, but T1o annlyti.cal inistLxvmentatioll for microorganiic determinations
o classification - Iri: leading staff seems well motivated, althoughavailable methodology not fully utilized (300 samples with 4-5000determinations/year), maybe due to lacking international back-up
Instituto de Investigacioncs Mincro-Hetalurgicas I...),inisteriode Mineria y Met.alurgicao Junin 1037, Casilla 600, OruroIF o visited: 02.11.1992o met with: Guido Solis (director, engineer) and C. Garron (engineer)o 3 chemical engineers, 1 mineralogist, 3 technicians, 5 assistantso specialized in sampling and inorganic chemistry of ores, soils and
sediments, recently also involving aquatic systems; services for theinilling & metallurgical industry, including more and more environmental
aspectso good housing and instrumental equipment: AAS FE 3100 and 706, UV/VIS-
spectrometry, DTA, XRD and electron microscope (rather old models),obvious problems in gas supply and keeping the qualified staff1 o 70% of financing comes from anylytical services, 2OZ givernmental fundsand 10% by WB-SGABJ3International AB cooperation
o Llassification = III: highly motivated leading staff, experience with1 industrial (mining) processes and implications, methods of classical/exploration geochemistry may be easily adapted and used within errniron-mental monitoring and analysis of solid inorganic pollutants (air dust,fly ash, waste residues, sediment/soil systems, biota, heavy metals)
Programa de Aguas de Laboratorio Regional de Control de Calidad de Aguas,3 Universidad tayor de San Simon
o Facultad de Ciencias y Tecnologia, Casilla 992, Cochabambao visited: 29.01.1993o met with: Dr Virginia Rodriguez, Dr. Varea, Dr. Rosaria Montana (head of
the laboratory), and Hercedes Alvarezo created as an interinstitutional agreement between the university and
'CORDECO' (Corporacion Regional de Desarrollo de Cochabamba) to reducethe mortality of children due to bad drinking vater quality (infectiousdiseases, chemical contamination) by regular monitoring and waste watercontrol surveys
o since 3 years physico-chemcial and microbiological monitoring of LagunaAlaley, Cochabamba city
o monitoring of water quality in 'Chapare'o standardized equipment for testing chlorination of drinking watero installation of hypochlor4te automatic dosage at water wells in Cochabambao reference laboratory for enterobacteria and cholera in Boliviao member of the National Technical Committee for the 'PR0ECO/Heavy Metals'
Programo international cooperation with Tucson, Berkeley, Puerto Rico university,
with Belgium, Italy and N4ew Zealand, and with the UN and WBo clean housing and good equipment for organic/microbiological analysis:I spectrophotometer, turbidimeter, incubator, cell counter, microscopy and
basic laboratory requirements, in addition to good sampling applianceso classification - III: good internal organisation and instrumental equipment,
regular analytical quality assurance, highly motivated and qualified staffeven down to the postgraduate level, experienced in monitoring activities,advanced in organic (pesticide, COD, BOD) and microbiological analysis(bacteria in waste water)
Instituto de Investigaciones Quimicas, Universidad Mayor de Son Andres
4 o Cota Cota, Casilla 303, La Pazo visited 10.02.1993o met with Luis Morales (director) and co-workerso research areas: I. Natural products ard phytochemistry
II. Plhysical chemistry and surface chemistryIM. Soil chemistryIV. Quantum chemistryV. HydrochemistryVI. GeochemistryVII. Applied chemistryVIII. Environmental and analytical chemistry
o 26 teachers, 22 scientific assistants, 15 FONAMA supported projects,o financing by 'Initiativo las Americas' (U.S./Ewropean foundation)
l o within the program 'PROECO-Metales Pesados': responsible for hydrochemistry,environmental and analytical services
o study (modelling) of the hydrochemistry of Lake Titicaca, Lake Poopo andDesaguadero River
o soil science: nitrate, ammonia, cation-exchange-capacityo genotoxic studies with natural plant compoundso pharmacological studiesI o research on PAHs and organochlorines in soil and watero pioneer work on mercury pollution in the Amazon due to gold miningo major equipment: 2 AAS PE 303 and 1 AAS PE 2380, 1 HITACH spectrophoto-
meter, 1 IR, gas and high-performance liquid chromatorgraphyo classification = III: leading staff well motivated, well-experienced;
good although partly old/badly maintained instrumental equipment coveringU a wide range of inorganic (heavy metals) and organic parameters (pesticides);
* - high skill in analytical theory and performarce
Laboratorio de 'Cooperativa de Servicios Publicos Santa Crtuz Ltd. I (SACJAPC)
o Avenida Perimetral Rio Grande, Casilla 3284, Santa Cruzo visited: 26.01.1993o met with: Jnacio Alvarez (director), Francisco Soleto (head of the laboratory)o analytical control of potable water and sewage systemo two laboratory units: I) drinking water, II) vaste watero no capacity to control all the waste efflents from the 'Parque Industrial'o study on groundwater contamination anid mappingo monitoring of drinking water supplyo operating groundwater observation wellso surveillance and performance of preventive chlorination of drinking watero analytical parameters: see list enclosedo AAS PE 272, spectrophotometer, polarograph, microscopyo classification - III: good operating conditions with a well-trained teclnical
staff, however: present housing seems limiting
Laboratorio de Plaguicidas y Fertilizados, Ministerio de Agricultura
o La Pazo visited: 10.02.1993o met with: Dr. laria Virginio Viscar (head of laboratory, chemist)o 2 chemists, 1 techniciano since 10 years product quality control of imports for pesticide residualso 403 pesticide registered in Bolivia (102 insecticides, 91 herbicides, 91
fungicides, rest: fertilizers)o organochlorines forbidden in Bolivia: only organic phosphorus compounds
analysed
l
o equipment: 1 GC VARIAN 3700, ECD (residues), I LC VARIAN 5000, FID, AFID,FPD, 1 GLC VARIAN 3700, 1 LLC VARIAN 5000, 1 U/VIS-detector, I integratorVARIAN 4270, 1 spectrophotometer UVIVIS VARIAN CARY 219, thermoconstantroom, rotovapor, stirrer, pli-meter, centrifuge, drying oven, water desti-llation and de-ionization BARNSTEAD, refrigarator
o classification - II: maybe best available skill regarding pesticide ana-lysis with appropriate instrumental equipment, however: mainly focused onfood raw materials and products 4ith no direct relationship to environ-mental behaviour of organic residues
Instituto de Servicios de Lnboratorio de Diagnostico en Salud
o Avcnidn Saavadra 222, Casilla 10362, La Pazo visited: 10.02.1993
*1 jo met with: Dr. Roger Carvajal (director) and co-workerso quality control of medical productso clinical toxicology and hematology: extraction of toxins from plants and
animals (snakes)o microbiology: clinical microbiology and mycologyo cooperation on toxicology with 'Instituto de Investigaciones Quimica',
UZISA, and with Italian governmento equipment: GLC, reverse osmosis water purification, immunofluorescence,
autoclaves, microscopyo classification - II: well-experienced in analysis and assessment of human
toxicology; rather new and advanced instrumental equipment, head andscientific staff seem motivated to include environmental aspects in theirfuture analytical work
3 Laboratorio de Alcaldia, Alcaldia de La Paz, Hinisterio de Saludo Miraflores, La Pazo visited: 10.02.1993o met with: Dr. Maria Asiener (head of the laboratory, chemist)o 1 microbiologist, 2 techniciansc food product control, in particular beverages, since 20 years (bromatology)o proyecto de saneamiento urbanoo study on groundwater impact due to percolating water from disposal sites,
with 'SAHIAPA' and 'Instituto de Ingenieria Sanitaria', UMSAo inspection of food preservatives -
o aflatoxine studieso financing: ca. 20.000 US$/year governmental funds for laboratory materialo equipment: microbiology (1 microscope, 1 cell counter, 2 incubators, no
studies within the last 3 years), 3 muffle ovens, water and bacteriologicalunit are almost empty: no staff, no equipment, no money for regular in-spections *-
o classification - I- not well-motivated management, p'aced In the back ofa supermarket, seemingly no initiative to change perspectives
Laboratorio de Control, Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos
0 Y.P.F.B., Avenida Salamanca 722, Casilla 684, Cochabambao visited: 04.02.1993o met with: Enrique Escobar (head of environmental control unit, engineer),
Felix Fuentes (head of the laboratory)o product control analysis including waste water from the different treatment
ponds (e.g. flotation, stabilization units)o waste water sampling: every 18 dayso narameters measured: see list enclosed
o use of 'ASTN' standard methodso well equipped with MAS (heavy metals) and UV/VIS spectrophotometricI teclmiques (inorganic anions)o however: no sulphate, DOD or COD analysedo classification = II: as it is not a neutral laboratory, its use for
future contamination studies seems limited, although metal analysis indifferent types of waste and receiving waters may be advanced
Depart-amnto Control Calidad Laboratorio, Yacimientos Petroliferas Fiscales3I Bolivianos
o Refineria 'Guillermo Elder Bell", Casilla 1998, Santa Cruz de la Sierrao visited: 26.01.1993o met with: Enrique Escobar (head of environmental control unit), Romulo
Barbs (head of laboratory)o 17 technicianso mostly oil refining products and residue analysiso process water analysis: to check corrosiono waste water analysis: sampling every 1.5 montho equipment: I GC, 1 AAS PE 305, 1 IR PE, 1 GCA, 1 potentiograph BRDKM4ANN,
1 GC PE 3920 B, 1 GC PE SI5MA 15, 1 CC PE SIGMA 4B, 1 colorimeter, 1 visco-simeter, 1 incubator, 1 CARVER laboratory press, 1 corcosion-meter
o parameters measured: see list enclosedo classification - II: like for the Y.P.F.B. laboratory in Cochabamba
Laboratorio Quimico, Facultad de Ingenieria Metalurgia, Universidad Tecnicade Oruro
o Campus Universitario, Zona Sur, Oruroo visited: 10.12.1992I o met with: Frank Rachor (GTZ consultant, engineer)o analytical services for the metallurgical industry (dressing studies) and
graduate courses in mineral beneficiation techniqueso ongoing longternm technical cooperation with German GIZo housing and equipment: good laboratory organization and housing capacity,
ICP-AES (German Spectro, new), AAS PE 3100 and 706, portable XRF, XRDo classification - III: due to safe longterm financing and a highly sophisti-
cated analytical equipment, good development potential; planned close co-operation with Instituto de Ecologia (Lago Poopo) and Instituto de Investi-gaciones Hinero-Metalurgicas regarding environmental chemical analysis;need to build-up qualified scientific and technical staff
Laboratorio Quimico, Servic4o Geologico de Bolivia (GEOBOL), hinisterio deMineria y Metalurgia
o Calle Federico Zuazo 1673, La Pazo visited: existing cooperation with Swedish WB consultanto met with: D. Howard (director, engineer), 0. Siles (services manager, engineer)o financing: about 40X governmental and 60Z international contracts (Sweden,
Germany, Italy, U.S.)o analytical services for geological mapping and mineral explorationo equipment: AAS PE 4100, 3100 and 7033 spectrophotometer, sampling and
sample preparation devices, old instruments from earlier programso classification - I: although this laboratory would be the natural partner
for environmental projects within the mining sector, the high bureaucracy,poor professional qualification with regard to environmental measures, to-gether with the lack of a clear methodological conception, makes the alreadyrequested re-organization of this laboratory a priority, before any newapproaches are considered
Requiremants and demands
The present laboratory situation in Bolivia may be best characterized bythe obvious need for training and methodology development on the one side,and by missing anylytical reliability and standardization of procedures onthe other side, resulting in a rather low level of both professional and dataquality. This seems particularly true for those laboratories designed totrace and quantify environmental pollutants, 8S they are additionally hamperedby a chronic shortening of financial support reflected in low salaries and
a poor maintenance of equipment. In addition, the complexity of material to besampled and analyzed, as well as the prevailing deficiency in supply ofnecessary reagents, auxillaries and spare parts seriously interfere with thedemanded maintenance and continuation of laboratory operations.
So far, most envisaged targets or problems could be approached by laboratories,when taking part within international technical assistance programs, whichpromised financial/instrumental support, at least for a given time period.Ifowever, these bi-/multilateral programs often failed in the past to guaranteecontinuous operation due to the lack of permanent training, supply networksand access to up-to-date information/literature.
It seems that relevant impulses to intensify and improve current laboratoryactivities are only given, when international aid is in sight. And this mayremain so, unless the national regulatory legislation will provide the necessarytechnical guidelines designed to standardize and enforce environmental moni-toring and analytical work. Environmentally relevant industries may then becomeinterested to make more use of the country's different specialized laboratoryservices to prove compliance with regulation.
However, to create this regulatory framework will still take some time, whichcould be utilized most efficiently by examiring the development potential ofexisting laboratories, which are already involved into environmental monitoringprojects, thus preparing the ground for those laboratory institutions with ahigh motivation to use analytical techniques for environmental monitoring andsolution finding.
!What is really needed, may be the establishment of base-line data, in orderto realize a reference framework for quality criteria of natural ecosystems,like freshwaters, soil and air. Within this, one should consider given factors,such as natural preload, sensitivity or synergistic processes, which all mayaffect the stress capacity of a particular ecosystem. In doixFg so, this meansthat established general quality criteria could only be a rough, first estimateof what natural systems may tolerate, while they need strict differentiationwhen assessing the conditions of a certain situation.
From this, one may conclude that it is good to have general quality criteria,which may offer a first and rapid orientation. However, these reference pointsshould subsequently brought into relation with the circumstances found arounda particular situation, in order to assess their real relevance within thatUD context. Out of this screening approach, one may be able to detect those criticalparameters, which may indicate what an ecosystem will tolerete or not (bio-/geo-indicacor).I With regard to the present Bolivian situation, it seems a necessity to findout at least one a¢.alytical laboratory for each major geographic area, whichis willing and has the resources to determine main physico-chemical and bio-logical parameters, like pHl, temperature, conductivity, Secchi depth, dissolvedoxygen, flow rate, biomass, bacterial activity etc., by use of standardizedmethods.
Recommendations
From the laboratories presented lhere, there are several candidates whomay be able to meet this requirement and who are recommended for furtherevaluation and inclusion into future technical assistance and projectdevelopment. Although the list may be incomplete (appropriate laboratoriesfrom some regions are still lacking, i.e. from the Northern lowland de-partments of Beni and Pando, and from the Southern departments of Potosi,Tarija and Chuquisaca), the following institutions may be considered ascapable to fullfil basic environmental monitoring work thus acting as
31 regional counterpart laboratory for the national environmental protectionagency (SEN2A), in the future:
o La Paz: Instituto de Ingenieria Sanitaria (I.I.S.), UNSA
o Oruro: Instituto de Investigaciones Minero-Metalurgicas (I.I.M.M.)
o Cochabamba: Laboratorio Regional de Programa de Aguas, tJS
o Santa Cruz: Laboratorio de 'SAGUAPAC'
It may be feasible, in the beginning, to extend Ihe responsibility and fieldof activity of the laboratory preliminary selected for the area of La Paz alsoto Beni and Pando provinces, as well as the ba respective laboratories inOruro and Cochabamba for Potosi, and for Chuquisaca and Tarija, respectively,before possible candidates have been found there.
For this reason, a detailed questionary is suggested to be sen& to thosepre-selected laboratories, within a next step, inquiring now exact informa-tion about the structure, functioning and level of analytical quality anddata processing, including the whole spectrun of parameters and methodsavailable and applied. In addition, this further evaluation may also addressthe analytical repertoire and potential of other laboratories, in particularI: their qualification or specialization within certain critical subjects re-quiring high analytical skill, equipment and experience (e.g, GC and HPLC
_9 performance and determination of pesticiaes, chemical speciation of heavymetals, bio-assays) (see blank form enclosed).
This information gathering is supposed to result in a clear picture about1) what can be done on a regional scale, and 2) where are.,the.:specialists withregard to specific inorganic and organic pollutonts.
After thorough evaluation of the questionary results, an intercalibrationstudy will be organized in a second step, including both the pre-selectedregional laboratories and those, which have indicated their strong capacityto conduct highly specialized analysis, in order to ensure a high degree ofmethod standardization and quality assurance (see blank form enclosed).
This intercalibration of methods will address three different groups ofparameter, I.e. i) basic physico-chemical (e.g. chemical oxygen demand,nutrients or dissolved/suspended matter), ii) trace metals and iii) organicmicro-compounds (e.g. PAHs or organochlorines), in water (i, ii, iii) andsediment (ii and iii; in a later phase).
For intercalibration (i), the following laboratories are suggested to parti-I cipate:
o Instituto de Ingenieria Sanitaria, la Pazo Instituto de Ecologis, La Pazc Laboratorio de-Programa de Aguas, Cochabambao Laboratorio de SAGUAPAC, Santa Cruz
Intercalibration (ii) should comprise:
o Instituto de Ingenieria Sanitaria, La Paz
o Instituto de Salud Ocupacional, La Pazo Instituto de Investigaciones Hinero-Metalurgicas, Oruroo Instituto de Investigaciones Quimicas, la Pazo Laboratorio de SAGUAPAC, Santa Cruzo Y.P.F.B. Laboratorio de Control, Cochabambao Laboratorio Quimico, Oruroo GEOBOL Laboratoria Quimico, La Paz
Intercalibration (iii) should finally include:
o Instituto de Ecologia, La Pazo Instituto de Salud Ocupacional, La Pazo Instituto de Investigaciones Quimicas, La Pazo Instituto de Servicios de Laboratorio de Diagnostico en Salud, La Pazo Y.P.F.B. Departamento Control Calidad Laboratordo, Santa Cruzo Laboratorio de Pleguicidas y Fertilizados, La Pazo Laboratorio de Pragrama de Aguas, Cochabamba
Beside increasing the quality of analytical data, the planned inter-laboratorycomparison may also mobilize efforts to harmonize the used methodology on anational scale and sort out strenght and failure. It is equally supposed, thatthis study may help to increase communication and exchange between the differentlaboratories, as this was experienced as one major hinder on the way to abetter understanding of their role within the environmental regulation process.
It is suggested that this national intercalibration project may'be headed andorganized by the Instituto de Ingenieria Sanitaria (group i), the Instituto deInvestigaciones de Minero-Metalurgicas (group ii) and by the Laboratorio dePrograma de Aguas (group iii), tightly coordimated with SINMA and assisted bya leading foreign analytical laboratory.
Of course, there should be enough space also for'upcoming private laboratoriesJ offering analytical services within the environmental field, to participate.
Although it is not particularly mentioned here, or considered within the inter-calibration check, sampling approaches for the various environmental specimens(e.g. time, site and frequency of sampling and proper sample selection endcollection techniques) should become part of regular and internal qualitycontrol measures, covering different levels of compliance monitoring.
One main objective or result of upgrading and further developing the presentcapability of environmental laboratories in Bolivia may be seen in the forma-tion of a central Reference Laboratory, operating under the direct auspicesof SEDZ4A with the legal mandate to authorize regional or outstanding laboratorieswithin the licensing of environmentally significant public (e.g. infrastructural)or private (commercial/industrial) projects, as already announced in the'Reglamento sobre Lanzamiento de Desechos Industriales en Cuerpos de Agual,issued by the Ministerio de Urbanismo y Vievienda, in 1990. Such a nationalinstitution is setting technical standards, guidelines and recommendationsfor sampling and analytical procedures and may organize a country-wide moni-
* toring network for main sources, emission paths and sinks of pollutantsreleased by natural and human activities. Permanent update and enforcement ofstrict compliance with internationally acceptable maximum values (limits) forcritical, high-priority pollutants (e.g. mercury, lead, PAHs or PCDDs) dis-charged by waste water, air or solids into sensitive systems (e.g. coastalor groundwaters), in close coordination with the authorized laboratories,will be one of the primary task of the Reference Laboratory In its role asa national supervising instrunent.
Conclusions
It has to be reminded that the evaluation given here is primarily Jbuilt upon first impressions and reflections9:from.a more.tandom:data..gathering. It has to be verified with respect to the actual performance,capacity and quality, which can not be infered by interviews or visualobservations, but may.be done by means of practical tests and examinations,under standardized conditions. It was not possible for the consultant tocover all aspects of analytical relevance (e.g. hygienic aspects andbacteriological methods are practically not included) in the limitedtime given, nor appeared it realistic to go tamuch into technical detail.However, some conclusions may be carefully drawn so far from the presentedsituation outline for environmentally adjustable laboratories in Bolivia:
I) there is an urgent need for exact data on the quality and status .| of different environmental compartments, such as air, water and soil
II) there are plenty of analytical laboratories existing and equipped withthe necessary instrumentation to provide that data
1 III) most of the laboratories visited suffer either from a chronic lack oftraining, instrument maintenance or personal fitting or from missingthe right motivation
I IV) international technical assistance should be.based on continuity bycreating the necessary infrastructure to run modern equipment andpersonal training on a longterm perspective
V) intermational cooperation programs are needed, not only on the re-gulatory side, but also to strengthen monitoring and analytical instru-3 ments and resources designed to comply with regulations .
VI) in order to cope with the development of environmentally relevantprojects, it seems feasible to constitute a country-wide network ofcompetent and reliable analytical laboratories for compliance..monitoring and effect control, both for the different geographicalareas and for the assessment of specific pollution compounds
VII) the upgrading and increase of the laboratory capability, as suggestedhere, should ultimately lead to the upcoming of a central ReferenceLaboratory, which has the legal authority to supervise.and coordinateall laboratory activities in the country, vith regard to environmentalregulation, impact analysis and control
I
QuENTIONARY O mDz LABORIATRY CAPA&BLfY 32I DOLIVIA, WIMI RGARD MD|ucaL AnYSIS mO moNwmaL SISPLOF
NAME OF INSTITUTION:
ADDRESS:
HAD:
BEGIN OF OPERATION:
NUMBM AND QUALIFICATION Or STAFF:
MANDATE:
ACCREDITATION:
TYPE OF SAMPLES:
FIELD SAMPLING/TRANSPORT EQUIPMENF:
FIELD MEASUREMENTS:
SAmPLE sTORAGE AND PREPARATION FACILIES:
ANALYTICAL PARA!MERS AND METHODS:
- BASIC PHYSICO-Cli21ICAL
- GASES
- MINMALS
- NENTS
- TRACE METALS
-NON-SPECIFIC ORGANICS
- SPBCIFIC ORGANICS
- MICROBIOLOGY
lANALYTICAL INSTRUMMIT&ION AND AUXILIARY SYSTEMS:
QUALITY CONTOL OF SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS:
INSTRUMENT AINTENNE AND SERVICES:
TRAINING:
I INTERNATIONAL/NATIONAL COOPERATION:
NUMBER OF ANALYZED SAMPLE PER :ONM:
3 COMMNT:
I
LABORATORY CAPABILITY IN BOLIVIA FOR FIELD HEASURUNIS IN WATER
l LABORATORY = - = - = _
PARAHErER
pH _____
redox (Eh)=
temperature
.conductivity - - - - - -
dissolved oxygen _
flow measurement
others
JR
I
1
i
I
LABORATORY CAPABILITY IN BOLIVIA FOR IHE %suRnDu OF BASIC PARANETERS
AND POLLUTANTS IN NATURAL AND WASTE WATER
I ~~LAWRIMORY
PARA2Efl
pH
temperature
redox potential
conductivity
-I colour
turbidity
hardness
alkalinity
salinity
3 ~~~TDS
TSS
dissolved oxygen
COD
BOD5
ortho phosphate
kjeldahl nitrogen
nitrate
nitrite
X aammonia
* chloride
sulphate
silica
sulphide
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SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL IN BOLIVIA - A TENTATIVE APPROACH
Rudolf Reither (MFG), Swedish Environmental Systems
1. nThe Regulatory Framework
The currercE legal situation with regard to the disposal of solid waste in Bolivia is still based onthe 'Reglarnento General para el Manejo de Residuos S6lidos", issued by the Ministerio deUrbanismo y Vivienda, in 1976. This rather technical regulation is almost completelydedicated to the final deposition of residual solids from domestic and industrial sources onland, without giving any directives for waste separation or measures to protect groundwaterreservoirs. It only specifies techniques in surface concealing in detail, together with thenecessary infrastructural arrangements to prepare, maintain and terminate the disposal site.
The definitions which are presented herein are very general and reflect the limited knowledgeavailable at this time (not only in Bolivia) with regard to property, composition and volume ofsolid waste material produced firm different origins (households, commerce, industry etc.).for exannple, residual solids are simply defined as 'solid material (including sludges) causedby domestic, commercial and industrial processes and water treatment plants", without anyfurther specifications of their physico-chemical or biological behavior.
The main shortage of the "Reglamento' lies in its one-sidedness for the land-fill waste disposaloption. This has still a major influence on present management practices in the country, whichconcentrate o waste removal systems, not considering to stop or reduce its production at thesource. The regulation suggests land disposal for domestic and commnercial solid waste, forslags and ashes, mining residues, waste construction material, old tires, sewage sludge,industrial process and agricultural residuals etc., without any pre-separation or pretreatment.
It seems that responsible authorities in the country have missed to adjust and update this wasteregulaLion to the present technical state-of-the-art by new amending laws, as no particularconcern is expressed to longterm effects and environmental hazards. This legal deficienciesmay have substantially contributed that those producing wastes still feel not responsible fortheir final fate and hold fast on old-fashioned and wasteful manufacturing or productionprocesses.
Today, there is a need for clear and precise regulative measures to change past production andconsumption behaviors by selting criteria for waste classification and hazard assessment, aswell as priorities and economic incentives for treatment and disposal strategies and concepts ona national scale. These new regulations should lead to a change in societies" attitude, in that itis more useful for both national economy, development, social and natural welfare to reduce
d or prevent solid waste production (particularly of hazardous wastes) by systematicallyreusinglrecycling residuals and avoiding generation of long-living, toxic material, in the longer
3 run.
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The early issue of such a country-wide functioning regulatory framework for solid wasteavoidance, reuse and safe disposal may go in line with international agreements (e.g. the'Cairo guidelines'IUNEP on hazardotus waste disposal or the Based convention ontransboundary waste transport) and may not only increase production efficiency and theprotection of natural resoiurces, but could also provide the legal authority to stop the creationof countless solid waste "time-bombs' in the country.
2. Requirements for Solid Waste Disposal
Residuals which neither can be reused/recycled again nor ate further degradable have to bestored under controllable conditions, in order to ensure their safe and longtern isolation fromthe hydro-and biosphere. At present, there are both mono- (e.g. for construction material) andmulti-component disposal cites (e.g. for domestic wastes) in operation, which should buildupon the "multibarrier concept" for permission. Newly permitted waste sites have toguarantee the fullowing measures:
- percolating water does not cause any harm to groundwaters when penetrating the baseisolation
- contaminants should be in an immobile form- the waste deposit should have a low permeability- earth movements should be minimal- a surface cover/sealing to prevent infiltration or rain water- longterm control and monitoring
_I - recultivation
In order to manage the longterm safety of a particular site, the following technical steps haveto be undertaken:
- collection, transport and treatment of percolating water- drainage of surface run-off water- maintenance of groundwater monitoring wells- groundwater quality control- maintenance of degassing facHities- prevention of damages, e.g. by erosion- protection of recultivation
3. Preliminary Description of the Bolivian Situation
In the following, the present waste management practices in the cities of (1) Santa Cruz, (2)Cochabamba, (3) Oruro and (4) La Paz/El Alto, will be described, and a few examples givenfor some particularly relevant industries.
3.1. S:nta Cruz
In general, solid waste material is collected, transported and tipped by the municipality orcharged private carriers, without any segregation or classification according to type or
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7. Promote conerences and polcy reseach cn enviroomental aanagement practices andI technologies, and ensure the dissemination of this information
8. Support and promote regional co-operative progams to aebieve sustainable development ofI mineral resources.
9. Adopt environmentaly safe methods of mining and processing for existing project
1 10. Increas and c-ordinate their assistance to developing nations in the fields ofenvironmenta policdes managemenL
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APPENDIX IV.13
SECrORAL ENVIRONMEAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MWNG AND IDUSTIALSECTORS IN BOLIVIA
SOLID AND HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL IN BOLIVIA
by Rudolf Reuther
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II
I BACKGROUND
Mine exploitation and the processing of ores have been performed in Bolivia for many hundredyears. However, in the past, very limited consideration has been given to the envirmental impactof opeaions. This is flow changing rspidly, ptUy as the result of the new Envirnmental Lawapproved by the Parliament in 1992, partly as a consequence of 1) a general awareness withia theindustry itself; 2) a surging public conscience in environmenal matters; and 3) the influenceexced by foreign companies active in Bolivia bringing with them sound envhrnmental practicesfrom other countries. The Envirmental Law is a general law, which wll be complemented bymore detiled regulations. The later will be elaborated very soon, presumably ud the patrnageof the Ministry of Mining and Metallurgy. It is quite probable that even othr new laws with abearing on mining activities (as for example a new Water Law) win be establshed in the nearfutur
It is important that e mining industry takes an active part in the definition of these new laws andregulations. This in order to certify that the legal f itwork to be formed becomes workable,realistic and efficient, but also as a way of making the mining sectr committed to obser therules. Idealy. the process of establishing nrles should be one of faitful colaboration betveenindustry, state authorties and environmen groups. In practice, many maners wil be conflictiveand subject to negotiation or maybe even political struggle. In this conext it is most important tbatdiscussions and decisons will be based on facts and good technical knowledge. Much of thisInformation will have to be provided by the industry.
In some countries, individual companies, mining associations or govemena agencies haveU defined non-legal recommendations on how to act envionmely. ey, an international
association of private companies are wodkng on such mles (Broma 1993). Such initiatives havebeen very important in promoting enviromental thiing within the different companies and hasalso guided oter concerned parties in formulang their stand in a constuctive way. Such a "Codeof Practice" can also serve as an winterretation" of the lega fmework thos facilitaing for thedifferent parties to understand the basic context and to avoid unnecessary bureaucacy.
We recommend strongly the elaration of a "Code of Prce" for Bolivan mining. It shoud becaried out to serve as a base for the legal regulation work or formuled in paalell to and inconjunction with the latter. he following guidens ar meant to scrve a a *skeeton" On which amore elaborated recommaenon could be specified. It is based mainly on the CanadianiEnvironmental Code of Practice for Mines" from 1977, this being a very lear and straightforwarddocument (Environment Canada 1977).
II OUTLINE FOR CODE OF PRACTICE
A General peinciples
I General policy guidelines can be formulated in diffen ways. One example. addressing theconditions in developing countres, are the Berlin Guidelines (Mining Journal Books 1992). Theseguidelines stae that "worldwide long/term economic developmet can best be acbieved thrugh thepursuit of sustainable development policies comprising a balance of economic. soco-ctural andenvironmental protection measures. While takng into account global envionmntal concer, each
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country should apply this concept to meet the needs of its envionment and economiccircumstnces". The docmen presents two sets of reo aions in the form of polinsaddressed to the mineral sector and the development assistance agencies, respectively (see annex 1)
B Specfic niles
1 WATER MANAGEMENT.
1.1 General
Most ores beig exploited in the Cordilera and the Altiplano regions of Bolivia contan sulfidicmineas, which oxidize and produce acidic waters with high heavy mea coents. Tibs is temost serious pollQuon problem in he Bolvian mining industry. So. a large part ot this Code ofPractice deals with measures to mitigate the pollution of mme and mill waters.
In the Cordillera and Altiplano region the availability of water is litd and waste watcontmination is high. Wat management teefore has to focus on the reduction of fiesh waterrequirents as well as the reduction of waste water dlschge. The vwe management policyshould focus on:
* minmization of the use of flsh water, i.a. tough
= the use of mine waters for milling purposes
- the re-use of a maxdmum percentage of process water
* minimzMation of the net effluent of waste waters from the mine ad mill, i.a. through
-minimization of the amount of mine waters (pouting etC)
- minimization of each waste component
- mammizaion of the use of the cleann capacity of taings ponds for an types of wastewaters (eg. nne water)
- maximization of the reuse of waer in the process as weB as fnom the talngs pond
- segregaion of clean waters from highly poluted waste water flows
An definte necessity for each mie/milll complex is a well designed tailings pond.
J 1.2 Monitoring.
An absolute requiem t for a successful water management is a propedly planned mnitomingprogram. The main featues of such a program should be:
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* definition of objectives; cod be the monitoring to satisfy one or more of the policy itemsI li~~~sted iln pawAmh 1.1; dermTWnation of bacgound water qualities for new mine sites;
or detminaton of acid generion potential of a new ore body
* selection of paameters to be measured; these vary from mine to mine, the more importantbeing water flow, suspended and dissolved sotids, pH and heavy metals
* selection of sampling locations
* sampling procedures
* analysis; laboratory requirents
1.3 GuideLines - acceptable effluent levels and required pis to pecipitate heavy metals.
As a guideline to the environmental mine or mil engineer, Table 1 illusaes efflue standardsadopted in a number of diffirent countries.
Table 1. Examples of stndard values for dissolved metals in mining effluents as used in somedifferent countries- Sweden and Finland establish standards for each individual source;presented values are examples fom base metal mines. Bolivian vaues representindusial discarge limits according to -Reglamento sobre lanmiento de dsechosindustriales en cueapos de agua", rles published by the hMnisterio de Urbanismo yVivienda. AU values except pH given in mgnl.
IUS-EPA US-EPA C_aa C Swede. Fhiand lap" Balivis
3 D/aiy Moably Gab Mau" 3 m-ub
_ pH 6.0.9.0 6.0-9.0 >6.0 406 N4. 6.9S 5.646 4.5-0.0
Suspended ids 30. 20. 50. 25. 40 20mm l.
As 15 as QS I
Cd 0.10 0.05 1O 0.1 1.0
0r 0g 5.0
cu 0.T 015 0.6 0.3 Tel 03 3. l.
Fe 3. 10. 10.0
HS 8 MO0 0.001 O0 .OAS
MR 05 10. 10.0
Ni 1.0 0.5 1
Pb 0.60 0.30 0.4 02 m1 1.0 20
Sb
Zn 1.50 0.75 1.0 05 0.1 1.0 S. 50.0
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The pH value required to precipitate metals to the dictat levels. varies for the different metalions. Approximate values related to Canadian conditions are given in Table 2.
Table 2. Approximate pH values required to precipitate certain metals to the required levels(based on field experience with mine waters of typical sulphate contents. Source: MheCanadian Code of Practice of April 1977 )
METAL pH
Fe (ferric) 6-7
Fe (ferrous) 8-9
Cu 95
Zn 10
Pb 9
Ni 10
Mn 11
1.4 Mill process effluent
The mill process effluent is usually the biggest polluter in a mine/mill complex. As aleadyMentioned above, mill tailings should always go to a tailings pond.
Within the mill process itself good water management includes i.a. the following:
* maximnum water rwovery in the pocess itself
* coUleion of any liquid spillage within the plant in sumps and recrculatlng it to theprocess or to the tailings pond
* segregation of heavily contaminated pulp streams from less continated steams
* the use of less poluting reagents in the process where options exist
S avoidance of spllage from conacentae stockpiles
N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
1.5 Mine drainage.
Since the volume of mine water can be Influenced to only a minor degree, all practical measuresshould be taken to ensur that e quality of the fia volume pumped from the mine is such that itcan be used In tte mill or elsewhere, thus reducing both the oveall demand for fresh water andthe final net effluent volume.
J Considatdon should be given to the following measures for reducing the volume of mine waterand Improving its quality to the fullest extent feasible:
.* ruse of water in the mine for drilling and dust suppression
* reducdon of gromundwat seepage by grouting (old baeboles etc.)
* diversion of surface wates through intrception ditches (eg. wbre surface water enter themi tbrough old open pits or oher openings)
* avoiding to mix highly contaminated mine waters with less contaminated for possibletreatment of the highly contaminated waters sepAaly
** anspoting tailings fill underground at highest practicil percent solids
0 avoiding the use of frsh water for transporting tailings U underground (nstead usecontaminsted water, eg.mnnde water)
-= coDection of undergrund mine water in sumps to remove solds
* segregation of oil bearng drainage fm maintenance bays etc.
9 minimization of the storage of broken sulfidic ore to deaease the oxidation of sulfides
1.6 Surface drainage and seepage.
Mine and mill complexes often cover large areas which may produce large amounts of nm-offwaters. If these waa quanties are contaminated they should be reated to the standards applicableto mine water or mill pocess effluen. Ihus surface waters from the mine site or e mil site areoften contaminated with mine and mll waste and should te collected and Ud in the tailingspond. Waters around workshops and fuel stations may be contaminated vnth il, diesel etc, whichusually are harmfu to the mming process and should therefore f be diverted to the ailngs dambut treated separy (oil sumps).
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Non - contaminated drainage should be prevented from entering the tailings ponds or olertreatment ponds to the pgaest extent possible by:
* provision of suitable diversion means such as ditches
* location of the tailings ponds or other treatment ponds so as to minimize the contibutingdrainage area
Where seepage from tailings or Imatment ponds is likely to be contaminated, specal provisionshould be made in the design of the dam or structure to minimize seepage flows and provisionmade to collect aU seepage for mteatment
1.7 Reuse of water.
Ihe scarcity of fresh water and the desire to reduce effluent discrges from mining and miMingoperations are the main reasons for the reuse of water. Ihe smaller the amount of discharges from,for example. a tailings pond can be kept. the easier and cheaper the beatment to tolerable effluentlevels will be.
Reuse is accomplished by intemal-circulation loops within the plas as wen as by circulationsfrom the tailings and clarification ponds. However, the metallurgical implications of water reuseand the effect on recovenes, selectivity and flotability may be large It is therefore impontat that awater flowsheet and water balance be establshed and the metallurgical impUcations be studied in
U detail for vanous water reuse percentages.
However, no defiite guideine values can be given on achievable water ruse percentages. In somecases the process may operate well with almost 100% reuse, in odher cases no or very little reusemay be possible.
2 WASTE TREATMENT.
This section presents mmened practices for the design and operation of the mine and millwaste treament sysms most commonly used.
2.1 Tailings impu systems
The application of tailings ponds is the most common. economic and efficient cleaning toolavailable to mines and mills.
2.1.1 Tailing impmeat systems should be designed and opatd to prmvide the following
finctiow:
a removal and ppetal storage of tailings solids
* maintenance of pH suitable for metal precpitation
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* retention for sedimentation and storage of treatment predpitas (e.g. metal hydroxidesand other finely divided mateial)
* oxygen tansfe fr stabilization of oxidizable waste constituents (cyanide etc.)
* capacity for balancing storm water and other fluctuations
3 * minimization of seepage and conin waters
2.1.2 Tailing impoundments should be designed so as to provide sufcient capaCity for theanticipated volume of tailings to be accumulated over the anpated e of the mine oralternatively should be designed and operated to provide staged increases in capacitycorresponding to the accumulatng volume.
2.1.3 The pool area of a tailings impOundment area if used as the primary means of treatment,should be maintained at a pH suitable for the precipitation of metals to acceptable levels asindicated under paagraph 1.3. MIe values of pH required to most effectively precipitate themetals should be individualy assessed, although values for single metals are given underparagraph 1.3 to be used as first onler indications of required pN
2.1.4 Control of the pH of the tailings pond effluent should be maintained by the addition ofsufficient alkaline reagents (usualy calcium hydroxide, not ammonia) to consistentlycountr any acidic imfluent or acid generated within the tailings impoundwent area, i.e. bythe oxidation of either tiosalits in the water or exposed sulfidic type solids. The alkainereagents are normally added to the pond influent but in some instances it may be necessaryto provide a second point of addition to the pond discharge to emn close pH control.
2.1.5 Means should be provided to maintain cotmol of pH undr conaions of vatying flow intothe treatment system by minimizing the variation in inflt volume, or by the use of flowregulated reagent addition, or by other ppropiate means.
2.1.6 Tailings im m sould be indivday designed to provide adequate retention andquiescent conditions for the sedimentaton of tailing alnd trea t precipitates. In genal,a water retenfion tim of at least five dn shouid be provided.
2.1.7 Pool areas of 5 - 10 hectars for each 1,000 tonnes of tailn solids dischaged per dayshould be adeqate in most cases, provided the wat depth is at last 15 mets at thedecant (the average im area is about 20 bectas 1000 tpd for Canadian mills).
2.1.8 Where a tailings pool is required to provide stabilization of oxidibe waste ampo(e.g. reagent residuals, cyanide, ammonia, thiosalts, etc.) sufficient rtenion should beprovided f*r oxddaion under adverse conditons. An allowance of 3 y retention iscommon pmactice.
Consideration sodd also be given to providing a poishing lagoon of minimum 48 hourscapacitY for the final discharge from a tailings impundent to Compensat for upsets inthe operation of the primary system
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2.1.9 Tailing ondm snctus Shold be consmucted of chemically stable mateials inaccordance with accepted struCural and hydraulic engineering design and constucionpactices.
At least I meter of freeboard should be provided within the tailings embankment
22 Other metal removal systems
In insunces where oher methods of teatment are more appropiae, altetive systems such as1 lagoons or acid mine waer treatment plants can be employed. Such systems are expensive and
would only rarely be utilized in Bolivia
e 2.3 Thiosalt removal
Ihiosalt removal is expensive and measures should therefore be taken to minimize the productionof thiosalts in the mill and to limit the discharge of thiosalt bearing wastes to the envionment bywater recycle back to the mill.
Whnver possible, individual treatment of process streams high in thioat content should be* considered.
Long term retention of tliosalt bearing wastes should be used to achieve bio lzon.
Consideration should be given to mechanically asssted io on of thosalts. for examplej rotating biological contos.
3 REHAB=lTATION
3.1 General
The objective of rehabilitation measures sbould be to chemically and physicay stabilize the ara,once acive production has terminated, so that any drainge streams fom the inactive site meet thelevels given in paagraph 1.3, and the area, depending on its potetial uses, is generally acceptablefrom the standpoints of aesthetics and safety.
Mine operators should develop and cost a planned appoh to rehabitation of tme mining sitebased on the a ned life of the mine aleady at the time of the plamning and developmenLIhus, when determining the location and other pameters (height, gradg, side slopes etc.) ofwaste rock piles and tailings dams, ConSideron should be given, to posSible rehabilitaonmeasures. Sin the coSt of reabilitation should be bone by the mine opratr, he should estimathe future cost and inerUnlie it as part of the cost of pOduction.
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3.2 Rehabilitation systems.
Most of the mines in Bolivia are base metal mines with appreciable amounts of sulfide mineralssuch as pyuite and pyrhote remaining in the mie dumps and tailings pos. If these sulfides areexposed to oxygen and water, they continue to oxidize to sulfuric acid, which in its tun dissolvesmetals to high conents. TIis oxidation may conatinue for hundreds of y, creaing a majorsource of pollution of the steams of the area
3 TMe chemical rehabiltaton is mainly a matr of proteting the sulfides firom oxygen. Ibis can inpnnciple be done in two ways: 1) by burying the aiings un a cover of water, i.e. create a lakeover the tailings aa, or 2) by covein the tailings areas or waste rock dumps with layers of clay,moraine or soil that create a cappillary water layer preventing the oxygen rm rading the wasterock or the tailings. Mhis layer will also facilitate the run off of surface water from precipitation.
Regarding the fis altemative, it is important that precipitation and other water inflow aresufficimn to keep the "lake" adequately filled by water to cover the taiings even during dryperiods.
Mhe second alternative requires the availability of suitable materials (clay, gravel, moraine etc)within reasonable distnces.
3.3 Rehabilitation of open pits and mine workings.
Contaminated water accmulating in open pits or other mme workings should be hydrologicailyisolated or reated In an adequate manner.
3.4 Rehabilitation of tailings azeas.
Steps should be taken to control contam inaed seepage and rnoff from tailings impoundment areand to physically and chemically stabilize the surface of these areas.
Tailings imm aeas should be located, designe and operted with a vew to faciitangtheir ultimate or staged rehabilitation. Consideration should be given CD measures such as
* isolation of chemically reactive wastes
* design of drainage characteristics of the retaing strucures to create a fee draining massor to minime seee, depending on the quality of the seepage anticipated
* suitable mens for collecting contaminted seepage
* metbods of surfac stabilizaton eavisagea, such as chemical, physical or vegetative
X * alternative methods of disposal or uses of taiings.
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Consideation should be given to stripping and storng topsoil or other meials which might beused at the rehabilitation stage, if these would othrwise be made naesble by rte developmenL
4 WASTE ROCK AND MILL TAILINGS DISPOSAL
Tailings should not be discharged to an unconfined disposal area unless confined dLsposal is sbownto be impractical or unless the unconfined disposal altemative is environmentally preferable.
For new, expanded or reopened mines, unconfnd diposal is not permitted in m-ny countres ofthe world and should not be used in Bolivia except in very special caes.
Tailings disposal areas should be designed to conform to the guidelines outlined In paragrphs 2.1and 3.
Waste rock disposal should be cared out according to the guidelines outined In paragraphs 1.6and 3.
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THE BERLIN GUIDELINES Annex 1
Addressed to the Mineral Sector
Governments, minng companies and the mineras industries shotdd as a minimnum:
3 1. Recognize environment management as a high priority, notably dung the licensingprocess and trugh the devdopment and implemenion of envimnmental managementsystems. These should include eady and com ive envirommental impact assessmen,pollution control and other preventive and mitigative measures, monito and auditingactivities and emergency response procedures.
2. EstabUsh environmen a blity in dustry and govemnment at the highestmanagement and pollcy-making levels.
3. Encourage employees at all levels to recognize thir responsibility for envin lmanagement and ensure that adequae resourcs staff and requsite training are available toimplement environmental plans.
4. Ensure the participation and dialogue with the affected community and other directlyintrested paries on the envnental aspects of all phases of mining acwivities.
-- 5. Adopt best practices to minimize envnmental degradation notably in the absence ofspecific enviromental regulations.
6. Adopt envonmentally sound technologies in all phases of mining activities and inerease theemphasis on the nsfer of appropie techmologies which mitigate enmenta impactsincluding those fom small-scale mining operons.
7. Seek to provide additiona funds and innvative fnancial arangements to improveenvironmtal performance of existi mning operations.
8. Adopt nsk analysis and risk manageme in the devdepmen of regulation and in thedesign, operation and desoning of mining activities, including tihe handling anddisposal of hazardous mining and other waStes
9. Reinforce the infrastructure. infomion systems service training and slklls inenviroment management in relation to mining actvities.
10. Avoid the use of such envintl regulations that act as unnecessary baries to tradeand investmenL
11. Recognize tbe lnkages between ecology. socdo-cua conditions and hum heateh and| safety. both within the waoklace and the natral envmironmenL
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12. Evaluate and adopt, wherever approprate, economic and administrative instrhments such astax incentive poUcies to encouage the reduction of pollutant emissions and the Iuroduction ofinnovative technology.
13. Explore the feasibility of reciprocal agreements to reduce waboundary pollution.
14. Encourage long-term nining invesmuent by having clear eaviromaeal smdards with3 stable and predictable environmental citeria and procedures.
Addressed to Development Asistance Agencies
Multilateral and bilateral assnce agencies have an essental role to play in turtngenvironmental management, paricularly In devdoping nations, and in assisting these nations inpmgrams to protect their enviromnmet both nationally and as part of the global environmentalsystem. Accordingly, they should.
1. Accord high priority to the mitigation of enviromaental degradation associated With miningin developing couixes to achieve high environmental performance.
2. Initiate. as an integral part of any exploraton and mining project, envimet institutionalbuilding programs. Special sup should be given to counties actively woing to improvetheir environmental capabilities.
3. Require that all mining projects supported sball contain a trainig componen that will3 include specific training on environmental awareness and its application to the mining sector.
4. Support increased resarch regardig the devdopment of new processes. with fewerenviromnental impacts, including recycling.
5. Support the development of activities thA would mitigate advease effects on the socic-cultural fabric and the ecosystem. To achieve this objectivc, interatonal agencies sbhld givepiority to education and training which increase awareness of these issues and allow theaffected communities to participate ia decsion-makig.
6. In suppOrng mining projects, agencies should also take int account the fIllowing:
- rehabilitation of displaced populaon;
- environmental histoy cf the country;
- large scale impact on socio-ltural patterns;
- the overall economic balance of the project vis-i-vis its toul eni nental impact;
- the impact on other natual resources and ecologically sensitive areas (e.g. protected forestlands. magroves, wildlife parks and neighboring wat mbodies).
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APPENDIX TV.12
l SECTORAL ENVIRONENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MINING AND INDUSTRLALI SECrORS IN BOLIVIA
t GUIDELINES FOR THE PREPARATION OF A CODE OF PRACTICEFOR THE BOLIVAN MINING INDUSTRY
by Anders Swartling and Bo Lundberg
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GUIDELINES FOR THE PREPARATION OF A CODE OF PRACTICE1 FOR THE BOLIVIAN MINING INDUSTRY
TABLE OF CONTENT
II BACKGROUND
: II OULUNE FOR CODE OF PRACTICEA Geneal principles1j Specific rules
1 WATER MANAGEMENT1.1 General1.2 Monitoing1.3 Guidelines - acceptable effluent levels1.4 Mill process effluent1.5 Mine drinage1.6 Surface drainage and seepage1.7 Reuse of water
U 2 WASTE TREATMENT2.1 Tailings impoundment systems2.2 Other mtal emoval systems2.3 Ihiosalt removal
- 3 REHABIIATION3.1 Generl3.2 Rehabilation syste3.3 Rehabilitation of open pits and mine workings3.4 Rehailion of ilings areas
4 DISPOSAL OF WASTE ROCK AND MILL TAILINGS
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UNIVERSIDAD MAYOR DE SAN SIMONFACULTAD DE CIENCIAS Y TSCSOLCA POSM DAGS
171~~~~Cobb" sv 21-
TABLE H:1
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INFORNE DE RESULrAB0S S
TATM[10: GM DE IWSTG&CION AiIIIENrL *
:NBO NREsTra II 2 : 3 1 4
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:LmAR DE HUESBTE0 I Mla 12 a Sacala :Zona Arapuurhto IPnte lrkupiga lii 23 a OrCoI - 113 cuadra onrstel300m, uewnto patou. :PuP IITO E HIEsTRCo I MLatal diil rio MLateral de] rio :Latral ddl rio 1Lateral del rie IFEM E ESTRED : : 011o2sa 1 01102l3 : OI102/93 1 01102V93 :
'1111 BE NUESIREO : 16:00 1 1651 t 17J20 1 11:00WAVIENCIA :furbis ffurbia lTmrbia MTurbia
- ARME S ANALIZAW0S
IFISICOOUiBICUS UNIDAD£S IETO : CCEIIW COICETAClol : C cONE NT U CCNICENIUACI
= :pm 1Watenciedtrico : 6.4 r 6.5 1 6.9 : 6.8I1.8.L I cgO2/L Il1cub. 5S dts 20 Ul : IIIS 1 17
:B.hL I.o0211 lOsid. Blcroato : 140 1 208 : 216 : 192-Silidos Totals : aqL Sgravlaitrice LOSW ' 166 I 5: 9 1 770 :fdlidus Filtrablgs : qgL lGraidtrico lOSoC 94 I 334 I 470 1 186 :MS1ldas Suspedidos eigL Milcul 1 72 : 54 I 129 I 59 S151. V. 1tilu1 Fi1tr. I .;/L. Irawluitrico 5S5o 1 33 140 1 239 1 69 1
IS61Udos FiJes Filtr. I cg/L J6r&yimdtrico 55o. I 61 I 114 1 232 : l17 :IS6Iidos Sedisentables UL/L Cono lhoff : 0.1 1 0.2 0.3 i 0.4MCIcroros ogCI-JL laguatoitrico : 5.6 1 3 99.3 1 20.1 :MFsroro Total I qPlL Wanadoeolibdato I 0.1 : 2.2 : 4.5 : I
Conductividad Espec. : Uhho/cm C: ductivisdtrico : 15.7 356 : 911.2 1.1 IN- *eaniatal I agNI3/L Nest. IJuldahl 1 0.6 3.2 : 3.3 1 1.1 :INitrCgmna Total : gil/L Uost. Ejuldabl 1 30.9 32.2 : 31.2 : 28:Nit?atos : g)lO3/L Ituhd. Cadsio : 1. 4.8 3 : 4.3:Nit;itos I"gO2 illazotizaciln 0.04 0.8 0.5 1 0.2:Sulfatog qgSO4UL Iurbidilutrico : 36.5 77.2 1 9.6 I 163.17WAlcaltidad *gCa2CI3/L ITitrlfitric1 41.7 03.5 "9.1 6 66.0 :
-sICarbooutos I ngC'13/L MTltrimitrico 0 0 0 : 0 I
^t -_ ------------- _
3Organisuos Coulr.totaigs. uFtlCOO dL :lbrua riltrauts i 2.30E404 : 6.70Es04 I 4.30E104 I 1.30E404
3 ----
r
;i~~~~~~ a R ac-a,T-E- 'IE8jRR- ti -.. - a
Tt-rT --,---.--*r'--t--------^-P-'.4 i!I i-I . § _ ^ ^X e14ti- -L a -x - t^i
I--S. ='t -=- ----- -- - -,
T I ------------------ i I-
i i __ _ _ism I E.
, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . , _
: : - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - T_
S 0
IiSM I-- - - ------ :IF --3-'-
s--T T------_----- ------
1- -1- --- -- ------- -- ---
- - - - - -- |~~ - -
* a a a ma~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~GOa
- - - - - - - - - - -------- -
----------- --- --- a .. I
Z:H 3-18VL
IRI . I~~~~
- 1. G~lOOPERATIVA BE SERVICiOS PUBLUCOS SANTA CRUZ LTOA. Omcar'Ac ;I Aa CaU e Toads de Lenin. Tanque Mevad0. Oa P 14AGUAPA C Ca 1P2s2_sATA C11UZ - IDUvIA TdIanou 5s-1666 - 5-1GC7TfTdr 4341 SAGPAC D. V.
TABLE G:1 dEPORTI DE ANALISISIDBR10tRZ DE AWA.S S:R1f.S
JOSE V=O SEAS
DATO Dl LA NM18STA
Sanla ruz SiD cisa zJ~~~~~~~~~~1W he30 12 BU l05 hOToada pDr :=1Ri& NaC9nS:=elaci Mkl-aa1; &u1ANa MNkU1 &M. lia t | Fecha de ht Toma 2B-01-93 2U-01-9S 2001-D3 -9
1 oos~~ -m]t2a5S * =0 DpH
-OIigo DMudi (- -
I nducUtrdad E&pd -_ _
|MIdobs ToLaIs a I11D Emdl) 863 627 878 720. &5id Totais a BOOC (Tl) 725 479 4117 353S$Sido ToL Vdiais a S0OO Tji/ 135 148 391 357WA1Cs suspn TOlWES a 1105 (ueJi 542 L49 1OD 40s5 susp=& rp O (adl) 471. 0 9 .9.3 Z7
. S5E1 Susp. Vdiis a 600s (m) 71 10 171 13* 5~ iitbsTobl (a2/t) _- Gzmmsy Aih te 27 2 27 33AkLa k Ten 03 <fL < 1 <(l I| Ak-lHn4 Total 3 (mI) 200 304 374 321
t CUInTow 1a C 3 (ma/4 - - _mro c. Cl 20(m) 2O 45 55 50lo690 Tolal cN3mm 19. 7 tl9.0 LBO. 0 135, 0Ifind6en Amnion ac N03 (3. 7 59. 0 142. 0 91.0lit&zro C P= ic N0r3 16.0 30.0 30.0 44.0Nitrita c bVz 0.27 0. O0. C c.022. E Lkd c- .N0/ ( 1. 20 0.2 < a. OS C 0. 05Ftro zrcim c PD4 < O. 02 [. 9 3.0 4.0FWro IToal c. P0 0. 7 5. 10.0 4.2SxI"llS c. S14 (r]) 41.0 34. 0 .0. 0 36.0rL1ret (rug_ _ _Ars-ic (fmrg _ _ _
ukdo ~ ~ ~ (ugI)W - --admnio (rUg/I - -cangum (Wd/4 _
Hieno (rg / _ - _tLvU D (WA - - - _C ToLa (u) - _ _sMaOzto (mg/I _irr *A - : aH '
|Pb (MO - _ _ _Polas (mr/_ - _ _
D3vi rens (rgI) - -r nL- Qaii de G ic4 nt2&5 4.93 'L140
Eori5ni Tuabl CIP/1 00 _ (M1 liIo TLS F-aks (tNP/100 DO
limiLb U m Va= = p =Lorm d CIai fk de wuc,d alR1ammnao NsaTmaI PaM d mzammiLnto dL deQCm indusLi2als
Om D: Aim deslim-las al buaRte y aL-jamicLo de rcskI
JEFE DPTO. LABORATOr,Cs.8AOUAPAC
COOPERATIVA DE SERVICIOS PUBLICOS SANTA CRUZ LTDA. OF'PNAOm?TtALJ
SA'GUAPAC G0U A 3234D ~~~~~~~~~W CIU -< IO-sUVUA TdUonos $1IGCGG 5-1CC7
.O] hIfTA Cliii - IUUVIA Tdzx 4348 SAGPAC L. V.
TABLE G:2 REPORTE DE ANALISISLUIA RD) DM ACLI:S SEWV%S
ni0 M&1L SEaSOA TO S L
Pzooodemia Santa .fi ,lLflQIIz Smn i SanaCFumte DZ10 MO0D -303 - 2D2
S 1aiJflj '=eIIN ?li SMita& NLi8lIe 4 SL .SUtrN;ooN d Fa de a Toma 2-1-93 28-L-93 26-0L-03 2U'L3
PARA ZETRS _ULTA1S .M= IREUTe2DeatuW
* mg~ tu (mg - _- ! 0m DhSeo (Inc/o Turbeda (d _ _ _Couvkad Esptdrim ( I __C__mikb~ Tola1s a llO!C (mO') 1727 1531 3333 757
J TboaJes a 600!Cg (MA1 504 114O 545 3 U5Sakk 1DL VoiUi a 6002C (WAJ 123 391 27BU 372|sTO e ak102C (mJA) 1426 1540 2515 10715 5 np; a BOOM (m a 547.D lU; L0.0.%is spasL Voiilm a B00!D (Me4 1418 6 9S 23 3 975SUds tiimiabk: ToLalie (Il) _Grasas y Acii (mc/) 53 L_3 CAkaL ha Fewa ctYD3C OVAj <1 L C < L
U ka ; To C (mC0o LBO Z79 190 552DU= Tdb C. D3 (m -_ _Cb; Q COU 11 G0 54N;t6pO TOUta N (Wf/4 39. 0 Z 09. 0 5 t11 0 357. 0N T O C. (MCA 175. 0 0D. D 4. 9 34. 0NIgO o0rpaiD C NM (MO 217.0 120.0 47.1 15.0
ByArim C N02 Iwo ; D. 02 C 0. 02 C 0.02 0. 05_ X- C NM IMK/) C 0. 05 <: D. 05 0.1 0.34
Ffroi PBa C voeP04 (MC/n 1. 0 0.9 C 0. 02 13. 7FId Total c L (m/4 :7.5 7.5 t. 25 21.5ISU1raLs c. 9S4 (m2/ Z5. 0. 0 120.0 7.0
.mT (D _ _
a=um (MC A _irm (mg/I_
mwjsio ~~(Mgf/I) - -cm=r ToLal (rrrg/ - -Ihnpne (mg/I) - -
PIa W4 _ ___po' (Me/ - -_
IPDLa4 __D
mDamb udaqim de~ Gug/I 42.2 540 3560 Z11D o (ml/ow- -
hformi TOlea ( 100IimsO F= (NMP/100 A
I;nil- M~sin pam cmrp z=pLom Le Ca ap de aOerd a[
ThehMta Na;Oul paM d bn"-ieiIn d dmM&aLN 1D sLrif.
Case fC Agu indmt : al trnasporie y abjaminiLo de nMiduuLn
JEFE DPTO. LABORATOICS41BU P AC
TABLE C1988--DISIRIBUTION OF TOTAL PWBLIC AMO PRIVATE NAWFACTURINO OUTPUT BY REGION A 3-DIGIT ISIC CWDE
Cuquflsaca La Paz Cochabam Oruro Potosi Tarija Santa Cruz Total3111312 Food Products O.1X 4.7X 3.9X 1.42 0.1X 0.3X 6.22 16.BX
313 leverages 0.32 T.3X 1.9X 0.3X 0.1X 0.2X 1.3X 11.2X314 Tobacco O.0X 1.12 0.02 O.OX O.0X 0.0x 0.02 1.12321 Textiles 0.02 6.82 0.72 0.1X O.OX O.OX 1.3X 8.8X3ZZ Mearing Awerel 0.0X 0.42 0.0 0.0 0.02 0.9O 0.91 0.42323 Leather 0.0X 0.2X 0.2X 0.02 0.02 COX 0.0 O.SX324 Footwear 0.0X 0.02 0.32 0.1X O.OX o.0x o.ox 0.3X331 Wood 0.0X 0.32 0.0 0.0X 0.02 0.0X 3.22 3.SX332 Wooden Furniture 0.02 0.12 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.11 0.12341 Paper Products O.OX 0.12X .22 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.2X 0.52342 Printing A Pihilshirg 0.0S 2.22 0.22 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.31 2.8X351 Industrlil Chelcals O.0X 0.2X 0.02 0.12 O.OX 0.02 0.02 0.3X352 Other Chemcals O.02 2.42 0.5X O.OX O.oX 0.0X 0.1t z.9n353 Petroleum Refining 4.62 0.02 20.12 0.0 O.O2 O.O 10.S 35.2X355 ReAber O.OX 0.02 0.0X 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.0X 0.02356 Plastic Produts O.O 0.61 0.2X 0.12 0.02 0.0X 0.52 1.32362 Gtlss L Products 0.02 0.2X 0.42 O.OX 0.oX O.OX 0.02 0.5X369 Other lon-mtatlc Illn 0.8h 1.6X I.5X O.0X 0.02 O.OX u .3 4.1X371 Iran A Steel *aslc et 0.Ox O.OX 0.0 0.02 0.01, 0.02 9.02 0.02372 Nonfsrrous lasc Metals O.OX O.ZX 0.0o 7.1X 0.2X O.OX O.O T.52351 ietta Products 0.02 0.6X 0.71 0.2X 0.02t 0.0 0.2X 1.52382 onelectric Mchinery 0.0 0.02 0.01 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.12 O.12383 Electrical Machinery 0.0 0.1X 0.1X 0.0 0.0 O.O2 0.01 0.32384 Transport Equirnt 0.01 0.1X 0.0X 0.0X 0.0X 0.0X 0.0X 0.22385 Scientific Equipmnt 00X 0.1X 0.0X 0.0X 0.0X 0.02 0.02 0.12390 Other arnulacturlng 0.0X 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.0X 0.0X 0.0X 0.0X
TOrAL 5.81 29.01 30.92 9.32 0.4X 0.5x 24.12 100.0X
SWUCE: WORLD BANK CALWULA11 ONS BASED ON INE DATA
;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~P-5~~- --- - ~~- - - I~
TABLE D. Enterprises visited in the food industry sector.
Nme location Activity No. of employees
La Francesa Ltda. El Alto Bakery 40Ferrari-Ghezzi Ltda oruro Pasta factory, bakery 22Comp.Ind.Frigorifico S.R.L Cotoca, S.C. Slaughter house 60Ind. Venado S.A. La Paz Yeast factory,
ready-to-eat food 140Soc. Aceitera Oriente .-S.A. Santa Cruz Edible oil, soya and
sunflower flour 238Ind. de Aceite Fino S.A. Santa Cruz Crude edible oil and s6ya-
flour etc. 350Ind. de Aceite Fino S.A. Cochabamba Edible oil refinery 180Granja Avicola S. Bernardo Santa Cruz Chicken farm, prod. of
baby chicken 70
ITotal number of esployees: 11100
TABLE E. Enterprises visited in the beverages sector.
Name location Activity No. of employees
SAGIC S.A. la Paz Alcohol distillery 92Dest. Santa Clara S.R.L. Santa Cruz ALcohol distillery 20Cerv. Boliviana Naciona) la Paz Brewery 650Cerv. Santa Cruz S.A. Santa Cruz Brewery 300Cerv. Taquina S.A. Ohab Brewery 170Malteria Linde S.A. Ccbaa Malt factory 15Embot. Oriental S.A. Oruro Soft drink bottleing 130Embot. Internacional Santa Cruz Soft drink bottleing 60Embot. Unidas Ltda. Santa Cruz Soft drink bottleing 60
Total number of employees 1,500
TABLE F. Enterprises visited in the leather tanning and shoe factory sector.
Name Location Nb. of employees
Curtiembre Illimani Ltda. la Paz 50Cobplejo Industrial Gamboa La Paz 70MACUBoL Ltda. La Paz 70Curtismbre Santa Cruz S.A. Santa Cruz 85Curtienbre Hercules S.R.L. Ccchalamba 70MANCO S.A. Cochabar-ba 520
Tbtal number of employees 865
15.
l
7. MONITORING OF WATER QUALITY IN SANTA CRUZ AND COCHABAMBA
During the survey of industries, a few water samples were collected for
analysis of scme pollution-related parameters. The samples taken in the
Santa Cruz area were analyzed by the SATJGAPAC Waste-water Laboratory, and3 those taken in Cochabamba were analyzed by the Regional Laboratory for Water
Quality Control at the University Mayor de San Simon. The results are
presented in Tables G and H.
The samples taken in the Santa Cruz area were the following:
- B207: Rio Piral, upstream of the sewage works of the city
- B208: Rio Pira;, downstream of the sewage works of the city
- B205: Urban sewage at the entrance of the treatment lagoons
- B204: Urban sewage, effluent from the treatment lagoons
- B210: Discharge frcm the grease trap of the edible oil factory "FINO"
- B209: Combined discharges from the edible-oil factory 'FINO"
- B203: Discharge from the paper mill "lupel"
- B202: Effluent from the facultative lagoon of the slaughter house C.I.
"Frigorifico".
The first four samples, 1-4, taken in the Cochabamba area (Table H) were
taken from Rio Rocha, from 12 km upstream of the city (no. 1) to 23 km down-
stream of the city (no. 4). The remaining 6 samples were all taken from
effluent discharge canals, going to the river.
1
Table Astructure of Bolivian Manufacturing Sector: 1989By Sector, Region, and Type of Ownership
_________-- __-- - - -- - - - -----------__-------------__ __ __--- ____________-
@ SECTOR Private State Distribution olSECTOI Ownership Ownership Total Kfg Outp:
(A) (B)
311/312 Food ProCucts 86.0% 14.0% 19.1%313 Beverages 100.0% 0.0% 10.9*314 Tobacco 100.0% 0.0% 1.0%321 Textiles 94.0% 6.0% 8.6%13 322 Wearing Apparel 100.0% 0.D% 0.4%323 Leather 100.0% 0.O% 0.5%
o 324 Footwear 100.0% 0.0% 0.3%331 Wood 100.0% 0.0% 3.4%332 Wooden Furniture 100.0% 0o.0* 0.i?341 Paper Products 100.0% 0.0% 0.5%342 Printing & Publishing 100.0% 0.0% 2.7t351 Industrial Chemicals 100.0% 0.0% 0.3%352 Other Chemicals 95.1S 4.9% 2.8%353 Petroleum Refining 6.6% 93.4% 34.2%355 Rubber 100.0% 0.0% 0.0%356 Plastic Products l00.0% 0.0%t 1.3%362 Glass & Products 69.6% 30.4% 0.5%369 Other Non-metallic Min 95.3% 4.7% 4.0%371 Iron & Steel Basic Met 100.0% 0.0o 0.0%372 Nonferrous Basic Metal 4.9% 9S.1% 7.3%381 Metal Products 100.0% 0.0%t .4%382 Nonelectric Machinery 100.0% 0.0% 0.1%383 Electrical Machinery 100.0% 0.0% 0.3%384 Transport Equipment 72.2% 27.8% 0.2%385 Scientific Equipment 100.0% 0.0% 0.1%390 Other Manufacturing 100.0% 0.O% 0.0%
100.0%
TABLE BDistribution of Total Output by Region & Type of Ownership
Private StateREGION Ownership Ownership Total
Cochabamba 10.8% 21.3% 32.1%Santa Cruz 14.4% 12.4% 26.7%La Paz 24.3% 0.6% 24.9%Oruro 2.1% 7.1% 9.3%Chuquisaca 3.5% 2.3% 5.9%Tarija 0.5% 0.2% 0.7%Potosi 0.4% O.O% 0.4%
3 TOTAL 55.9% 44.1% 100.0%…----------------------------------------------------------__-
NOTE: Percentages are based on value of production, obtained by the 1989INE manufacturing survey of firms with more than 5 employees.
SOURCE: World Bank Calculations based on Data provided by INE.
13.
4. IMPORTANT INVESTMENT OR EXPANSION PROJECTS
During the visits of the enterprises, the study team was informed about four
major expansion projects, planned or under implementation by the ccmpanies
visited. A currently very expansive industry is the edible oil - soya flour
manufacturing, and two of the biggest ccompnies within this branch are both
implementing major extension projects. In one case, "SAD", an environmental
impact assessment has been made.
The other industrial sector currently involved in expansions of their pro-
duction facilities is the cement and glass industrv. In the case of the
glass bottle industry, "Vidrio Lux", a satisfactory environmental inpact
statement has been prepared, whereas the cement canpany "MOBOCE" has not
prepared any such study to support its current expansion project. It is
strongly recomnended that SENMA requires full environmental impact assess-
ments to be carried out by big enterprises undertaking major expansion
projects. Soee guidelines for preparation of EIAs for cement plants have
been provided by the study team.
While the above mentioned industries are seme examples of growing and campe-
tetive branches in Bolivia, some other branches are less successful. Among
the latter could be mentioned the textile industry and same of the older
leather tanneries, which are currently reducing their production.
5. MODEL ENTERPRISES
The study team has been struck by the fact that although there has usually
so far been very weak pressure fron the authorities on industry to make en-
vironmental and/or safety precautions or to implement a responsible environ-
mental management, several enterprises have installed protective equipment
and can show a high environmental standard. Some of these enterprises could
even be regarded as "model enterprises" in the sense that their solutions
and their environmental prottection and practice could be used by others as
examples to follow. It depends on many factors if a company merits the lable
"model enterprise", e g the expectations are normally higher that a big,
multi-national ccmpany should respect high environmental requirements. A
small caupany could show a high degree of environmental responsibility by
using simple but efficient-anti-pollution technology, and thereby serve as amodel. Based on the survey made, the followirg enterprises have all made
commendable efforts to improve the situation with respect to environmental
protection and/or occupational health and safety:
Ibp
14.
- Ferrari-Ghezzi, Oruro: pasta-factory and bakery
- Ccmnpania Industria Frigorifico, Cotoca, Santa Cruz: slaughter house
- Cerveceria Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz: brewery
- Malteria Linde, Cochabamba: malt factory
- Curtiembre Hercules, Cochabamba: leather tannery
- FANEXA, Cochabamba: explosives factory
- Vidrio Lux, Cochabamba: glass bottle factory
6. MAJOR TARGETS FOR MITIGATION AND IMPROVEMENT OF ENVIROW4XENTAL WANAGEMENT
In the Main Report, Part 6, II, C, four major mitigation measures have been
proposed. These are:
(1) Adequate urban and industrial planning in El Alto
(2) Abatement of the pollution of Choqueyapu River in La Paz
(3) Upgrading the watershed management in Santa Cruz
_ (4) Extending the sewerage systems in Cochabamba.
These are all major undertakings, by necessity involving the Government of
_ Bolivia or - in the cases (3) and (4) - at least the regional Corporations
_ for Development. The suggested measures also need considerable investment,
possibly also foreign aid. However, there are a great number of simple,
short-term mitigation measures that could be taken without incurring any
major costs, and which could be implemented irmediately as some kind of
pilot projects in cooperation between SENMA, the regional or local environ-
mental authorities and the relevant industrial organizations or individual
ccmpanies. Examples of such immiediate measures are:
- inspection and upgrading of the effluent treatment facilities of the
sugar mills in the Santa Cruz region well before the next "zafra";
- issuing of clear requirements for scoping of EIAs and enforcement of
a an EIA clearance procedure for campanies with major expansion pro-
jects in progress or being planned;
- environmental auditing of the major enterprises discharging high
anounts of organic waste (such as big breweries, yeast factory, milk
product factories, slaughter houses, distilleries, vegetable oil fac-
tories) and based on that, establish individual mitigationi plans;
- work out plans for saving of water, pretreatment of waste-water to
reduce or eliminate haza7dous cortpryaaits, and for safe utilization of
industrial effluents in irrigation or crops;
- work out programs for ccmpensation of those involved in recovery and
a recycling of wastes to obtain sustainable use of resources.
j ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1.1.
scale foundries or metal-processing units, having a workforce in the range
of 17-40. In addition, a medium-sized plant was visited, "Fabrica Acerbol
Ltds." with 100 employees and working partly with galvanization, thereby
causing a potential impact on water resources. In this case, the total
amount of contaminants being discharged seems to be quite small, but there
is an urgent need to inform the management about fundamentals in environmen-
tal management and the authorities need to exercise a closer control of the
operation, in crder to improve the general shop-keeping.
The very big tin and antimony smelter of "Vinto" with about 800 employees,
is currently undertaking a program for a major upgrading of its environmen-
tal protection equipment through a German aid grant of USS 5.3 million. At
the conclusion of this rehabilitation program, the atmospheric emissions of
arsenic trioxide will be significantly reduced and the existing waste-water
treatment plant will have a largely increased capacity. The environmental
impacts in the surroundings of the "Vinto" smelter have been and still are
very severe, mainly caused by the huge emissions of arsenic and sulfur
oxides, polluting soil, water, crops and wildlife and causing a considerable
Uf health hazard to nearby human populations. It is now extremely important
that the campetent authorities follow up the consequences of the rehabilita-
J tion program undertaken at the smelter. In cooperation with national and
international experts, it should launch a broad monitoring program, covering
all relevant envirormental media (air, surface water, ground water, soil and
biota, including crops and human be-ings), in order to closely follow the
reduction in exposure to toxic oontaminants. This kind of monitoring data
will be necessary as a basis for decisions on further restoration measures
to be carried out in the area under the heaviest pollution load. More
details on the environmental situation of the "Vinto" smelter are summarized
in the Main Report, Part 4, III, E:4.
One more example will be given fran this sector, namely "Hbormet S.A." in La
Paz, which is a foundry and recycling plant for old lead batteries. In
addition to new lead batteries, the campany is producing lead profiles and
tubes. The production, which is based on the principle of sustainability,
| presents a high environmental risk, due to the many hazardous chemicals
being used in the process, and due to the potential impact of heavy metals
in the emissions to the atmosphere and in the effluent discharges to Rio
Choqueyapu. However, the manager has demanstrated a high degree of awareness
about environmental risks and has implemented various measures for environ-
mental protection, e g apparently an adeguate air pollution control equip-
ment. The main deficiency is the lack of regular monitoring of potential
dangerous components in effluents and in stacks.
12.
3. INDUSTRIAL ESTATE DEVELOPMENTS
The only well-developed industrial estate currently existing in Bolivia is
located in the northeastern outskirts of the city of Santa Cruz. By the end
of 1989, some 250 hectares were developed and about 150 industries are
| installed in the area. The municipality has provided basic infrastructure
(roads, energy and water supply, sewer systen and storm water collector) and
is operating a collective waste-water treatment plant, serving the indust-
ries and some nearby housing areas. The organization and operation of this
industrial estate could serve as a model for other municipalities irn the
country. Nonetheless, there are many improvements that could be achieved
also in the Santa Cruz industrial estate. In order to keep the waste-water
treatment and pumping costs under control, the municipality has a clear
interest to curbe any excessive water consumption. A problem is also that
scme enterprises extract groundwater for use in their process, and after use
this water is released into the waste-water sewer, possibly without paying
the full charge to the water cmpany, SAGUAPAC. Furthermore, same industries
U discharge wastes that may hanm the biological processes in the collective
treatment plant, e g chromium salts from same of the tanneries. Therefore, a
X program for regular inspection of all industries in the estate should be
established, in order to check amount of goundwater extraction, occurrence
of waste infiltration into the ground, measure waste-water flow and existen-
ce of harmful wastes. In cases where water consumption is excessive or where
toxic or other harmful wastes are discharged to the sewer (or infiltrated
into the ground), the enterprises should be required, within a defined tine
frame, to present concrete plans for remediatiom. Technical advice on
feasible and economic solutions should be provided by SAGUAPAC and/or its
associated bodies (CORDECRUZ, SEARPI, SENMA, universities, etc.).
Some initiatives to set up industrial estates have also been taken in Oruro,
El Alto and Cochabamba. All these are more or less deficient, perhaps the
most flagrant example being the so-called industrial estate in El Alto,
where there is no guarantee of land rights and no provision of basic servi-
ces such as electricity, water supply or sewer system. Since there is a
strong pressure from industry to move into this area, and since the overall
environmental situation in El Alto is very precarious, it is urgently needed
that:-the locaL authorities, in cooperation with the central government, take
a global approach to remediate the situation.
In the industrial estates of Oruro and Cochabamba, there are still relative-
J ly few industries installed. In order to attract industries to these areas,it may be necessary to improve planning and infrastructure development.
'ha
9.
"Quimbol" is a fairly modern facility, using adequate technology to produce
scme 150 tonnes/month each of soap and detergents and, in addition, several
auxiliary products. The sewer of the plant is equipped with a trap for
recovery of grease and then a sedimentation basin, but no secondary waste-
water treatment is carried out. Instead, the effluent is utilized in an
irrigation scheme, and it was reported that there are no discharges to any
| river. The lack of monitoring of the waste-water flow and quality made it
difficult to assess the degree of environmental problems, if any.
PAs a large and modern factory of explosives, "FANEXA" has a very advanced
risk management and safety organizatior. Also the environmental mnagmcnt
has a high standard, including the waste-water treatment system. The company
has an important role to play as a guide and instructor to other big
comnpanies in the field of environmnxtal and risk management.
The third big enterprise in this group, "PLASMAR", has practically no orga-
nization for environmental management. However, the water pollution problems
are relatively limited.
One more example from this sector may be given, although it is a small-scale
operation with only 11 employees. "Jake Oil S.R.L." is collecting waste oil,
j mainly lubricant oil, which is treated with sulfuric acid in the presence of
catalysts in order to produce hydraulic oil and other oil products. This
recycling of an otherwise non-renewable resource is in accordance with the
principle of sustainability. Although the activity creates relatively high
environmental risks, the manager sesms to be well aware of the needs for
environmental protection. However, the lack of environmental monitoring
makes it difficult to assess the environmental impacts of the operation.
2.7 Petroleum refining
The waste-water treatment facilities at the two big YPFB refineries, in
Palmasola (Santa Cruz) and Valle Hermoso (Cochaban*ba) are briefly described
in the Main Report, Part r, III, D:l-d. In both cases, the equipment for
waste-water treatment seems to be fairly adequate. However, the operation
and daily maintenance of the equipment could and should be improved, in
order to optimize the treatment results. The amount of water pollutants
being discharged from the Palmasola Refinery are low, according to a spot
sample, taken in january 1993. The effluents from the main waste-water
treatment plant in Valle Hermoso also seem to be low in contaminants.
However, a check made in the canal leading from the refinery to a tributary
10. *
to Rio Rocha indicated that there might be additional outlets fran the re-
finery, since the transport of contaminants in this canal (550 kg BOD5 /day,
800 kg organic solids/day) is much higher than what goes out fran the main
treatment plant.
The authorities should require a full report of all points of emission frcm
1 the two refineries, both to water and air, as well as a full account of the
solid waste disposal practices. A program for regular mnmitoring of waste-
water effluents should be agreed upon with YPFB, and the ccompetent authority
should furtherzore make pericdical sampling and analysis in the canals or
st-eams "outside the fence".
2.8 Glass and other non-metallic minerals
In this sector, three large (the glass factory "Vidrio Lux Ltda." and two
cement plants, "SOBOCE" and "CDOBcE") and one small enterprise ("Famalit-
Fibrolit") wre visited. Currently, the four plants have together 860
uemployees, but two of the enterprises are implementing quite important
expansion projects, which will increase the workforce significantly. None of
3 these industries have any important water pollution problmns, but until
recently, the enormus emissions to the atmosphere of dust caused a complete
transformation of the surroundings, including the water quality in streams
and rivers. However, COBOCE installed a bag filter three years ago, and
SOBOCE an electrostatic precipitator, one year ago, measures which have
significantly reduced the previously unacceptably high envirorxental impact
caused by the two cement plants. In connection with the expansion project of
COBOCE (capacity to be increased 3 times), there are also plans to increase
the capacity of the filters and other dust controlling equipment. However,
no environmental impact study has been carried out by the company in support
of the expansion project. On the other hand, "Vidrio Lux" has prepared a
fairly complete impact study in connection with its plans to build a new,
larger furnace. The enviroomental impact study provided by 'Vidrio Lux"
3 could be used by SENMA as a basis for establishing minimunm requirenents for
an EIS in connection with a major expansion project.
2.9 Basic metals and metal products
Within this group there is on one hand the very big basic non-ferrous metal
smelting plant Vinto, in the vicinity of Cruro, and on the other four small-
'A
7.
ling, recovery and safe disposal of solid wastes, separate and economic
treatment of most harmful waste streams - all achieved by means of relative-
ly sirFie and cheap, but often quite ingenious measures within the plant)
means a considerable reduction of the water pollution caused by the tannery
and that the established, individual effluent limits are complied with. The
lesson to be learnt from this example is that upgrading of the environmental
I situation can be achieved very efficiently in Bolivia through a confiding
dialogue and cooperation between industry and authorities, provided:
- the authority sets a clear and realistic envirormnental goal, and for-
mulates the rules and sactions needed to enforce its policy;
- the authority has sufficient knowledge about the local conditions and
the technical know-how to be able to advice industry about viable so-
lutions in a climate of mutual understanding and cooperation;
- industry has aquired basic understanding about the need for environ-
mental management, has adopted a sound environmental policy, and has
access to sufficient technical competence to implement and operate
rational and econcmic solutions to pollution abatement.
ii Among the remaining tanneries visited, two other examples merit some
ccaients. In one case, "Curtiembre Santa Cruz S.A.", a medium-sized opera-
tion producing 70 % finished leather and 30 % wet-blue, with a capacity of
5,000-9,000 raw hides per day, the coampany operated a complete, although
simple, waste-water treatment plant, in spite of the lack of any particular
pressure from the authorities. The environmental policy of this company
apparently was inspired by pressure from the local people not to pollute the
near-by river. As a consequence, the company installed systems for recovery
of solid wastes, segregated acid and alkaline liquors for separate treatment
in 2x2 flocculation and sedimentation basins, followed by two large stabili-
zation lagoons for each of the waste streams. There is no direct discharge
to the river; the effluent evaporates or percolates into the ground.
Although the ground water quality is not monitored, the company runs a regu-
lar monitoring program to check the quality of its effluents. Thus, this
example shows how a oompany has taken a number of vemmindable initiatives,
1 apparently without being pushed to do so by the authorities. The second
example, "MACUBOL" in La Paz, is a fairly modern and efficient tannery,
where the staff has a high technical competence and the management a general
interest and know-how in the field of environmental protection. However, the
reason why no concrete anti-pollution measures were taken and only a very
rudimentary waste-water treatment was installed was said to be the complete
lack of environmental regulations and limit values enforced by the authori-
J ties. A brief description of some of the waste treatment installations in
the tanning industry in Bolivia is given in the Main Report, Part f,III,D:1d.
8.
2.5 Paper products, printing and publishing
Two large paper industries were visited, "La Papelera S.A." in La Paz with
about 600 employees and "Industria Crucena del Papel (Kupel) Ltda." in Santa
Cruz with 280 employees. The main manufacturing operations in the first
mentioned plant are finishing paper and plastic products, i.e. basically dry
j operations, which do not cause any water pollution. However, at the same
production site, there is a small cardboard machine, producing same 5 t/day
of low-quality cardboard from waste paper collected mainly within the plant.
There is no particular treatment of the waste-water fran the cardboard pro-
duction, and since it is a small-scale unit with almost artisanal manufac-
turing and relatively low water consumption, the envirornental inpact is low.
The situation is rather different in the case of "Kupel", which is producing
400 tonnes/month of sanitary paper and corrugated medium fran recycled waste
paper and imported pulp. The waste paper used as raw material consists of
newsprint and cardboard, which is dissolved in a hydropulper (without
deinking) before the paper machine. With an approximate water consumption of
_ 170 m'/t, the average daily water use is 1,700 m3 Based on an occasional
water sample taken in january 1993, the pollution load can be estimated at:
COD - 6 tonnes/day, suspended solids - 4.3 t/day, and oil and grease - 350
kg/day. The fibre losses are extremely high (up to 40 % of the production),
due to the lack of any fibre recovery unit. This certainly is very bad
economy, and furthermore adds an unacceptably high amount of organic waste
to the collective waste-water treatment plant of the industrial estate in
Santa Cruz. The "Kupel" paper mill does not only lack a sedimentation basin
for fibre recovery, it also lacks all other kinds of waste-water treatment.
The third enterprise visited in this group was the large printing house "El
Diario" in la Paz. There are no problems related to the external environment.
2.6 Industrial and other chemicals, plastic Eroducts
3 This is a very disparate sector, ccmprising several small units with only
limited environmental impact, in addition to the three larger enterprises,
"Quimbol S.A." (soap and detergent factory in Cochabamba), "FANEXA S.A.M."
(explosives factory in Cochabamnba), and "PLASMAR S.A." (plastic products
factory in El Alto). The nine enterprises visited altogether count 570
employees, where each of the three mentioned has more than 100.
;
5.
environmental protection and managemnt by the biggest brewery in the
country, a production unit which is today deliberately polluting the river
passing through the whole city of La Paz. One aspect which must be taken
into account is the specific water consumption in the brewery, which in some
cases can be significantly reduced, in order to facilitate the waste-
water treatment. For example, in the National Bolivian Brewery, the water
consumption is currently about 6 m3/m3 of beer, while the factor water:beer
could be brought down to 2-4 in sane modern units in Europe. Another
interesting solution to the waste-water problem has been chosen by Taquina
rewery in Cochabamba, wtere the untreated effluents are utilized in an
irrigation scheme run together with a fanmer cooperative, which is also
supplied with clean water frcm the mountains by the brewery's water supply
system. The nutrients in the brewery effluent can thus directly serve a
productive purpose and river pollution is practically eliminated.
Tne soft drink bottleing factories are usually not causing any significant
water pollution problems. The main reumnmendation to these plants would be
to keep the sanitary waste-water separated from the process waste-water so
that the first category can be treated at least in septic tanks with
adequate design.
2.3 Textiles
Only two textile plants were visited, one big facility in La Paz ("Forno
S.A."), producing woolen goods, e.g. blankets and acrylic fabrics, and one
smaller plant in Santa Cruz ("Inaltex Ltda."), producinmg cotton products,
including sanitary napkins. The two plants had together a workforce of 230,
but the number of employees in "Forno' was rapidly diminishing, from about
500 to the present 180. The most water polluting activity at "Forno" is the
washing of the raw wool, producing a waste-water which is very rich in
grease and contains high concentrations of BOD5, COD and suspended solids.
In a study carried out in 1983 (Diaz Benavente, 1985), it was estimated that
the daily discharges fran the wool washing department at "Forno" were 50 kg
I of BOD5, 170 kg of COD and 550 kg of suspended solids. Since then, the
production has been significantly reduced and recovery of grease is current-
ly carried out from the sedimentation basin, where the effluents are treated.
Washing soap is also recovered and recycled in the process. The remaining
wet processes, including scouring, bleaching and dying are nowadays carried
out in a fairly small scale and are only occasionally contributing at a sig-
nificant degree to the pollution of Rio Choqueyapu. The sedimentation basin
J for effluent treatment is currently being upgraded.
6.
2.4 Leather tanning and footwear manufacturinq
In this sector, which traditionally is considered as very polluting, six
plants were visited (see Table F) covering a wide range of technical and
environmental standard, and representing widely differing levels of ccmpe-
tence and environmental awareness shown be the management. One extreme
3 within the sample of tanneries was the 'CObplejo Industrial Gamboa" .uith
entirely obsolete equipint, a virtually ccmplete lack of planning and
organization of the work and without any environmental awareness or precau-
tion. The employees were leaving the place (the workforce was reduced to
less than a half in two months) and the only rational thing to do appeared
to be an imnediate close-down of the plant.
Also in this sector, like in the brewery sector, there was an example of &.biq
and very competetive company, which did not camply with a minimal environ-
mental responsibility, while some of the smaller campanies in the same
sector made considerable efforts in the field of environmental protection.
The big leather tanning and footwear manufacturing company "Manaco" is not
properly coping with the environmental requireents that can be put on a big
firm with international connections. It is reasonable to assume that an
adequate know-how must exist within the ccmpany in the field of environmen-
tal management and precaution, but this know-how was not implemented. For
example, the design of the waste-water sewerage system (seperation and sepa-
rate treatment of different types of wastes) was deficient, the recovery of
by-products or reutilization of wastes were not optimal, the operation of
the waste-water treatment plant was clearly sub-optimal and sane waste
streams were discharged to the river without treatment, and the final dispo-
sal of solid wastes was caopletely out of control of the caopany. Also in
the occupational health sector, there were several deficiencies. One of the
main problems was the great difficulty to obtain correct data (or any data
at all) on production, water consumption, amuunts of wastes and other envi-
j troriental aspects, which all indicates a lack of real caomitment in the
field of enviroxnental management. This obviously is a case to follow up by
the central as well as the local environmental authorities.
In addition to the above mentioned two lamentable cases, there are at least
a couple of tanneries where important efforts to protect the environment
have been carried out. Perhaps the most spectacular example is fran Cbcha-
bamba, where "Curtiembre Hercules S.R.L." has implemented a number of very
commendable environmental protection measures, as a result of a combination
of specific, goal-oriezted pressure based on economic incentives and techni-
cal advice and support frau the local authority (SEMAPA). The results
obtained through this cooperation (saving of water through increased recyc-34
3.
site (SAO), while the other one (FINO) carried out the grinding, extraction
and flour production in Santa Cruz, and oil refining was made in Ccchabamba.
In all three plants the waste-water treatment system was under-dimensioned
and without proper maintenance, and the solid waste management was clearly
deficient. Industries of the actual size certainly can afford an adequate
environmental planning and management, similar to the industrial safety and
risk reduction programs in operation in both enterprises and related to the
use of n-hexane as a solvent for oil extraction. The oil and grease
separators existing in all chree plants, must be upgraded and subject to
regular maintenance by skilled staff. However, oil and grease separaLors dLe
not sufficient as the only water pollution abatement equipment in this type
of industry. They must be supplemented by adequate sedimentation units,
followed by stabilization lagoons to reduce the high BOD load of the efflu-
ents. It can also be mentioned that the Environmental Impact Study presented
by SAO to support its application for expansion of the production (a new
factory with three times higher production was to be ready by april 1993)
did not ccmply with minimLn quality requirements for an EIS on a project of
this size. The environmental consequences of the expansion and the need for
upgrading of environmental protection measures should be assessed in much
greater detail and be supported by measured data.
"Cmnplejo Industrial Frigorifico" (CIF) is a slaughter house, where the
manager has an exceptionally high degree of environmental awareness. In
spite of the lack of any pressure frcm environmental authorities, the system
for recovery and reutilization of by-products as well as the waste-water
management has been organized in an excellent way. The waste-water, after
separation of grease, feces and other solids, is treated in two lagoons in
series, one anaerobic and one facultative, with an overall retention time of
3 months. This kind of solution, set up at the plant in Santa Cruz (Cotoca),
could serve as a model for other slaughter houses in the country, especially
for the municipal slaughter house in La Paz, which is probably the second
worst polluter of Rio Choqueyapu.
Another industry, belonging to the very heavy polluters of the same river in
La Paz, is "Industrias Venado S.A.", producing both yeast and various kinds
of "ready-to-eat' food. In the middle of the 1980s, it was reported that the
effluents from the yeast plant held 2,000-3,000 mg/i of BMO5 (Penaranda,
1985). In addition, these effluents are very high in phosphorus (15-30 mg/1)
and nitrate-nitrogen (500-1,000 mg/1), contributing strongly to the eutro-
phication of the river. No waste-water treatment whatsoever is in operation,
and the interest by the management in environmental protection seems to be
miniimal.
4.
2.2 Beverages
Tnis sector, which is 100 % private, takes a significant share of the total
minufacturing output in Bolivia, and is particularly strong in the La Paz
region, but is quickly growing in Santa Cruz. The nine enterprises visited
had a total workforce of 1,500 and they represent three main categories:
alcohol distilleries, breweries (and one malt factory) and soft drink manu-
facturers. The production plant of one of the enterprises, "Destileria Santa
Clara S.R.L." in Santa Cruz, was not visited due to construction work in
progress. The enterprises included in the study are presented in Table E.
Tne manager of the above mentioned distillery showed a very open attitude
and had a high degree of environmental awareness. The plant started
operation in 1992, and all the eguipment for environmental protection was
not yet installed, although it was said that plans were established to do so.
These plans included a system for recovery and burning of half of the
bagasse (2,500 t/year) in the boiler and a system for hydrolysis of the
remaining bagasse in order to sell it as cattle feed. In the future, the
waste liquor will be evaporated and used as a fertilizer. For the time being,
the waste-waters (64 m 3/day) are treated in a simple stabilization lagoon,
v from which there are no effluents during the dry season (evaporation and
infiltration). The general strategy for solving the environmental problems
by recovery of by-products and minimizing the wastes that need treatment is
interesting, and it is strongly rezc-mnended that SENMA as well as the local
environmental authorities follow up the future developmerit at this plant.
Tne second distillery visited, "SAGIC S.A." in La Paz, does not practice any
recycling or waste-water treatment. It is, howevr,. not well known how large
the pollution load on the receiving river, Rio Choqueyapu, is at present.
Four breweries have been studied, three of then were visited by the team,
and one was described in the report by SEARPI (1991). These four breweries
represent very different levels of environmental standard. While two of the
breweries ("Cer-mceria Boliviana Nacional S.A." and "Cerveceria Taquina S.A.")
do not perf%rm any waste-water treatment at all - or only a very primitive
treatment - at least one brewery ('Cerveceria Santa Cruz S.A.") has a well-
designed and well operating treatment system. The situation is described in
the Main Report, Part j-, III, D:l-d, "Wastewater treatment in Bolivia". The
lesson to be learned from this example is that the Santa Cruz Brewery is
still operating on the market and is quite ccmpetitive, although the company
supports the costs of an investnmnt in a highly sophisticated waste-water
treatment system as well as the daily operation costs of the system. Conse-
quently, there is no reason not to require at least a similar level of
1. INTRODUWCTION
Campared to the primary sectors of the Bolivian economy, agriculture and the
extraction of minerals and hydrocarbons, the manufacturing sector plays a
relatively less important role. In 1991, this sector accounted for 13.5 % of
3 GDP, to be compared with 21 % for agriculture, 9 % for mineral extraction,
and CS5 % for hydrocarbon extraction. The Bolivian figure for the manufac-
turing industry could also be cocpared with the average contribution to GDP
in Latin America, which is 25 %.
It is obvious that the manufacturing capacity utilization in Bolivia has
been fairly low during the 1980s, but in the last few years, the capacity
utilization rates have been increasing, as has the total manufacturing
output. In particular, the contribution of the manufacturing industry to the
generation of export income to the count-y has increased sharply. According
to available data, the export value of the sector grew from about 110
million US$ in 1986 to about 300 million USS in 1990. The latter year, the
value represents 32 % of the total revenue for the country.
The great majority of enterprises in Bolivia are very small, having less
than 5 employees. Out of a total of more than 12,000 enterprises, it is
estimated that only some 1,300 - 1,500 have 5 or more employees and can be
considered as true "industries". It is obvious that the very small enter-
prises are almost exclusively private, and although they are numerous, they
are most likely relatively insignificant in terms of total value of produc-
tion. The small-scale enterprises are mainly active in the sectors food,
textiles, wearing apparel, metal products and wood and wood products.
The real industries in the manufacturing sector are mainly involved in
processing of primary products: As shown in Table A, petroleum refining,
food processing, beverages, basic non-ferrous metals and non-metallic mine-
rals together accounted for over 75 % of total manufacturing output in 1989.
State-owned enterprises dominate petroleum refining and the basic non-
ferrous metal industry (mainly primary smelters), and state ownership is
3 also important in the food industry, when considering its output in absolute
value. The state enterprises in the food sector comprise e.g. sugar mills
and milk products factories. As a whole for the country, the state-owned
manufacturing industry accounted for about 44 % of the total manufacturing
output (from industries with more than 5 employees) in 1989. However, about
32 of these 44 % (a fraction of 73 %) were represented by the petroleum re-
fining output from the refineries owned by the state ccmpany "Yacimientos
Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos" (YPFB).
2.
If the petroleum refining and the nonferrous basic metal sector (mainly the
tin and antimDny smelter Vinto, near Oruro), representing 7 % of the total
industrial output, are omitted, the state-owned industry represents only 5 %
of the total industrial output in the country. The private industry (with
more than 5 employees) has its strongest development in the La Paz - El Alto
area (about 43 % of the total), followed by Santa Cruz (25 U, Cochabamba
(19 %), Chuquisaca and Cruro (see Table B and C). However, the average size
(or output) of the enterprises is greater in La Baz than in, for example,
Santa Cruz, where there is a great amount of small units producing food,
uccden products or other manufactured goods. This means that Santa Cruz
accounts for about 38 % of the total number of industrial enterprises, while
La Paz only accounts for about 24 %.
Out of the approximately 1,300 industrial enterprises (with more than 5
employees) in Bolivia, scme 50 were visited during the walk-through surveys
carried out in november 1992 and january-february 1993. Although this repre-
sents less than 4 % of all enterprises in the country, the visited plants
covered well over 25 % of the total industrial mark-force. It is also quite
clear that most of the biggest industrial working places in the country were
included in the sample of plants visited. In fact, 46 % of the plants had
more than 100 employees each, and three plants had more than 500 employees.
_ A detailed account of the findings is given in check list forms in Annex.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS AND WAIER POLLUTION IN THE BOLIVIAN MANUFACTURING
INDUSTRY
2.1 Food products
Interviews were held with representatives of eight enterprises, and the
production units were visited in all cases except one (Sociedad Aceitera del
Oriente S.A., SAD), where a major expansion project was being ipisuented.
The eight plants sampled had together a workforce of 1,100, and covered a
relatively broad area of activities (see Table D).
33 Traditionally, the most polluting food industries are sugar mills, dairy and
milk product factories, slaughter houses, yeast factories and edible oil
factories. Since the sugar mills were out of operation at the time of our
mission to Santa Cruz, they could not be included in our surveys. Also milk
products factories were excluded fron our survey. However, these industries
have been surveyed in a recent project by SEARPI of Santa Cruz (SEARPI, 1991).
Of the two edible oil producers, one carried out grinding, extraction, pre-
paration of soya and sunflower flour, and refining of the oil at the same
APPENDIX IV. 1i1
SECrORAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MINING AND INDUSTRIALSECTORS IN BOLIVIA
t ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION IN BOLIVIAN MANUFACTURINGINDUSTRY
by Lars Landner
I
I
I
Table 4. AnaytIcal results of river sediments. All values, except pHI In mgjl. Locations according toFig.2. Labortory: MM, Onro.
Sample No. E42. E73 E74 E75 E77 Egl E82 E84Al ~~~15. is. iS. 19. 4. 1.25. 2.
a- - a - - a
Cd 9. 9L 73. 2&6 51. | 7. 95. 1.
23C& 365. |7?, TM 471 401| 567. 25.
ha r 90. 5S00. 315. 2150. 9S0 1T00. 2650. 495.
Pb 181. 935. 410. 110M 24L. 74C| 732. 30.
Sb _: 712 9. 205 _ T332. 19
" 1 2105. 3130L 2200 770 1630 z T a 27300 . 69
; eextemely high lead contamination should rcpresent a particular rst concerning the health of thosechilden who are living in the neighbohood. The possible contmimnion with cyanide, xanthats oroter reagents from the small plants (Table 2) Is another anxiety, which has not been investigated in anydetail by us.lhe risk is imminent, though, because of the rate haphazard process control in most of thesmall plants.
- -The waste situation in fte adjoining mining centecs of Parco and San Diego is less problematic as theseoperations are separated from the civil populauon and ambitious envronmental programs have beeninitiated by COMSUR. the owner. However, mtaor pmblems regarding old wam remain to be solved.The operations at Kumurana and Andacaba are e nly more problematic, as presented inchapter VI.A of the main report and App. IV:7.
Snummary of environmental coucerns The city of Potosi is totaly dependent on mining for itssurvival and no viable alternatives are in sigbt In this situation of crsis, state autboritles have beenforced to aid in establishing minin cooperatives. This type of smail scale mining follows very oldtraditions. It is kmown for example tha in the eighteenth centuy the Cerro Rico had more than 3000entrances. Exploitation methods used today are only slighly differe from tose of that age. Ihus, amajor part of the work *xrce consists of daily paid workers earing less than the equivalent of 2 USSper day and having no socia security. With such a widespred misey and a municipality with scarceresources, the neglect and Indifference regarding environmental questions may be und able.
I8
;
The present precarious environmental situation in the city of Potosi can be summarized in the foUowingmain points:
- The lack of town planning and control, allowing conaon plant operations in the cenraparts of the city.- The social problem of having tens of thousands of people worling unde utmost primitive anddangeous conditions in undegound mines.- The dischare of acid mine water without previous eatment into a river which Is runnngthrough an urbanized area
j - Ihe ree discharge of waste from concentration plants into rivers within the city boundaries.- The lack of a sewage system, household waste waters being discharged directly into rivercauseways within the city.- The heavy pollution of a river system with minaon reaching far away firom the source.
AUl of these aspects are obviously unacceptable, both from a sanitary and an environmental point ofI view. However, due to the intimate social connection, it is very difficult to isolate any one of theseproblems for separate remediation. The soluxtion will have to be sought in general ovemall planning and
-1 economic development Certain foreign companies have stAdied the possibilty of exploiting the upperparts of the Cerr Rico mountain by large scale, open pit mining. However, as yet no detailed feasibilitystudy has been carried out. One major problem is the resistance among the population against theremoval of part of their "holy" mountain. Neither would such an operation be very pemeonnel intensive,so it would not solve the unemployment problem. On the other hand it could restore relative posperityto the city of Potosi and open up for the possibilities of resolving, among other things, theenvironmental problems.
7J
II
9
as well as in the bottom sediments (Fable 3 and Table 4). The values in wat vary betweea(approximately): arsenic 4-13 mgn , cadmium 0.8-1.6 mgAl, copper 14-44 gll, lead 13-50 mgQ and zinc120-358 mg/l. This is ten to onc hundred times the common internationally used norms for miningeffluents (see Table 2:5 in the main report). Note the very marked contrast to wats in rivers which arenot being conminte by minlng/ poesing activities. Still 20 km downsteam from the city, whereff river passes the newly constructed municipal hot spring baths at Tarapaya, the water is heavilypolluted.
The amount of suspended solids, almost exclusively originating from pollution, is ukewise excedinglyhigh, namely 15-30 gll where the river leaves the urban ara and still 5-10 g/ at Tarapaya. Ptesmingthe approximate content of 20 g/l of suspended solids and an estimated water flow in the river of 0.25m3/s, this would give a transport of solids of around 200 tons per day. TIis is fairly low compared to apreumed dischge from the Potosi plants of 500-1000 tons per day, the difference probably being dueto such factors as possible up-stream retention of material (during the prvailing season of low flow),variadon of discharge during the day, too few samples to get a reliable average, or an e=ror i ouresdmation of the wate flow.
Based on the available figures. the annual transport of heavy metals in wae solution fiom Potoi intothe neaby valley amounts to more than 35 tons of arsenic, 4 tons of cadmium, 80 tons of copper, 200tons of lead, 12 tons of antimony and 800 tons of zinc Presuming lhat the composition of thesusended solids is similar to the composition of the sediment samples (Table 4), tne tansport of metalsin suspension would be of the same order of magnitude as that of metas in solution
J Te source of the metals should be a combination of beneficiation plant dischrge. mine water andmetals leached from old waste. In fact there is a tendency for an increased content of dissolved metalsdown-stream. which would indicate leaing of metals from the river bed sediments (old waste).
It should be emphasized that there are many unceaint concering tefi gures, as well as theconclusions, drawn above. They should serve perfecy well, however, for d ang general edsand indicating the magnitude of the problem.
The consequence of the heavy contamination is a river devoid of flora and fauna and a water which isunsuitable for human consumptin or irrigation puposes for es (or hundreds?) of kilometers along theriver course. Ihis is in contrast to the thiving agricultural activities along the -Rio LUmpioc (samplelocation E83). In this river also small scale fish farming ocQltS. Ihe rsticted cultivation in the AljaMayo river is due to a combination of relatively rough tpography, contaminatd water and the previousdredging of the valley botom for a dista of about ten kilometers. Thc exisdng smaill scale farming isobviously using the conminated water for irgation. Within the city boundaries, the rver has thecharacter of a discharge sewage drain in which pigs and other anmals are moving around. The
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6
d.
Table 3. Analytical results of water samples. All values, except pH, in mgIl. Locations according toFig.2. Laboratory: 11MMK Oruro.
Sample No. E42 E72 E73 E74 E75 E77 E78
pH 23 3L3 3.9 2.6 4.4 S9 7.8
suspended sothb 3529. 18. 537. 3359. 15230. 14350. 22.
Disolved solds 44690. 69. 3U3. 8 2-7. 2427 46D.
AS 035 0O.O 4.09 4.50 13.0 92 0.0O
Cd 14. 0.00 0.27 I.6 0.75 0.82 0.0
Cr 020 0.00 0o04 023 0.15 0.16 0.00
Cu 252. 0.00 2.23 43S 20.3 19.8 0.01
Fe 5294. 0.39 97.0 1162. 374. 33S. 1.4
Ma 24.3 0.06 5.4 29. 27. 22. 029
Ni 1.30 0.00 0.07 0.63 028 0.30 0.03
Pb 0.13 0.00 24.8 16.7 35.2 13.0 OIS
Sb 0.35 0.15 0.30 125 1.55 1.3 0.10
Z 2942. 0.0 12.6 35S. 120 161. 0.06
So. 7504. 3.0 107. S032. 3352. 1473. 60.
Sample No. E8I E82 E83 EM E85
pH 5.1 5.0 32 53 7.3
Suspended solids 13930. 30600. 36. 3436. 6542.
Disolved sobs 27s. 3098. 480 I136. 1357.
As 8.70 O.O
Cd 1.35 0.77 0.00 017 0.14
Cr 0.21 0.19 0Om 0.07 O.W
Cu 13.3 14.0 02 4M 335
Fe 371. 203. 2.6 53. 48.
Mm 13.4 18.6 0.0 5.4 S.4
Ni 0.40 C30 0.02 0.09 O0A0
Pb 49.6 50.0 0.00 45 7.78
Sb 2.85 3.00 0.25 0.9S 0.75
3Z 302. 192. 0.5 292 1.4
SO. 1623. 1860. 168. 696. 657.
7
gs
S W *~~~~~~~ONW pH7
I~~~~~~~~~I.JAll vales, excpt pH,an mgil Lambortr:1M,Ouo
P14 an~ ~ ~ ~
J~~~~~~dL NU
Table 2. Production and process data for a number of small beneficiation plants opemting within thetown of Potosi. Data are approximate due to the frequent change of ore feed, doslfication of reagentsand plant utilization (November 1992).
Sa Miuel r,amaku pan YUnd Ancbi Sa Fra- TuntocoMinals P zoi
Capwkyiiyd 40 so so IO0 20 24 ISO
PNrduct ZnIAg Zn/Ag APbAg Zn/Ag ZWI/g Zn/Ag WaAg_ (PAg) Pb/Ag _ Pb/Ag Pb/Ag
Ptace.u Flosazi Fklojaon Flaazmk FlatEla Floatauim Floxatioa RWatd.
Xautbae gA 100 40 100 450 ISO 125 250
CuS04 Sh 600 200 360 700 275 125 500
Z7SO4 gA 40
FroihgA 25 15 30 36 vades 30 150
LIme gA 13000 B000 12000 5000 B000 19000 5000
Cyaide &h 12 45 40 s0 25
ProcezpH 11.5 11.5 1 71 105
Wer elm 2.2 23 3.1 21
Wower aUM Muniipal Waste w. Wat w. Municipl Sewp Municipal Waste w.
Recrcuation% 10 10 50 75 70
WSr. solid eam Riv River River River River Rie Pnd
Wasbt water and solid wastes. Most waste water produced within the city goes unteated into the smallrivers which join downstram to form the Alja Mayo river (Fig.2). TIbs includes the very acd water(pH 23). rich in heavy metals. that is pumped from the Unificada mine with a flow of 34 V/s. Ibiswater joins with process water from the plants (eavy metals and reagents) and bOUsehold sewage waterto form a heavily contaminated flow.
Of the beneficiation plants within the city of Potosf. only the Velarde plant discharges its waste into atailings pond (albeit bein&in a precarioug state). All other solid waste goes to the rivers and streamswhere it is pady removed in water solution or suspension, and partly deposited as sediments in thenver bed. During the occasional heavy rains most of the sediment material is flushed out to the mainriver through the rater ste water courses.
Sampling of water and botom sediments were carried out duing our visit (end of November 1992N under very dry conditions) at several different points within the city of Potosi and along the AIja Mayoriver (Fig.2). Even if these samples were collected mainly to give a genera orientation of the situation,a rater clear general picture is given, namely one of very high contents of heavy metals in the waters
5
the Cerro Rico ores, very highIn copper and arsenic.
*v_/ 4 I Due to the cesslon within theI a 'tst N mining sector, many xiners
have been made Jobless, mainlyz 4 ̂ . ~~~~~~~tbroug the severe oemgn in
n.mumaI COMIBOL activities. As arl, consequence this. a mnmber
tre ,of so called cooperatives have
fo rmm,ed In order to enable: / / t ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a conmao of mi.nt
although in an often veryprimitive form. Suchcooperatives are now active Inmost pars of the mountainabove the level of the Unificadamine, usualy using the adits
. (etances) and galleries fromold times. It is estimated tatbetween 10,000 and 12,00men are workimg under severe
is I*s conditions in the mouain.
Small ore treamnt pltsI I | dbThe are pduced by the
0fi o * \ 1 cooprves in Cero Rico is'6 ~~~someuimes treated n thei ownl
fFs 'n*s_ i pls, bUt more, \ S;___ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~of h sold tD ota sml.! .__' . . ,, "_ ~~~~~~~~~~~ptivatey ownedplants or
REFERENCIA deiveed to the COMSUR p_* . > '___ at San Diego. The small pla;s
; '_- *_-_ are all located within or in the______________________________________ ouw rtsk of the qty (ig.2).
Fig.l. Main mines and processing plants in the Potsi area substan investments in smallplants have occured duing the
last few years, party by foign inte (the most exotic being from mailand Cbhi), and the totalnumber is now more than 30. Examples of ope al dcharactesics ate given in Table 2. ihe totaltreatment capacity of these plants is eStiMatd tbe 1500-2000 tOnS of ore per day. Due to te presendylow metal prices, probably only 40-60 percent of this capaity is utilized. Even so, the to produtionis probably reaing that of Porco, wbich at the moment is the biggest single prducer in the country,amd is severAl times a Of COMIBOUs Unificada opro In addition to this comes the output byindividual artdsa prodcers, which, however, quaniively is of minor imporace.
2
,1N i"giil
LI en .l.
-I- f n5 _ r ^ _ ^ v
I AkVI.I A ii t
Beveridge, Ki, Stafford, E., and Coutts, R. 1985. Metal concentrations in the commercially exploitedfishes of an endorheic sali lake in the tin-silver province of BolIvia. Aquaculture and FisheriesManagement 1985.
Fisheries Development Limited. 1991. Fisheries Management Review, Boliia. British OverseasDevelopment AdiIniszation
I Montes de OcaG Ismael. 1989. Geogrffa y remusos naturales de Bolivia La Paz, Bolivia
Noras, P., Solis, C. and Tomco, Vilma. 1992. Impact of the mtneals industry on the environment insome areas of the departments of Onuo and Potosi, Bolivha A preliminary sudy of strem waters andsediments. Ministerdo de Minefa y Metalurgla: Proyecto de Rebabilitad del Sector Minero. InformeBO-92005.
I
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12
3
APPENDIC IV.10
i SECTRAL ENVPONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MINING AND INDUSTRLALSECITORS IN BOINIA
THE ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION IN POTOSI
by Bo Lundberg
History. The Potosl area has a long history, being developed as a silver mining center shoty after theUaTival of the Spaniards. The Poro deposit, locaed C. 40 km to the southwest of Potosf, was the firstmine to be opened. However, the mountain of Cerro Rico, at whose base the city of Potos came to bebuilt, sooa took over in importnce. It is claimed that Potosf in the seventeenth century had a populationof more than 120,000 inhabitants, which would make it the second biggest city In the world at that time,after Venice. Mining has continued to be the totally dominant occupation since then, silver beingsucceeded frst by tin and thn more recently by zinc-lead-silver as the main commodity.
9 Physography. The countryside of the Potosf area is a dry mountano landscape with deeply cutvalleys and elevations varying between 3000 and S000 meteus above sea level (the summit of CenroRico stands at 4,794 m). Water Is scarce and is provided to the city of Potosa from a number of artificialI lakes in the mountains to the southeast. ihe city is set at the northern foot of the mountain withdrinage through several small rivers which join to the Rfo Alja Maya. Ibis latter nver flows to thewest, ten makes a bow towards the nortbeast where it, with other tributaris, forms the river ofPilcamayo. The latter is a major river which is dewatering towards the Chaco in the south. Farming ismauily restaicted to the more open river valleys.
Present day mining. A major part of the mining activities in the area is still focused around the CerroRico. However, the mining industry has declined appreciably during the last 6-7 years and thepopulation of the city is down to c. 80,000 pesons. COMEBOL formaly owns most of the Cero Rico.with its remaining minural resoures. but only exploits its lower parts (Mina Unificada). This ore isprocessed in the plant of Velarde, located in the lower prs of the city. The private company COMSURhas major operations at Porco, where a substantial m ion program has ben carried out (mineand plant) and at the San Diego plant, which is fed by ore fom several sources. Two new heap leachingplants, extracting silver by the help of cyanide solutions, have been constue by COMSUR andCOMEBOL, respectively. These plants are erected in a baren landscape immediately to the suh of theZ Cerro Rico, teating old was rock and coDuvial matera from the slopes of the mountL For dhelocation of the diffment operations, see Fig.I. Some operational data are given in Table 1. The ore fromthe Cerro Rico, noably the Unificada mine, is vety high in pyrite, which makes it susceptible toweathering whereby acid waters are generated. On the contrary, the loose material of the slopes isalready leached nafturaly from its pyrite content Due to scarcity of feed for the plants, new ore typesfrom mines at some dist from Potosi are brought in for treatmen Some of these ores are, unlike
1
Table 4. Analytical results of stream wates. Sample locations (see Fg.5): 07 Sora Sora river at SaraSora village, by road to Huanuni. 08 Sara Sora river at main road bddge close to M acamarca 10Sara Sora river at CapLila Caravi. E21 Desaguadero divcr, bddge at main road close to Challacollovillage. E35 Antequera dver, bridge at main road lmmedately to the south of Pazus village. E102 SantaFd dver, 1 km downstream from tailings dam. EIOS Japo river. 1 km downszeam from oldconcenntlon plant Samples 07, 08, and 10 according to Noras ct al. (1992), E-samples this study. Allvalues except pH given in mg/I. Laborty (all analyses): M1M, Oruro.
Sample. No. 921 07 Os 10 E35 5IO2 5105
pH 8.6 2.9 3.0 3.0 7.0 4.7 2.3
Sumpefidd Bold 250. 729. 3I1. 3n73.
FMovud soft 1732 3100. 1400. 1900 1220. 3039. 4349.
Ag 0Om 0.02 Om0 0.06
As TO.1 T 0.07 O 0.0 3.95 0.12
Cd 0.00 1.7 0.6 0.26 1.22 O9m
Or 0.000 0.00 A0S 0.07
oa 0.030 2.0 1.2 1. 004 395 .55
Fe 3.1 176. 19. 41. 01 494. 1L1
He 0.O Q O O 0.011
mu 0.07 11.7 12.6 T 0.0 2.3U 5.70 12.0
5 | Ni | M 0 1s 0.37 0.55
Pb 0.00 °1 0.3 1.0 O0 4.90 59
Sb 0.09 0.10 0.63 0.0
ZL 0.16 105. 32. 49. 51.2 190. 54.
so, 261. 1766.3 817.0 g64. 1323. 2993.
Beveridges study alo shows the extensive contaminatiOD of the water of Lake Poopo with heavy metals(Table 5), as well as with phosphorus and nitrogen. Two of the tbree lake samples exhibit high contesof most metals, and particularly e of tin, antimony, lead, and nickel. The tbird sample shows only amodest increase of metal content. possibly as a result of metal precipitation in the alline water (pH9.9).
Co ring the analyses of fish, the ruts sowed an increase of most of the meavy metals with afactor of 5-10 tis in compasn with Canadian fish. Fish captured duing the last few yeas isI repor as being much smae than in previous yean and also, in many cases, extremely tin Ibis isthought to depend on two causes: the collapse of the food supply due to the last years' drought; and theN supply of heavy metals from the mining areas (Fseries Devdopment Limited 1991)
10
Tale 5.. Anlytical results of wats from Like Poopo and some intlowing rivers, ccording toIBecveridge (1983). Sample locations (see Fig.5): B9 Sora Sora river at MachaCaMarca. B II Desaguadero
river. B12 Desaguadero river, new wester fork B13 Challa Vinto, Lake Poopo. B14 Phuyopata, LakePoopo. B1S Jos6 Pimpat Lake Poopo. Samples were taken durng de pedod 2-6 November, 1982, andI analyzed In Stiring. Grt BritaiL
Sample No. B9 BIt BIZ B13 B14 BIS
pH 3.6 33 39 L6 S1i 9.9
A 0. O3 .00 0.00 Qll 0.0 0.00
Cd _ _ 1 am Om 07 06_
Co 038 0.04 0.03 045 039 am1
Cr Q15 0.00 000 0.1 0.01 o0r
co 3.24 o.m 0.0 0.10 0.07 0.00
Fe 391.0 156 1.57 0.55 1.46 0ll
Mm 13.0 0.07 0.10 010 0.11 0.03
1 Ni 0.54 0.04 006 059 0.47 O.03
Pb 4.72 00 0.01 0.71 0.56 Q06
Sb 0.30 0.20 .10 2.90 2.80 .50
SR 3.4 0.0 0.0 17.0 14.6 M7
3 781 65.0 0.07 0.05 0.10 0.11 M0O
0so, 2250. 2000. 480. 570. 625.0 590.0
It is obvious [bat tde delicate Popo ecosystm is senausy treatened by contaminaos from miningopatons (past and present) as well as by apogeoc pollution frm tbe city of Ozum Howe, theissue is complex and many of the &Ctors infiuencig the survival of the lak ae little known. Asremediation can be foreseen to be quite expensive, it is most desirable to urgeatly cany out thenecessary interdisciplinary studies, on which mitigadon meas can be based.
References
Aramayo, Luis. 1992. Necesidad de estudio de impacto ambiental en las operaciones min deCOMIBOL Seminario sobre Control de la Co i n Ambiental Producida por la Indusia Minm
| La Paz. Bolivia.
Bevendge, M. 1983. Un estudio de los niveles de metales pesados en el Lago Poopo, Bolvia. IforeI pam el Depatamento de Pesquerfas dd Centro de desar4o Forestal.
11
pyrite which easily oxidizes and, with wat, forms sulfwlc acid Ihe latter leaches out metals, the resultbeing waters of the same character as mine wate fbis effect Is very prominenz particularly in areaswhere artisanal or small scale mining is occurring.
Solid waste and was effluents from mime. Tailngs om the operations In the San Jose-Itos planthave been discharged to simple impundments which today host more than 3 million tnncs of waste.Pilot tests have receny been caried out in orde to determine the tcnical and economical feasibilityof rating this material for remaining silver by heap leaching. This would involve movement of largeI quantities of material and thidr placing in new heaps ouside the present wae area. As the le1acgwould involve the use of cyanide solutions, the neares to uba aes will have to be n intoconsideration In the design and engineering of the opeatons.
The management of the tailings Im mes at San Joseltos has not always been very approprate.The walls have sometimes collapsed, in counecdun for example with heavy ruins, casg fine wastand metal-rich solutions to be dischaged into Do1C stnms and the surounding fatland In Huanuni thefine waste. rich in pyrite and other ore mineals, is let dircly to de river. The same procedue hasrecently been introduced at the Santa Fe mine in orde to avoid the cost of pumping waste from theteatment plant to the disposal dam. Old aadoned waste is widespead also to the south and to thewest of Poopo village. that is in an area which is lose to Lake Poopo and In a plaia which is oftnflooded during the wet season. The often deficient functiomng of stng l imndmts Is|exempliied by fte sometiles high conet of metls in the overflow water (Table 3).
The total contamination of heavy metals from mines, plants and fhm acid rock leaching, is paricularlyserious in the Sara Sora rver, which caries pollutans from t Huanuni valley and the mining ar ofSanta FR and Japo intD the UIn Uru-Poopo lake systm (Table 4). The contrast against the relativelyclean water of the Desaguadero river is conspicuous.
ContanInatlon of Lake Poopo. The Lake Popo a represens an Import ecosystem in theAltiplano and in Bolivia. Its shallow depth. the conspicuous variation in its extesio and the highsalinity are some of the factors whicb makes it unique. Rsh, duck and flamingo are prominentmembers of the fauna
Regarding fish, the only indigenous species in the lake is the karacbe (Oestias luus). With theinoduction of the Argentinean pejery in 1962, a development started which woud later become arather important fishing. Present fishing is caied out frm three vilages from the easten shore of thelake. Two of these communities are the last relicts of the Uru Murats tribe, who oigially ved onreed islands on the lake and stil keep to thbir own particular architectue when buiig thir houses. Astudy made in 1990-91 showed that close to 500 fishermen were engaged in fishing, landing about 720tonnes of pejerrey (1990) at a total value of 184,000 USS (Fishes Development Limited 1991).
I
8
3
Table 3. Analytical results of mill effluents and overflow waers from tilin dams. Sample locaions:06 Huanuni. oulet from plant intD diver. 09 M plant, dlsdwage cel. 22 San Jose-Itosplunt, dischage channel. E36 Mwanacu Poopo plan, overflow from talings pond. Samples 06. 09, and22 accordng to Noas et al. 1992) E36 is study. All values except pH givellflUn mgfI. LbIt (allanalyses): MM, Ou. For comparison, the Canaian standards for mine effluents (monthly aveges)are given; the value for cadmium Is taken from cosnng US-EPA sandards
]~~~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
5anqph No. 06 09 22 MG6 Nwm
pH 3.0 3.1 3.3 4.9 >6.0
suaves"e lds 650. 25.0
D!aoved soLds 700. 1900. 6500 9865.
As~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~O 0.06A o
Cd OSs(ko O
Cr am
Cu 12 1.6 3.6 S 03
Fe 16. 39. 115.
Hg 0.000 0.001
Mn 3S 18.0 42 .73
Ni 0.15 05
Pb -ca01 1.1 3.5 291 0.2
Sb 0.23
Zn 1s. 4< 16. 50.4 0.5
SO, 380.1 1117.6 1963 133L
Already in the beginning of the 1980s, fisbermen wer complaining about the poor captures along theeasten part of the lake, supposedly caused by metal conamintion from mining operns. This wasinvestigated by Beveridge (1983), who caried out a study regarding the chemical compostion ofwaters, soils, pls and fish from the lake, rveading anomalous bigh metal contents in all of tesemedia Some of hs ruts regardn waw are repned here in Table 5. As seen. the Soa Sora river
J' was heavily conaminad already then, the figur being similar O those t orm pst survey 10 yearslaer (able 4).
9I
l~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~a Jos D RU-.
I '.adi~ ~ ~~~~~~
I~~~~~~~~~~~I
I Fig.4 Index map of the Ormo aea showing the location of the main mines (acossed hammers),beneficiation plants (filled squares) and numbeed sample points.
6
Table 2. Analytical results of mine waters. Sample locatons: San Jose according to Aramayo (1992).21 San Jose according to Noras et aL (1992). E27 Mlxed Water in Canal at bridge In Oruro along theOnur-Cochabamba road. E33 BoUvar mine. EIOO Santa Fe mine. E103 Japo mine (Inacdve). All valuesexcept pH given In mg/. Laboratory (all analyses): IIMM, Orum For comparison, the Canadianstandards for mine effluen (monthly averages) are given; the value fbr cadmium Is taken fromcorresponding US-EPA standards.
saml NO. Amm| 21 | 27 |33 | l00 E103 Nmm19 2 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (CanMda
pH 1.2 1.7 2.3 2.9 3.0 3.0 16°
Suspended 1M 3819. 210. 575. 25.0
Dismyed solids 3500 21515. 1917. 1904. 2493.
l As 1 1.10 0.30 05 0.02 Q°°0 0OL.
As 12.2 0.01 0.36 1 03 0.5
Cd 7.95 4.3 1.2 1.1 0.47 10I4 0S05
aC 0.75 0.22 0M n°02 0.02
cm 62.60 473 10.6 0.14 QOO S33 03
Fe 5610. 2960. 1019. 129. 328. 458.
HS3 0.009 0.000 0.002 0.001 0.901
mma 21.5 L3 433 2.45 2.353 | Ni | 4.05 05 03 0.07 Q023 0.5
Pb 20.75 15.5 12.7 0.2 0.00 0.10 0.2
Sb 9.30 1.65 0.26 03 0.12
241. 31. 38.0 356. 34.0 30.0 0.5
S0Q 27740. 6216. 3849. | 1203. 145L
A very major investment win be the reewa of water and sewage piping within the city. Not tomention the arangement of an adequate sewage waer colection and tratment system and theestabhlishment of communal waste disposal facilities.
Ihe water from the Hbanuni mine is someinmes used in thie concentran plat (dming periods ofdrought), otherwise dischaged to the neaby river. The mme water from Santa Fe goes direly to thelocal river and downstream jos wara fom the abandoned mine of Japo. the Huanuii water, as well aswaters from oth sources, to form the San Juan Soa Sra iver. Ihis latter nver, which Is serouslycnaminated with heavy metals, fi into Lake Um UnL
Waste rock from mines, as wel as tailings, located in me or spread out along slopes and inriver beds, occur extensively in all of the mining aeas. This matedal usualy contains bigh amounts of
7
However, due to an unfortunate tradition of hr nosible labor union interfeence, as well as a weak andpolUticized mamgement, the opeational conditions are very chaotic. It Is estmated , for example, tham30-S0 % of the tin leaving the mine (occurring In the form of the mineral cassiterite), disappearshough tbefls The sbbers we the miners themselves (totally about 1000 employees) as well as gangsof several hundrd individuals, who enter the mine through its countless entrances during the night. hehabit of discarging the fine taings to the dver 1s awgravated by the poor discipline in the concentra-tion plant whereby large amounts of metals are let out with the waste, deliberately or through ignorance.
Other mines in the area to the south of Ommro include: the Santa Fe mine. about to be closed due to thelack of ore reserves; the Bolivar mine, wich will be reblitated and reopend witin short tlrugh ajoin venture between COMIBOL and a privet prtner, and a number of small mines worked by thefwanaku company, the ore teated in Its Poopo conc aton pliant.iLMe dawhacamarca concentronplan, locaed to the cast of Lake Ur Uru, was rcentay shut down due to lack of feed and profitability.
About 40 km to the northwest of Onufo, the new gold mine of Ind Raymi is active. Tbe previous heapleaching operation is pesently being converted to a CIL (carbon In leah) process and extendedappreciably for a treatment of 14,000 tonnes of ore per day. Mhe ore Is exploited in an open pit The
ilngs from this cyanide leaching will be channeled to a circular tain mpoundnent, 2,500 m indiameter, in which the cyanide will be rmoved by natural degadation and the water by evaporioL
Unlike in Potosi, there is nD small scale or cooperative mining within the city of Oruro. However, suchoperaions are common in the Huanumi area (treatg ore fom the upper prs of the deposit or wastefrom the concentaion planit) and at abandoned min In the Santa Fe and Bolivar are In the area ofCatavi, about 50 km to the souteast of Hanuni, it is estimated tba as much as 10,000 people areengaged in much activities. 'ibis area belongs, though, to the de Potod. and also drains inan easterly direction; for this reason It wiU not be dealt with furter in this chapter.
The Viato smelter complex is located about 6 kim to the south of Omro. Here cocenurates fromHuanuni, Colquiri and other tin mines (including from the neighboriog countes) is ncated for thepion of tin metal. In a separate plant, antimoy Is produced. Other small pyrometalurgical plansare located in the city of Or0ro, treating lead concentrates or volatilmng tin (dctu or antimony(experimental).
The cty of Oruro. Oruro has a population of cose to 100,000 InhabItants. Ie seting of the city is inthe lower slopes and at the foot of the mountain in which mining has occrred during several centuries.The physical conditions are thus dermined to a lage extent by te mining activities (excavations,waste rock disposal, mine wat discare, etc.) as wel as by the surounding dry, flat plain with itspoor drainage after rains. Apart fim the mining activities, a rather varied industry exists. TIds industryis partly related to mining, as for example smelters. small fomndes and service industry addrssing theminng requirments However, there is also a reaively thivig small to medium sized industry witbinthe food and the mechancal sectors.
Fresh water supply. As mentioned above, the city of Orumro is supplied with water from driled wels.The concentration plant of the San Jose mine (Igenio Itos) takes it watr (when operating) from theDesaguadero nver. Due to the change of the course of this nver during dry periods, confLicts with localfamiers about the right to remammg water ponds someumes have occured. In Huauni, the plant partly
4
taes It water fom a river dam (Venaimedla) in competiton with fte needs of the local communiq(about 20,000 Inhabats). The siuaton Is unsatisctory, the obvious solution being tha mine water isused to a higher degree in the process and that recrculadon is employed with a better efficiency. At theBolivar mine, it is plaed to conmie in the new plant the procedues used in the existing pilot plant,involving use of mine wat in te process. Thank to the low pH employed in the initial phase of theIconcentrion process (flotation to give a lead conce), no major previous tratment of the water isneeded.
Add rock (mine) drainage Water pumped from the diffen mines in the region is very acid (Table1). An exteme example is the water flom the San Jose mine in Onro, which has a pH as low as 1.2-1.7. bIfs and other mine waters in the Oruto ra are extxemely bigh in heavy metal contet (Table 2).The San Jose wae is pumped from the mine to an exit in the sope of the mountain above the cty.From there ft is take in an open chae to the notern outakiUts of the city where it is mixed withI sewage water and garbage in wide chmnels, flowing towards the south in the direcon of the Lake UnuUr-Lake Poopo. However, pat of the water is also Infltradng the ground causing cxroslon onmunicipal warw pipelines as well as on concrete sewage tubes. Ibis sometimes results in water losses aswell as the mixing of drinking watr with acid mine water and sewage water. As the piping systms getolder, this problem is bound to be more and more acute. A possible closure of the mine and a cease ofpumping would not solve the poblem to any greater extet, as acid water would sil emerge tbhoghnaral flow. In one way or the othr the water will have to be comrolled and trad A treatmentwould presumably involve an addition of lime in order to neutaize the solution and precipitate a majorpart of the dissolved heavy metals. Mhe cost of doing this include an inveslment in the order of
_] nmagnitude of 100,000 USS (Aramayo 1992). To this should be added the cost of operation, whichincludes the conumption of about 19 tonnes of lime per day at a cost of 800 USS (Le. dose to 300,000USS per year). he possi ty of extaing metals in the process, tbus reducing te cost of _tatment,I has been suggested (Aramayo 1992). Obviously, before taing aon, extensive nitial studs wil beneeded to defie the problem and indicate the opfions. A complicatng fctor is the unertanty aboutfture mining activities in San Jose.
Table 1. Mine water flow and pH fom some mines in the Omm area (Aramayo 1992)
MNE: pH Flow lls Flow m.day
Huamum 2.8 57.0 4925
San Jose lS 15.0 1300
Santa Fe 3.0 365 3110
Bolivar 3.5 50.0 4320
I
5
precipitaion, this lake maydry out completely. Rainfall
435 mm per year (averge ALTIPLANO NORTEvalue during the years 1980- , Ew o1990). Nearly 95% of the lossof water is through u evapoton. The mean snnual / - . <_ ._unover of the water in the
lake is very hIgh (140%),whfic is mre tan a onehundred times higher than A-that of for example LakeTItcaca Ile salinity readces
- ~~up to 4*. Ihe very spoda 00 Wt popertIes of the lake makesIt an unstable environmentwith wide fluctuations also asregards limological character(Fisheries DevelopmentLimited 1991).
AquIfers As regards g,;undwater resourcs te AltiplanoU forms an extensive basin ofwater-beating sedimetayformations. According to the
I7 topography of the underlyingbard bedrck, this majorbasin can be subdivided Intoa number of sub-basins, one _.of which is the Caracollo-Omro-Vinto sub-basin (Flg.) FIg2 Hydrological basins of the AltiplanoIn the central part of thislatter area, the thickness ofthe sedimems amounts to 80-125 meters. Aquifers occur in dif-ferent locations and at vacious depths.The geneal ground water flow istowards the southwesL A number ofdrilled wells to the north of Omrosupply the city with water of good quaity(Montes de Oca 1989), (Fig.3).
2
Moning acdvity. Maninghas a very old tradtion inthe Oruro ga and Is stDa main occuPation. in sPiteof the receson within the
sector during recent years.I The histoically moMtimpoftnt mine is the SanJosec mine in Oruro. Ihe
w operations in this mine hasrecently been suspendeddue to dhe diMculties of1selng the product. a lead-silver concentrate rich inantimony. From havingipreviously been paid for 1as a by-product, theantimoy in the
conentateis nowadaysregarded as an unwantedcontamnation by thosfbreign smelters w'hichhave been dhe customarybuyers (a result of the
inrOxc mion of stricter
environmental) r=equire
and North Ameri-ORcan smelters).
Anoter old major ein thearmmis the* COMIBOL mine of **~ ~Huanuni, situate about 50km to the southeast of Fig.3 Details of fth CwaraUlo-Onro subbasin
*Orumo (Fig.4). Here a richtin deposit is exploitedwith what should undernormal be a
very profitable operation.
3
APPENDIX IV.9
I SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF T MINING AND INDUSTRLALSECTORS IN BOLrIVA
I ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS IN THE ORURO AREA AND LAKEPOOPO
by Bo Lundberg
The Atiplano. Te city of Ouro is set in the Atiplano abou 250 kilometers to fte south of La Paz.-1 IThe Altiplano is a vt high plateau of westen Bolivia at an alttude of between 3,500 and 4,000 meters
above sea level. It is baored by two mountain chains, the Cordillem Real in fte east and the CordileraOccidental in the west MIese tbree major physiograpiic featmes form the Andean motin system inBolivia. The northen and central parts of the Altiplano drins from north to south. Thus, the Lae1 fticaca, at the borde between Peru and Bolivia, is dewatezed towards the south though theDesaguadero river. This latter niverflows to Lake Poopo in theDepartment of Onuro.
Rg.l Hydmgraphy LA PAZof te Altiplano
Lake Poopo. Lake Poopo isendodieic, i e. it has no outflow. Idrains an area of 55,000 m2 (Figl).The mean srface of the lake is aboutt2,600 hn2 but vares between wide* limits during the year as weD asbetween different years. Iiis is dceto variation in water inflow, the flatlanscape in which it is set and thevery shallow depth - on average only2-3 meters. A smaller lake. Lake UruUro, is situated to the north of LakePoopo and onnected with the lauteras an antechamber. In years of little
.P~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Environmentl aspes. be Mmflluni mine operation has had duhee main adverse environmentaleffects, namely 1) the flling up of the valley bottom with tailings, 2) the destruction of fauna andflora, and 3) the contamination of water needed for human consumption.
Due to the fat valley bottom. in combinaion with a defcient wate management, an aea c. S km2 insize is now covaed by tailings, eradicating a former nural lake. Ihis mprsents an extensive areawhere grazing of animals no longer can tke place. The degradaon of the landscape also me thatthe naurl sceney is much disurbed.
Research carried out duing the last few years, regarding chemical and biological effects of mining inthe area, has shown that the nthon has not only totaly destoyed the natlral ecosysm of theMuni lake, but also seriously effected put of the Jano DIota lak (Apaza 1992). Ihs is IncontMst to the abundant aqutc flora and fauna of tbe PMa Dita lakeA
I As twed abovc, from the Milluni dam contitutes main part of the watr sopyly fr La Paz. Aspecial canal constructed for the by-pass of wat fom the Jankho lhoa lake (analysis No.14) seemsto have only a restricted effect on the quality of the tDtal body of water collcted (anaysis No.12).Tbis latter sample exhibits the very low pH of 2.9 and high contents of sulpbate as well as heavymetals Fe Mn, Zn, Cu and Cd). As a consequeac of this, neutal on has to be caried out in theteam pn I order to adcieve a pH above 7 and to pecpitate metal ions For tis c lO tones oflime per day is being consumed at a cost of c. 40 USS per tume, Ie. 146,000 USS per year. Thequality of the resultig potable water is not known to us. lhe collected solids are discharged to themaLn La Paz nver (Rio Choqueyapu) as descxbed above. In addition to this, the acid composition ofthe raw water is causing poblems in the turbines of the smal hydro-ectric plant, thrgh which it ismade tD pass on it course to the teatment planL
Reerence: Apaa Roberto. 1992. Conaminaon of lakes by mining effluents. Seminatio sabreControl de la Contaminaci6n Ambiental Ptoducida por la Industria Minera La Paz, Bolivia
Fig.3 Viw towards the nortat with te abandoned industral area of the Miun mine in teforeground and the Lake Jankbo Kha In the background. The ore deposit is to the right of the pictue(south) with the wAin gallery entering at a level slightly above thc lak.
Fig.4 Photograph tan towards the east fom a pace downstrem (to th west) of Rg3. OxidizedI tailings in the fliegwund, the mountain of Huayna Potos in the bacgrund.
I Fig.5 Mbe man tailings pond (Lago Milun) with its outliet of We, which Is canneed to La Paz
Fig.6 Water enteing the pie-sdimentation dam of the Achachicala treatment plant in La Paz.
S
The Mllluni dam. This water reservoir is acually the old taiUngs dam of the Mlluni tin mine, whichwas actve until die mid 195CYs (FIg.2). Water is entering the dam from mountain streams and thelakes Jankho Khota and Pata Khola fiuer up In the valley (towards northeast). Some water is alsosupplied rorm the deserted main mine gallery. This latter water has a flow of c. 20 Vs (December1992) and Is highly acid. The influence of mine water and acid rock drAinage from waste rock and
I taillngs is very profound, a fawtch is refleted in a pH as low as 2-3. Sill at tbe arrival to thetreatment plant, when the wat has aready been mixed with the neutral, clean waters of the Tunidam, the pH Is as low as 2.8-3. As can be seen from the analyses of Table 1, the water from the mineas well as the water channeled to the treatment plant are highly contaminated by heavy metals insolution as well as by suspended material.
The tresamnt plant of Achachiala. After serving In a minor hydroelectric plant, the water isentefrng into the tament plant of Achachicala, located In the upper part of the La Paz valley. Thewater is tmated In the following manner
- Pe-sedimentation followed by decmzton- Addition of chlodne to prevent t gwth of algae- Addition of lime and aluminum sulphate for neuaization and flocculation- Sedimentaion and removal of flocks- Filtering through sand beds- Disinfecdon by chlorine- Result: potable water
I The mud produced during fte pre-sedimentation phase amounts to c. 200 ma per week. It is removedfrom the sedimentation basins every four monts and diveted to the Cboqueyapu nver, this being the
0 river which passes along the deep valley In which the dty of La Paz Is set. The flocclated materalamounts to 1500 in3 per week. It is given off to the river once a week ("on Sundays in order not tobother the people who work in the river downsteam collecting sand")
1
l
3
I
Table 1. Analytlcal results of water samples. Sample locadons: E12 Chamel brngng water from theMilluni dam to the Achachicala treatment plant, at a point 2 km from its source. E13 Mine watr fromtheMllluni mine at its outflow from the main gallery into the tailngs dam. E14 Water frm theJakho Khota lake at Its oulet. Laboratory: [IMM, Omro.
Sample No. E12 E13 E14
2 pH (lab) 2.8 29 7.1
pH (field) 2.9 69
| Suspended solids 148. 35. 37.
Dissolved solids 90. 2872. 58.
Hardness (CaCO) 601. 175. 44.
Ag 0.00 0.00 0.00
As 0.00 0.00 0.00
Ca 195. 71. 14.
Cd 0.11 0.28 0.00
Cr 0.000 0.000 0.000
Cu 0.460 0.405 0.010
M1 Fe 96.0 424. 1.1
HS 0.000 0.000 0.000
Mg 98.5 25.6 19
Mn 10.3 1.03 025
0.18 0.48 0.03
Pb 0.08 0.05 0.01
Sb 0.13 0.08 0.09
Se 0.000 0.000 0.000
Za 0.51 123.0 0.65
CO% 0.0 0.0 0.0
HCO% 0.0 0.0 49.
ca 14. 35. 7.1
SO. 553. 1742. 37.
4
APPENDIX IV.8
SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MINING AND INDUSTRIALSECrORS IN BOLIVIA
I MILLUNI TAILINGS DAM AS SOURCE OF WATER FOR LA PAZt by Bo Lundberg
|he provision of potable water to La Paz and El Alto is throgh a mnmber of ardfidal lakes along themountain chain situed to the northeast of the city (1ig.1). IThe wate collected In these damsoriginates from gaers, snow and rainfall. A miwr source of watr, with supply to pat of El Alto.is through drilled wells, which yield fossil water from depths of 12-50 mets In prnciple, each damprovides watr to a particular part of the La Paz and El Alto ities. Thus is the central pert of La Pazsupplied with water fm the Millum dam. 65 %, and the Tuni dam 35 % (tbe later dam alsoprovides the main part of El Alto with water). Ibese two flows am joined in a place locaed to thenortheast of El Alto and than take as ow flow, amountig to c. 2300 m3 per hour, to the ttplant of Achachicala. he overall picture is that the wat esources are scarce, with occasionalrationing during dry periods (as at the time of wring in December 1992). Tbe succesive melting ofthe glaciers during the last decades presents a fundamena problem for the water supply in the futr
WLMA Fig.1 Index mapI
I
l~~~~~ ~ ~~~~~~~ Feu ,- ;SZf N
L#AUMAA] 2 { zT SPATAIGOYA
Flg.2 Map of i LAGUNA
the Milluni amta, 0 Losvwthin the de- WA mAZpartient of La
t92(). 4 ,1 ~~~~~~~~~CoUon Ike Lbwi
n 's!i \n f~\\. '
I K
2P - ZI_k
2
Chemical analyses of water samples from the Andacaba.La Lava area (see map for location).All values except pH In mg/i. Laboratory: IIMM, Oruru.
Sample No. 1 2 3 4 6 6 7 5 RecommendationsField No. 61 62 60 59 55 57 56 58 A B
pH 6.8 9.0 3.4 3.0 4.2 3.0 7.0 3.2TDS 172 616 552 706 949 575 694 890 2000As 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19 4.60 0.20 0.22 0.03 0.10Cu 0.06 1.63 0.23 12.08 14.28 12.15 0.19 1.34 3.00 0.15Pb 1.51 0.25 6.37 1.85 00.40 0.25 12.05 1.10 0.20 0.30Zn 8.01 1.03 16.30 37.70 363.20 35.60 14.20 84.00 20.00 0.75Mn 1.64 0.11 5.40 6.10 49.20 5.60 3.01 7.00 5.00Fe 14.40 1.12 49.20 98.50 83.80 72.21 5.05 2.68 5.00Ag 0.02 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.00Cd 0.02 0.01 0.14 0.44 2.06 0.34 0.18 0.24 0.50 0.05Ni 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.13 0.55 0.11 0.06 0.06Cr 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.008b 0.20 0.30 0.30 0.45 4.45 0.15 0.25 0.15Hg 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00Ca 30.23 119.34 68.03 70.01 87.63 149.57 140.82 85.92 500.00Mg 8.20 2.90 24.61 26.54 40.06 22.68 9.65 19.78 400.00Cl 14.18 21.03 14.15 10.61 14.50 14.13 14.18 21.23 1000.00804 79.80 279.11 288.40 412.30 475.95 383.58 391.40 390.90 1000.00
TDS Total dissolved solidsSamples:
i Mine water from the Andacaba mine (lime possibly added In the mine); flow 23 is2 Owertlow water fom the tallings pond at ihe Andacaba mine3 Mine water from the Santa Catalina mine; flow 16 i/a4 Water from the Santa Catalina lake5 Waste water frOm the Jukhucha plant, before entering the pond6 Mine water from the Santa Catalina mine when passing beside the Jukhucha plant7 Overflow water frOm the Jukhucha tailings pond after the adding of lime8 Water In the Andacaba river (mixture from several sourmes)
Recom. A Maximum recommended values for Irrigatlon water accordlng to Reglamento sobre Lanzamiento deDesechos Industdlales en Cuarpos de Ague, 1io0
Recomi. B Um;taUlons for the ore mining and dressing Industry (monthly average for new plants according to USEPA)
CompaMfa Andacba. The operadons of this company occur at high altitudes to the north of fteKumurana From being a small mine producing 30 tld, It has recenay been devdoped into anoperation with a new plant of a raed capacity of 230 t/d. Two concoenaes are produced, namelyPb/Ag and ZnJAg. The old tailngs impoundment is very primitive but a new one, with an eight meterhigh dam saucre. Is being const d preently.
Water from the main mine (wee) is pumpd to an artifiial lake at the srfae for use in thebeneficiation pmcess. The pumping In the eastem mine sector produces water, which is te maisupply to the Sat Catalina lake. The me wate is neutra, whlle the lake water has a pH as low as3.1. TIbs Indicates the existence of extensive surce leching of sulfide minals, thus producing acid! waters with high contents of heavy metals.
Water quality. The acid water from the Sata Ctalina lake has since long been used, in spite of itsacidity, by the Okomro community for irrigatio. The water is conveyed fom the lagua in thenathal river course and then diverted throgh a mountain-side chnel to the farming area Part of thislake water is used as prs water in the Jukhucha plan and still another part is following the old|Andalcaf river coxsc, passing beside the Jukhcha tailing ponds.
The lower part of the flow of the Andacaba river joins water from thee sourcs viz. 1) the SantaCataina lake wae, 2) the mine water from the Mba Santa Cataina, and 3) the p ss water frmthe Jukhucha planL AUl of these waters ae highly acid, the pH varying betee 2.7 and 3.2 (seeTable). The amount of suspended soids vares but will pmbably during rains be very higha due to an
i uncontrolled overflow from the Jukhucha tlings ponds Te waer aiginatg fm the saa Catalinalake wIll probably also incorporate slime as it passes by the foot of these same ponds. As can be seenfrom te analyses, both the Andacaba river and the Sant Catalina lake provide water withexceptionally high contents of heavy mets far higher for severl crucial elemets li copper, leadand cadmium) than what is recommendable.
The Jayaqula river has for a long time received water from the Andacaba mie and prcess waterfrom the plant Tbrough the recent developmat of the mine, w wa-beaing strus have bcenmet wnth, this causing an increased flow to the river. Tbis zuised flow Is obviously hadin old wastesediments as well as the incread amount of process wase, tus minating te river mIre thanbefore.
As can be seen from the presented anayses. t overflow watr fom the dam (sample 2), has a highpH and a comparaively low conte of most leavy metas. Ibs Is an efft of the addition ofsubstantial quantities of lime in the process (3 kg per ton), which incrses te pH and prcpitatesiron and oter metals Another reactive added i the process is copper sulpte, giving rise to theincreased contet, as dmonated by the analysis of this substance. Unfountely it has not beenpossible to have analyses for cyanide and xanthates, other chemicals used in the process A moredetailed study of the situaion would also have to include sampling of the river downsteam as far as
I the village of La Lava
Conslderatlons. Ie use of contaminated water for irrigation the Okonro-a Iava area isapparently an old habit The two factors which have probably aggravated the sitation at preset is thedraught, involving less rain water dilution (i.e. a higher conentatio of onminants in the riverwates) and the increased mie water and waste production at the Andacaba minr This last problem
3
A
should .be solved oce the new tailings pond is consdtucted and a camefl management of the waste isintroduced.
Mhe poUudon of the Andacaba river Is a more complex problem, incopating sevemal sources of.contamination. be obvious solution would be to constuct a major dam for collecang all waters andhave *tm trated to aclieve an acceptable water quality. lbis, however, rpresents a substantialinvestment which hmndly can be Justfied flnancially by the present low mine production. A demand forsuch measures would probably make the operaion unprofitble with closure of the operton as aoonsequenc. MIis would certaily solve pat of the poatllon problem but leave the significanquestion of the coninating old waste unsolved. Thare is also some doubt about the suitablity of theSan Catal dam water for irrigation, witout previous teatmefL
A more definite ecommenaon regarding the operations of the Compafia Kmurana would requiremore thorough investigations an the present quick survey (it should be noted that we did ot havethe poSsibility to visit the affected villages). Questions which sbould be treated include at least tefollowing:
- What is the technical and financial potential of the operations, and wolld a modernizationand extension of activities be feasible?- What is more precisely the acter, etent and coseqences of the polludon caused by the
| ~~~mining?- How extensive is the faming (in employed persos and financial terms) which depend onthe use of polluted water?- To what extent wold a profound increase in water quality assist the faming? Is potablewater a scarcity?- What alternative sources of water exist in the villages in question?- What is the legal base for the activities of the different involved partes (water rightI cleaning requirements, etc)?- Based on the outcome of the questions above. what is the econmic and social jusifiationfor an ovea solution of the problem?
I- f deemed to be justified, how could the required measures be fnanced?
A confict of interest of the type presented above, illustrates the possible complexity of problems andthe need for rules of the gam An efficient handling of the problem requires a number of differenttools as, for example, a) a legislation in envi nl matters inluding regulations and/orrecommendations. b) the existece of a state authrty witnh the power and capacity to control andadvice, c) the availabilty within the country of technicalleavironmena expertise which can assistcompanies and other parties, and d) possible incntives to promote e quality.
4
A
APPENDIX IV.7
I ~SECTORAL ENVIRONMNTAL ASSESSUMT OF THE MINING AND INDUSTRIALSECTORS IN BOLMVA
IMINING VERSUS AGRICULTURE IN THIE ANDACABA-LA LAVA
t AREA
* by Bo Lundberg
Background. A present conflict between farmers and mining companies in the Andacaba-La Lavaarea, c. 40 km to the south of Potosi. serves well for exempHfying the sort of controversies which mayarise in connection with mining. The seting of te area is where a deeply act mouinus twa,with peaks reaching more than 5000 meters above sea level, opens up towards the souteast no anopen valley at c. 3600 mete altitixi. Mining in the mountain area has old trdtions. At present, twonmining companies are active in the aea, the Compaifa Cumurana and the Compafa Andacaba.
The climate is very dry. water supply mainly deriving from the collection of rain water in artificiallakes (lagunas) at high altitdes. The dewateng of mines also contributes substantia quantities ofwater to these lakes. Mher are two main nvers in the area, the Rio JayauBilla and te Rio Andacaba,both flowing to the south (Fig.1). The saion is compkx as the water of these rivers pallyoriginates fiom mines, with the obligatory containation this involves. In the present situaion of1 drought, with lile rainfll and posible altenative souces dng out, the m io aspect isaggravated. Two communities depend on the water from these rivers for Iigation, the La Lava villagein the valley bottom and the Okonuro vilage in the gentle slopes. Bodi of dtesc communities arc wel
, outspread and live from frming.
Compafifs Kumurana This company exploits the tin deposit of Santa Calina, an ore which besidescassiterite holds high conns of pyrite as well as minerals continig lead, zinc and areic. The areis treated in the Jukbucba plant by gravity concentaton and subsequen flotation of the preconcen-trate in order to remove pynte and other sunlSdes.
The tailings are traed to remove the coarse sand. while the rem ing shmies are channeled to smallponds in the namrow valey for setlng and tatment of the overflow water with lime (the laterprobably only of symbolic value). The management of the waste is very deficient and there areobvious signs of ollapses in tbe pond strucmues during rainfls The acid water pumped from theSanta Catalina mine is conveyed by a constucted canal beside the neaby lake and besde theJukhucha plant to join the Andacaba river futher downstream
1
I A~~~~~~~MA
I
:-ItA" ; f i
Fig. 1 Index map of the La Lava - Mina Andacabaarea
2
lless sickness absence. It is a good affair for the person involved, for his employer
.. | and for the society in general. The base, as said, is a well functioning health
monitoring and recording system. Possibly some type of incentive should be
I established in order to convince employers, as well as employees, about the need for
such measures.
Therefore a very important step are creating and implementing a function report-
system for aLl accident and injury at work. L' order to get the systems work some
type of economic incentive for the companies as well as the worker himself may be
have to be created.
i The problems of chemicals in the working environment are to be solved by means of
technical and organizational measures, such as the substitution of a less hazardous
process or substance, encapsulation or extraction. In the short term, however,
adequate measures of this lknd axe not always possible. Employees will at least
temporarily have to wear safety equipment in the form of breat protectors, eye
shields, protective clothing and gloves.
The short-term, most efficient way of rapidly an improvement of the occupational
health situation in Bolivian working life, is probably within the sector of hearing
protection. . The present situation of widespread indifference is most tragic as even
restricted measures could improve the situation appreciably, not to mention such a
simple act as the wearing of hearing protectors. And note that it should be the
responsibility of the employer not only to supply these devices but also to enforce
their use.
j Simple "cost-effective" measures can easily be identified also within other sectors of
health and safety. I wilL however. stop here. hoping that you have got something out
3 of this presentation and will initiate work within this field. Many of you are surely
well aware of the facts and prnciples I have stated here. Others are maybe less
8
conscious. But I think we all agree that it is a field of utmost importance, open for
| initiadves and dedication. In order to assist a bit in your further work I have broughtfrom Sweden a few copies of a set of training materials. I will be able to arrange for
more copies for those interested and I also just found out that there is a Spanish
version. Just please write your name and address on the prepared list and a copy will
] be sent to you as soon as it can be arranged.
I
I
I
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INSO is active controlling the working environment in refineries and some other
critdcal industries. Unfortunately it is done only as a service to be paid for and then,
consequently, does not include the less serious but more polluting industries.
In some industries with an internal polluted atmosphere we could observe how
exposed workers were using respiratory protecfive equipment This is of course
I gratifying even if, in many cases, there way be reasons to doubt that the equipment
is maintained in a saisfactory manner. In other cases the workers do not use
respiratory protective equipment even if there are very good reasons to beLieve that
I ~~they should.Regarding chemicals being used, labeling, directions for use and safety instrucdons
are often deficient.
Noise
Noise is a very common problem in both the industial and the mining sectors in
Bolivia. According to INSO, more than one half of the total work force are exposed
3 to exorbitant levels of noise. 40 % of the workforce is said to have impaired
hearing. Our observations confum these statements. In most industies we have
visited, the noise level in the factory as a whole or in some areas, is so high that
there is no doubt whatsoever at it vAIll damage hearing. The frequency of workers
usmg hearing protectors is nevertbeless low and very few meaes are tan to
decrease the high noise leveL Even rsticted measures could improve the situaton
appreciably, not to mention such a simple act as the wearing of hearing protectors
Lighting
Lighting is a neglected area of concem within the Bolivian industry. A majority of
workplaces visited had unsatisfactory lighgng. What is often not remembered is that
a certain amount of light may be sufficient for "doing the job" but stdl insfficient
3 for the avoidance of accidents.
6
a
Workplace clinate
Within the mining industry, smelters and some other industry, high temperatures are
a serious problem. Often they are combined with poor ventilation and a poor air
quality.
] ~E:rgonumks
, i the mining industry particularly, but in the industrial sector as well, there are
many heavy jobs, difficult work postures and inticate work movements that create
1 risks for over-load and accidents.
-I Less frequent in the Bolivian working life are the short-cycle, monotonous,
frequently machine-controlled jobs which are so common in the highly industralized
li world. Such jobs cause high frequencies of strain injuries and other musco-skelletal
diseases.
Ways of Improving the working envlronmenL
One of the most important task is to raise the managements' awareness of worldng
environment and have tbis knowledge implemented throughout their respectve
companies. One way to start is to introduce a proper recording of injury stistics
I which will highlight the grave (presumably) situaion and point out the involved
problems and costs in connection with rebabilitation and sickness absenteeism
However. improving the working envment requires knowledge.Work injury
statistics are only one integral part in the prevention of accidents. A profound
knowledge of injuries and their causes is essential in order to intlligently manage
| Xt promotion of health and safety in wor
5 Work injury prevention is not just a duty; it is a kind of planning that often pays off
even economically. A better working environment means fewer work injues and
7
the operations, i.e. small groups of miners excavating more or less at random where
good ore happens to be found. has as a consequence that support pillars are removed,
waste rock is left in the galleries making access and vendlation difficult, explosives
are used in a careless way etc. Silicosis is a very serious problem also in many of
these operations. Accidents are known to be very common (although no statstics
exist) and life expectancy is obviously very low.
After this panorama of impressions from my industry visits, I will shift to treating
some of the main factors of concern within the field of workdng environment
Accidents
TaUling to the responsible persons within most companies of the industrial sector as
well of the ore concentration plants, you are told that they have few or no working
accidents whatsoever. We have been informed that every company is obliged to
report over worldng accidents to the "Mnisterio de Trabajo y Dessarollo Laboral"
every third month Only a few companes have been able to demonstrate to us that
they respect these regulatons. In visting many indust which give an impression
of general disorder, lack of safety equpment, slippery or greasy floors, ris for
stumbling, lack of banisters, bad lighting conditions etc. it is hard to believe that
there are no, or very few, accidents. ITe explanation may possibly be found in the
manner of defining a woring accident With an working accident I do mean all
events which cause some kind of injury, big or small . If the company does not pay
attention to, or puts on record. every accident occurring, it might be difficult
afterwards to remember accidents which have not been fatal or very seriou
For obvious reasons the information provided by the Winister de Trabajo" or the
"Caja Nacional de SaludW is very incomplete. However, as said before, part of the
mining industry and the petoleum industry (refineries) stand out as good examples
regarding the reportng of accidents and the keeping of records and statiscs.
4
Chemical hazard
In many of the workplaces we visited, the workers are exposed to chemicals of
different kinds:
chromium compounds and other chemicals in tanneries
arsenic, antimony and sulphur gases in smelters
lead in batty production
solvents in graphic industry
cyanide in leaching and mineral flotation plants
dust in cement production
quartz dust in mines
PVC, acrylate and styrene in plastic industry
benzene and thouluene in refineries
formalin in chicken farming and in foundries
tensiders in detergent production
asbestos in production of roofing tiles
A recent study by INSO at the Vinto smelter points out that, in spite of the ongoing
improvements, too high contents of arsenic, antimony and sulphur gases occur m
certain parts of the plant and that high contents of asemnic and antimony appear in the
urine and blood of some of the workers
Already in 1979 it was established by INSO that more than 60'6 of the workers at a
minor smelter had high contents of lead in the blood. More than a decade later, as
reported by CNS in 1990, 47% of the investigated workers (45 persons) sdill
presented values of mtoxication.
A study by INSO in the now inactive Palca smelter (1983) proved the existence in
the plant of much too high concentrtaions of dust, lead as well as sulfuiic
compounds. Ihese problems have been solved only through the closur of the plant
(for other reasons than those of occupational health).
5
Another third of the visited companies (13) had a fairly aceeptable working
envlronmenL In this group of companies there are stil many issues which remain to
be solved. However, the problems seemed to be manageable. There was a certain
| knowledge and awareness in espect of working environment questions and a number
of measures had been take.
The minor group compnsing 7 companies had a poor worlkng envlrountenL The
general awareness was very low and very little had been done in order to protect the
workers from the risks in Ehe work. High noise levels, a general disorder and
I machinery without safety protection were common in these workplaces. However,
even if the conditions in these places were alarming, it would not be impossible to
change the situation. A lack of awareness seemed to be the main problem, more than
a shortage of resources and possibilities
Finally, a group of 5 companies exhibited a totally unaccptable worldng
environment The deficiencies were so fundamental and grave that it is hard to say
I bow improvements could be made without changing the whole production process,
machinery, premises etc.
I will now turn to the Mining sector.
Mining sector
Underground min work is always a problem from a working environmental point
of view and partcularly so in small mines exploiting narrow veins as in Bolivia.
The physical risk for injuries is a primary problem. Other health risks include gases
from blasting, quartz dust, high temperatues, noise, over-extention etc. At an
international comparison, the accident rate in Bolivian mines is very high. On the
I other hand, it is above all within the ining industry that a well managed reportng
and statistics regarding work accidents ar found. The frequent lak of such statistics
2
l~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
in other industry makes comparisons diffiCUlL
The rate of observed siLicosis among underground miners is also very high. A
number of studies during the 1970s and, with support of the WHO, during the period
of 1978-82, show an average rate of silicosis among underground workers of 11%,
an extremely high figure. Values from different mines varied between 3.5 and 22 %,
while the rate of silicotuberculosis varied between 1.4 and 4.6 %. The variation
between different mines presumably depend on a combton of such factors as the
content of silica in the rock, the mining method employed, the degree of efficiency
of ventilation and the humidity of the mine.
However in some mines the management's awareness of the problem is high and a
number of measures have been taken to improve the woring conditions. Examples
are regular inspections and close control of the work environment as well as the
health of the worker, infonnation campaigns and training. In such well run mines are
for the workers, for example, forced to wear adequate protective equipment
However, it was also witnessed how difficult and what a long term mission it is to
defintely raise the general awareness about occupational health and safety among the
1j workforce.
Regarding the ore concentration plants, the situation is similar to the one prevailing
in other industry, Le. it varies between wide limits from pretty good to unacceptable.
Noise. dust. chemicals ( i.a. cyanide). genral disorder and lack of safety equipment
are some of the facrs which create risks for the workers. With some good
exceptions, the environmental awareness of managements is low.
| Most cooperative mining is carried out under utmost primitive cicumstances with
very litte of health or secuity control. The work is often caried out in old
abandoned mines lacking the old service and control regarding ventilation, hoisting,
blasting etc. Ihis causes the exposure of the miner to extreme hazards. The nate of
3
APPENDIX IV.6
I SECIORAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE M]NING AND DUSTRIALSECTORS IN BOLIVIA
J
t TE WORKING ENVIRONMENT IN BOLIVIA; EXPERIENCES ANDIMPRESSIONS
by Bengt Knaborg
*1
l
.I
THE WORKING ENVIRONMENT IN BOLIVIA
Experiences and impressions by Bengt Knaborg presented at workshop in La Paz,
February 11, 1993
ISVisits
In November last year and during the two last weeks. I have, together with other
members of a World Bank team visited 36 companies withui the industial sector
and, besides that, 7 mines and 16 ore concentration plants. The pupose of the visits
has been to study the working conditions and try to get answers on questions
-egarding working environment problems, work accidents, illness, absenteeism and
protection equipment (the need for it, availability and frequency of use). I have also
tried to evaluate the awareness of the different managements concerning working
environment problems.
General impressions
Regarding the general staus of the working environments met with, I would like to
make some simple, overall generalizations. I will begin with the indusri sector.
Industnal sector
Out of the 36 companies I have visited, about one third (11 to be exact) had a
satsfactory working environment Ihis does not mean that no improvements would
be needed, but that the deficiencies are minor. 'he general impression is about the
same as the one you meet when you visit an average industry in Sweden or another
industialized country. In all these places, there was a general awareness of the
importance of working environmental questions, even if they seldom had the highest
priority.
1
the production of sulphuic acid and heavy metal leaching is avoided. This cover an either bemade by creating a lake over the dam or to cover the dam or dump by a layer of mateial that Isimpermeabic for oxygen as well as water. The method of covering by water, i.e. cang a lake, isusualy much cheaper thn to cover with solid material, te difference being S to 10 times.However, creating lakes Is for naturl reasons not always possible, partcularly in a dry climate asthat of the Bolivian Altiplano.
ITable 4. Examples of redamation costs in Swede
prjed Tailing: darm or Talings or d&=p Toa cm US$ USS per of USS1 ccl~~~~~~~~~~M an dump I_ r"ec d am MaaIm
l Reelljokk 1.1 i auilis 4.4 miL 2300.000 2S5 CLtwaa dam
Suxbert (clay 51 becur 5.0 milL 6.600.000 12.10 1.40&mod ann (SEK 37 miL)
dam)_ _ _ _ _ ___
Beabo (dLy & 19 b IAar 1.0 mSL .300.0 2790 530. . ~~moaie oa
& cr on an
: An important aspect, from a cost point of view, is whete it is possible or not to economicallyrecover mmerals from the old tailings dams or dumps. Many of these old dams and dumps contanapprecable amounts of metas that can be recovered by today's more sopisticatd mehods In thisway the cost of reclamation can be subsantially reduced, or carxied out with a profit. ThusComibol has made agreements with some foreign companies for t reproessing of od tailings.However, this requires at sufficiently strict e mental requements are incorporaed into thelease or joint ventue conrcs. lids has not been the case up to now, but steps have recently beentaken to guarantee such precautions.
In our estmate below we have not discounted the possibility of reprocesng the waste for itsremaiing metal conte Writh the present low metal prces, the econmy of such opeations are inmost cases questionable, a siaon which will of comse change if the market improves. Our costfigures are based on cost experences from Sweden (Table 4) and USA. As presented in Table S,the reclamation of rematning major tailings dams and mine dumps would involve a cost ofapproximately USS 72.5 million. It is possible that some of these renediafion objects will be3 attended to within new joint venue operations or through specil reprocessing projects. However,
5
a large part will still remain as tie responsibility of the preseat owner, i.e. primarily the Bolvianstate.
Table 5. Cost estmate for reclamation of old tailings dams and mine dumps.
MINES TONNAGE COSr TOrAL COSTmillion Wan US$/t m iion USS
TAILINGS DAMS:
Comibol min 53 050 265
Medium minmg seor 10 0.50 5.0
SUBTOTAL 63 315
.I ; MINE DUBMP:
Comibol min . 36 1.00 36.0
Medium mining secto 5 1.00 5.0
SUBTOrTAL 41 41.0
3 GRAND TOTAL 104 _ 725
6
Comsur. acoounting for 6 of the members (subsidiaries), so in reality there are only about 15companies in the association. In 1991 Comsur accounted for 56 % of the total value of the mineproduction of the group. In tenms of sales and mine production Comsur will probably surpassComibol ths yea ( 1993). The second largest producer is Inti PRaymi with about 12 % of theproduction in 1991. With its new gold mill, due to start prduction In March this year (5 milliontonnes of ore per year), Int Raymi wnll surpass Cosr in terms of mine production and net sales,and the com'ined producion of the two wiU constitute more than 90% of the groupVs total3 ~~producdioN.
Both Comsur and Iiti Raymi are companies with great ambitions with respect to the protection ofthe envirnnment and it is not considered necesay to define any additional investments ia tailingsdamsbesides what is already planned for by the companies temselves. Othe operations withinthis group, however, will need substantial improveents, the costs for whid have been included infit etiri below.
Small Mning. This group is large in terms of number of opeons: 1,000-1,500 according to theNational Chamber of Mines, the la being the entity wbidc o these companies. However,its role as a contributor to the national mme producton was only about 9% in 1991. Ihe opeationswithin this group. Vlmost enizly lack protection falifies It is very difficult toestimate the cost of remediation of these opations without malkin an extensive field survey.Except in a few cases, it is nOt liey that the constrction of tailings dams is economicallyfeasible.
Mining cooperatives. Regarding Jhis group, it is even more difficut to get reliable infornimation. ltU includes thousands of operations, which are usually very small scale and pmitive. However, acertain mhanizaion is not ucmonl and the value of the production is reported to Le betweenI00 and 200 million US$. In the operatons, no e rnental d os are tken. Also forthis gup, it has not been possible to make any esimation of remedation costs.
Cost of tailngs dans. As a basis for cost evaluations. we have studied a number of recedy builttailings dams as well as cetain companes' cost estmates for new dams. Mie costs varysubstantially, from about US$ 1S50annual tone of mine capacty for the largest operations toabout US$ 4 - 5 for the smaller and more expenive installation We have arrived at an average ofUSS 2.60 which also includes some improvement of the sewage systems in fte associated miningtowns (Table 2). Using this figure and presming an annual tailings production of 25 milliontonnes. result in a total cost for the construction of taiings dams of USS 6.5 million The dams areusually built for a perod of stowage of 10 years. As noted above, the cost figues do not includepossible requirements within the smal scale and cooperative sect Nor do they includeinvestments by those companes which are aready cari out or plannig such mediation
I measures. Furthermore, it is presumed tbat all investments in new mining venues will includeadequate facilities for waste disposal.
3
I Table 2. Examples of tailings dam costs in Bolvia
Tailis dam Mine cacity Fia dam CoK fr the dam Coa per u Cot pa tomesI WA/~~~Vyd capacit USS anda dja. eaaqt.Toans me cay. USS
Don Diego 270.000?11O0 3.000.1300 400,=00 1.50 0.13
Porno 400.0001.200 400,COO 300.000 2.00 020
Taai 75.0001U0M 7500 270,000 3.60 0.36
San Vicenw 135.000/0 13M0.000 270.000 2.00 020
Huam_n 336.000/100D 3.360.000 1.094000 325 0.33
Sa Jew' 135.O0040 13SO.O0 77.000 m.40 054
I ;Boliur 336.000/1000 30.0W 580.000 1.7S 0.131
[iRas S n114000 Ss II 6.000 120 011
t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~26 0. 26
1 Averae 2.00 0.20
I Table 3. Cost estimate fbr required tailings ds
MINES MINE CAPACrIY cosr TOTAL COST_______________ tenDer/yea USS1$ mion USS
Comibol mnes (continued opeumnons 1M 2.60 3.9joini venums, leasing to cooperadves)
Medium ning 1,00000 260 2.6
TOTAL .2500.000 6.5
Cost estimate for required redmauonaoi projects it is only during the last decades that mininsgI
companes have stared to reclaim old tailing dams and mine dumps. For this reso theexperience is limited. One thing is clear, however. such projects are expensve. To eclaim an oldI ~~tailhngs dam or a mine dump usually costs 5 to 10 times the cost of building a tail ing dam,calculated per ton of Mtaings material contained in the dlam or dump. The usual concept is to coverthe dam or dump so that air cannot reach the sulfide minerals, whereby oxidation is prevented and
4
APPENDIX IV.5
SECrORAL ENVtRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE MINING AND INDUSTRIALSECTORS IN BOLIVIA
I COST OF REMEDIATION OF MINE TAILINGS DAMS AND MINEDUMPS IN BOLIVIA
by Anders Swartling
Introductdon. Deposits of til and wast rock fom minin operations occur In large quanutiesin present and previous mining areas in Bolivia. The management of these waste pmducts hashistoricly been very deficient and this is still the case in many places. As a consequence extensivecontamination originates from tese sources, both from acual mining operations and fromabandoned areas. A particular concer is the usuly very high content of pyrite and pyrtotte inthe waste, which is being oxidized, forming acid waten MIese wates, in tek tun, are leachigout heavy metals, thus minating nature.
As part of the World Bank environmental assessment of dt mining and industal sectors inBolivia, an estimate bas been mi of the approximate cost for isfactry taiingsdams at present oprations and the order of magnitude of costs for vclaiming old waste rockdumps and tailings dams. The estiat is restricted to the Comid mis and the mi of the"Medium Mining sector " (the larger pnivate mi ) and does not Include the severd hundredsmall mines of the "Smal Mining sector, nor the tosands of small "cooperative opeations Anevaluation of the latter two groups would require an extensive field survey as little or w data areavailable. It can also be assumed that a remedistion of many of the small opeations will be costprohibitive.
The estimate has been divided into two parts:
1: Estimate of the cost of construction of adue talings dams at those existing mines whesuch measures are not aready included as an inta part of opeaons.
2: Estimate of the cost of recamation of major old talings dams and mine dumps.
The estimate is based On cost experiences from dam constructions in Bolivia as well as reclamationprojects in Sweden and USA.
Conibol. Since the nationaization of the major mines in 1952, Comibol has mined a total ofabout 115 million tonnes of ore.Tbe mined tonnge between 1900 and 1952 in the larger pdvate
1
.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IS
mines is estimated to another 75 - 100 million tonnes. Afta tatmen 80 to 90% of the minedquntties remain as waste. Therfore, eoredcally, about 150 - 175 million tonnres should havebeen stored in tailing dams. However, many mines had no tailing dams (and some still do nothave) and where dams exist, erosion has sometimes washed away tailings into streams and dvers.
Comibol has made an esfimate of the remaining tonnage in tailings dams and in mine dumps(Table 1). As seen. remaining taiings dams contain about 50 million tonnes and mine dumps 36miDon tonnes of material. Out of the approximately 30 mines that Comibol has opeated since1952 about 12 were still in operation in 1991. About 5-6 mines are considered for pfvatzation
Z and another 5-6 will be leased to cooperatives. The rest will be closed
Table 1. Comibol reserves of metal-bearng waste material for possible re-teatmenL
Mininet Coce wav Fan ailsq Ss Z* Pb ABVW VW t 000 % % Bt
Huaani 22 2375 0.42-.36
Sa Jose 1242 1397 0.34 0.47 39-152
Baliwr _ _ 330 7 0.76 3.97 0.92 75
JvaP 201 425 0.042
Colqti 12016 0.51 3.743 Cuaca a T 137 2065 0.31
San vicM 155 23 1.69 203
_ Tazami 133 720 1.0D0123 1200.35 95-56
Anima. 6 4355 030 0.3 0G7 73
Cioralquc 193 392 0A.-0
Tame 250 193 0.44-024
Unificad 6550 519 027-0.79 196-75
C"vi 25897 19670 0.26.44
TOTAL 35966 49332
Medium m ndiu Mm importance of thiS sector wtin thte Boivian nindustry hm ineasedappreciably during years During the 1950s up t the 1970s it aco fr about 15-20 %of the total mineral production. In 1991 it had grown to 41% and in 1993-1994 it Is expected toaccount for more tuan 50%. The "Asocadn de Mines Mediuos" has today 22 members. Amajonty of these are active mining companies but some are taders. The biggest prducer is
2
a
sodium
pottasium
calcium
magnesium
iron
manganese
zinc
copper
lead
cadmium
mercury
arsenic
chromium (VI)
aluminium
cyanide
xanthates
oil/grease
detergents
phenols
boron
organophosphate
aldrin
DDT
dieldrin
heptachlor
lindane
toxaphene
e A-
l
I methoxychlor
chlordane
I endrin
I PCB
PCDD/PCDF
I total coliforms
fecal coliforms
I total bacteria
'1
I
i
I
I.
-~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~m
i
reactivity. Beside households, the private industry in lack of own facilities commonly usesthis municipal service.
Sewage sludge from aeration-oxidation and sedimentation ponds is produced by disLilleries,breweries, edible oil manufacture and tanneries and often used for amelioration of agriculturalland, but no regular solid waste monitoring is included.
A paper manufacturer visited uses mainly waste paper as secondary raw material for producinglower quality paper however, without retainment of fibric waste materil.
The town's main brewery has built-up an own concept for waste water treatment and soliddisposal, in that the sewage sludge from the aeration and sedimentation poads is used asfertilizer, after further composting.
Problematic seems the safe management of the oil-contaminated sludge from the separation,aeration and sedimentation ponds of the oil refinery, despite the fact that about 30 % of theoil is recovered-and used as secondary energy source. Even more crucial maybe the drillingsludges produced during raw oil extraction, as this type of partly hazardous solid waste issimply just deposited anywhere, without any particular safety measures.
3.2. Cochabamba
Concerning domestic wastes, the city has organized, a regular collection system, but withoutX any prior separation, neither at the collection points nor at the dumping site. Here, all solid
wastes both from industries and households are deposited, regardless of their reactivity orpossible effects on ground-water, except chemical wastes from tanneries which are deposed ata different place.
Although the municipality has partly managed to build-up a sewage system for pre-treatedindustrial and for household waste waters, no equivalent design exisls for solid residuals. Thedischarge of plant and animal residues along the river banks of River Rocha is indicative forthis failing and has caused major public concern.
Again, in those cases, where pre-treatment of waste water (e.g. tanneries, oil refinery, edibleoil and detergent production) or air (explosive manufacturing) is included, the resulting sewagesludges are directly disposed without any further treatment, classification or chemical analysisto assess their hazard and longterm potential.
Despite the overall missing responsibility of most companies for taking care of their wasteproducts, some few exceptions exist which may function as cataiysts for the futuredevelopment, also for other industrial lines.
As an example, tanneries may reuse solid residuals, e.g. leather powder or hide residues ascompost or for the production of glue, respectively, thus decreasing waste production and by3 creating secondary.
3
By installing an adsorption equipment to control air emissions, a cement producing factorysucceeded not only to recover about 99 % of its primary material (carbonate), which wouldhave been lost otherwise, but also to considerably reduce its waste generating potential byreuse of the filter sludge and clinker.
Despite great efforts were made to mitigate possible impacts by liquid eMuents from oilrefinery, the lack of impermeable base layer at the sedimentation ponds and the municipalwaste site (to which the oil-rich sludge is tipped) may still cause groundwater contamination.
3.3. Oruro
Trhe disposal and remov31 of urban garbage is carried out by tie municipalily, wiLhout anyfuirther care of material separation and the recovery of valuables. In addition, private groupsare involved and charged by the city for waste collection. The central dumping site looks likea real disaster, as solid wastes are indiscriminately disposed of or used as energy source on-site by small-scale, inrormal brickmaker in an uncontrolled way, thus contributing toconsiderable air contamination.
Of cuurse, main concerin, witb regard to solid waste disposal, arises from mining andmetallurgical operations nearby, as well as from metal-mechanical industries. In particular,the formation of galvanic sludges, rich in lubricants, Zn-sulfate and hydrochloric acid, maycreate major impacts when disposed without any control or not fed back into the productioncycle. Crude metallic residues can, however, be sold to the big Vinto Smelter, dose-by. The
a situation mine tailings produced within the municipal area and department of Oruro isdescribed in more detail elsewhere.
3.4. La Paz/EI Alto
Untreated process residues and sewage sludges from simple treatment plants are taken by tiemunicipalities of both cities and disposed of at their respective land-fill sites at 'Sopocachi','Relleno Sanitario de Mallasa' (La Paz) and at 'Relleno Sanitarios Hichusirca Chico' (El Alto)together with domestic solid waste.
Waste paper from the paper industry ('La Papelera', La Paz) is processed further to carlboard and other lower grade paper material. Equally, the-collection of plastic (polyethyiene)waste by private individuals (including children and invalids) is favored to produce plasticfoils.
Hazardous solid wastes (e.g. sludge, chemicals) from tanneries are disposed without anyregistration or pretreatment at the municipal waste sites, whereas also here hide residuals areused for glue production (wilhin the manufacture of furniture).
It is said, however, that plans exist with the 'Camera de Industria' for future wastepretreatment.
4
Wm
Also from food production (e.g. 'VENADO': 3 trucks per week) and textile industries (e.g.'FORNO'), solid residues (e.g. melassic waste, waste wool) are taken by private carriers tothe municipal waste site, regardless of their composition. In the latter case it was observedthat waste water was released untreated to Rio Choqueyapu, while a mixture of residual solidswas burned-off directly beltw a school without any smoke protection or emission control.
The recovery.of about 98 7. of dust particles by an installed electrostatic filter and the use of adust collector at the mill of the cement plant at Viacha/EI Alto guarantees an almost completerecycling of otherwise emitted huge amounts of raw material into the current productionprocess.
Plastic waste of a plastic manufacturer ('PLASMAR') amounting at ab out 0.5 t/day is alsoalmost 100 % recycled, whereas plastic residuals from a food factory ('FRANCESA') issimply burned.
Scrap from mechanical industries (e.g. 'CIMAG') is either reused as building auxiliary, soldto galvanic manufacturers or stored uncontrolled in waste pits (CIMAG' produces as anexample about 50 t scrap per year).
During the production of cleaning agents, fatty substances are separated from the boneslfibersand the residues sold as fodder. However, about 300 400 kg per month of solid waste(sludge) is ??M.? in one case visited ('PATRIA') and disposed by the municipality.
One of the worst example of solid waste disposal system was observer in a tanneryg ('ILLIMANI') where all waste residuals (e.g. NaS2, site without any segregation (ca. 15-20 t
per 3 months).
4. Groundwater Contamination
There is one very well documented, recent example on the contamination of groundwater bypercolating waler from solid waste disposal sites (J. Caceres M. 1992. Contaminacidn deAcuiferas por Lixiviado de Residuos S61idos Urbanos: Caso de la ciudad de La Paz.Recursos Hfdricos y Medio Ambiente).
The study describes the design and performance of solid waste deposition at the "Botadero deSopocachi- (dose to the city of La Paz) and at the aReleno Sanitario de Mallasa" (close toRio Abajo, operating since 1989). While the first one has been closed, the 'RelenoSanitario' receives today the main part of all domestic and industrial waste material from LaPaz. "Sopocachi' can be looked at as a typical old waste disposal site, with no impermeablebase concealing or lateral walls, thus percolating water is moving both into groundwater andadjacent rivers (from Rio Cotauma into Rio Choqueyapu). Due to the lack of slope
X consolidation, gliding increases additionally the mobility of percolating water.
Conceming the situation at the sanitary landfill 'Mallasa', the percolating water passes a filterbed, which is supposed to be able to prevent groundwater contamination (according to aI computer modelling of fluid migration in soils). However, the percolating water may havereached the aquifer via Rio Choqueyapu, at these waste sites may not threaten directly the
5
drinking water supply of the city of La Paz, but may perhaps affect the quality of irrigationwater taken from Rio choqueyapu downstream.
In addition, the increased water treatment may produce contaminated industrial sludgeenriched with persistent elements, like Pb, Cr, Zn and Sn, which become deposited at theseland rills, thus increasing the load of lhe percolating water with these contaminants. It isihererore highly required to collect and treat the percolating water befiore it may enterreceiving systenms.
5. General Outlook
Beside private households and commerce, it is supposed that industries producing most solidresiduals in Bolivia are as follow:
o breweries (e.g. cereals, yeast, sewage sludge)O slaughterhouses (blood, tissues)o textile (wool, cotton, dirt, fatty substances, soil, fibre, syntidetics)oa tanneries (culling residuals, tanning agents)o pharmaceutics (waste solvents)v paintings (solvents, paint sediments)o oil refineries (oil and toxic mud)
However, no data is presently available yet about the amount of solid wastes produced byX these (and other) types of industries.
Some estimated discharge rates for solid waste may be done by the use of internationallyI derived empirical data (for the respective industry) multiplied with the production rate (amountper time unit). As an example, the amount of solid residues produced by the municipalslaughterhouse of La Paz and by the country's breweries has been calculated as around 30tlday, and 7 tJday, respectively (1982) (1. Diaz B. 1986. La Contaminacidn Originada por laIndustria en Bolivia. In: Impacto del Desarrollo en la Ecologla del Tr6pico Boliviano,simposio Ecoldgico, St. Cruz; see also appendix: Informe de Alcaldfa de El Alto).
It is still a rather common picture in the country that solid wastes are deposited in receivingwaters or in their immediate surrounding, thus causing a high risk potential for infectiousdiseases (by flies, mosquitos, rats, etc.) for those using this water.
In the study cited above, the following reconmnendations were given in order to reduce thecontamination by residual industrial solids:
o improving municipal recollection of residual solids to preserve water bodies and soilsof disposal sites
o enhanced recycling and reuse of residual valuables in wastes(o increasing public awareness and concerno realizing the 'Reglamento sobre Residuos S61idos'
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