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WorkplaceDisasterCollectivePostventionDiane RoseBergquistBSW, MSW aa Diane RoseBergquist ,3601RaspberryRoad, #1A,Anchorage,AK, 99502,USAPublishedonline: 14Oct 2008.

To cite this article: Diane Rose BergquistBSW, MSW (1995) Workplace DisasterCollective Postvention, Employee AssistanceQuarterly, 10:1, 61-77, DOI: 10.1300/J022v10n01_04

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Workplace Disaster Collective Postvention Diane Rose Bergquist

ABSTRACT. There is a growing recognition that corporations not ody need to attend to the legal. medical, and safety needs of em- ployees following a workplace disaster, but the psychological impact or trauma may in fact be the most difficult to overcome. A practical collcctive workplace disaster plan is described with emphasis on information, peer suppart, education, and follow-up services. A case example is given to illustrate these four key concepts.

Experience is a hard teacher because she gives the test f i r s f 4 n d rhe lesson afterwards.

-Anonymorrs

CASE EXAMPLE

The Nationair DC-8 jet was barely recognizable-bits and pieces of its burnt-out metal scattered across the Saudi Arabian desert.

If not for the bodies, luggage and personal items Like iden- tity cards lying in the sand, the site would have looked more like an abandoned junkyard than the crash of a passenger jetliner. That was the scene last July 11 after the Nationair jet plunged

into the desert outside Jedda, killing all 261 people on board. It was the worst disaster ever for a Canadian airline. (The story of the Nationair crash, 1992.)

Diane Rose Bcrgquist, BSW, MSW, is a Clinician at Human Affairs Alaska. Addrcss correspondcnce to: Dime Rase Rcrgquisr. 3601 Raspberry Road,

#]A, Anchorage, AK 99502.

Employee Assistance Quanerly, Vol. IOU) 1994 D 1994 by The Haworth Press, he. All rights reserved. 61

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62 EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE QUARTERLY

workpkdce disasters are not supposed to happen! For if they were predictable, one would assume, they would have been prevented (Fleming & Baum, 1985). Due to our advanced technology and emergency procedures, often the assumption is made that no one will be killed while working. Unfortunately, few corporations have a crisis intervention plan to deal w-ith the psychological impact of a disaster upon the corporation and its employees. Crises like the one described with Nationair can and do happen anywhere and to any corporation.

Traumatic events which have emotional consequences for entire corporations seem to be increasing in frequency across the country (Gwaltney, 1987; Walsh & Ruez, 1987; Pack, 1992). Whether it be the multiple slaying of employees or the massive destruction of lives and property, or whether the cause is intentional or an acci- dent, the aftermath of the emotional trauma experienced by em- ployees is more similar than different (Young, 1991).

Because our society treats death as a private family matter, we tend to avoid dealing with its impact on the workplace. Corpora- tions are equally vulnerable to sudden death and disaster as families and they have similar needs to experience a healing process and to honor their dead while continuing to live and work (Little, Gafhey, & Grissmer, 1991).

But how should a corporation go about informing 1400 em- ployees, as in the case example, thar they have just lost their prop- erty, colleagues, friends, roommates and yes, even their spouse? What are the needs of employees immediately following a disaster and how can a corporation meet these needs yet continue to do “business as usual?” Is there a proactive plan that a corporation can establish should a workplace disaster occur that would minimize negative psychological trauma and expedite recovery? These are the questions that will be addressed in this article.

WORKPLACE DISASTER COLLECTIVE POSTVENTION

There is a management saying called the “KISS” principle. It stands for “Keep It Simple Stupid!” We practice this principle when doing other emergency drills such as evacuating a building due to a fire or earthquake. During a workplace disaster however,

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Dime Rose Berggsisf 63

corporations can find themselves in the midst of disorganization, chaos, and scrambling to find help. Unfortunately, it is usually after organizations have experienced a disaster that operational crisis intervention plans are put in place (Shulman, 1990). Just as corpora- tions have other emergency prncedures, they also need to have a simple plan that can be put into action in a moments notice fol- lowing a workplace disaster.

Major themes have emerged from crisis intervention theory and practice (Golan, 1978; Robens, 1990 & 1991) and critical incident mess debriefing (Mitchell, 1983; Mitchell L Brady, 1990). First, employees experiencing workplace trauma need information in order to establish an internal sense of order and perspective so that they will be able to process painful and powerful emotions. Secondly, employees require peer support which will enable them to develop a sense of security, reassurance, solidarity, and cumfort. Thirdly, it is necessary to provide education so that employees can understand what reactions are normal and be able to identify personal problem areas early. Finally. employees need to know what follow-up services and resources are available should they require further assistance. Personal interviews conducted with Nationair employees verified the above principles in the literature (Nationair, personal comrnunicd- tion, April 1992). These key concepts provide a framework for group post-disaster intervention pradce in the workplace.

Collective postvention refers to the application of crisis interven- tion techniques in a group setting (The Board of Education for the City of Hamilton, 1990). Postvention describes those activities which serve to reduce the aaumatic after-effects of a workplace disaster. The purpose of postvention is to help employees Live less stressful and more productively than they are likely to do otherwise following a workplace disaster. Collective postvention minimizes the seventy and duration of emotional trauma by helping employees understand and cope more effectively with their own and each other’s reactions. A plan c o n f m s that a tragedy has occurred and that acknowledgment lends legitimacy to whatever reactions the employees may have.

Workplace disasters reverberate through all levels of the corpora- tion and even tluough the families of employees. Spouses, of Na- tionair crew members, reported a tremendous amount of anxiety for

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the safety of their husbands who were still flying the DCd. They too had feelings of fear, anger, and grief over the accident (Na- tionair, personal communication, April 1992). Since trauma h so disconcerting to the functioning of employees, a workplace disaster plan needs to be in place prior to such events so that the corporation can in essence “walk through” a crisis intervention protocol. In developing a plan for dealing with a workplace disaster, principles and guidelines unique to the corporation and applicable to any catastrophe need to be formulated and activated. A simple, uncam- plicated workplace disaster plan is beneficial for any corporation.

Information, peer suppon, education, and follow-up services are four key concepts that need to be personalimd to the corporation but are essential in any workplace disaster plan. All of these activi- ties should be guided by tight, practical procedures which will result in economic, short-term, and rapid assistance to employees (Cohen, 1990).

Inforrnation

Workplace disasters throw the world of work for employees “out of control” (Young, 1991). An example of this occurred when. Nationair employees heard of the OC-8 crash; they were afraid to phone their colleagues to find out what happened, for fear that perhaps these friends may have been the victims. Corporations often assume that because their employees are safe that they must therefore feel safe.

When accurate information is not available, rumors begin. At Nationair, rumors initially ranged from tire failure to a bomb Cram human error to technical emor (Nationair, personal communication, April 1992). Rumors emphasize the worst possible scenarios during a workplace disaster. Employees are going to talk about the disaster. Without the real facts to share, employees may speculate, and those speculations become entwined with the facts and soon are not dis- tinguishable from the facts (Watson, Poda, Miller. Rice, and West, 1990).

Several Nationair employees were awakened by the news, from family members and friends. At first they thought that it must be a bad dream, or joke, or another airline that crashed. Common reac- tions were shock, disbelief, anger, feelings of guilt, vulnerability,

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powerlessness, fear, and sorrow. They reported watching the televi- sion in hopes of finding out some new piece of information. As they viewed the same newscasts again and again, they tried to make sense of what they were seeing and experiencing. As more facts became known they began to feel less anxious. (Nationair, personal communication, April 1992).

In order for employees to gain cognitive mastery over the di- saster, they need to obtain a realistic understanding of the events that took place. The famous “W5 questions” need a straight for- ward answer to: “what happened,” “who died,” “where and whcn did it happen,” and fmally the big question-“why?”. The quick dissemination of the “W5 questions,” will help eliminate chaos with employees and their families who immediately fear the worst.

Basic points for the corporation to remember when dealing with a workplace disaster are as follows (Stevenson, 1986):

1. Employees should be told if at all possible at the same time by a person(s) they nust and see as an authority figurc. Thk ensures that each employee receives the same accurate information.

2. Employetx need to be given information in plain terms, quietly, simply, and directly. Religious symbolism and plati- tudes should be avoided but all questions must be answered honestly and directly. Never use “no comment.” If a question cannot be addressed, provide the reason it cannot be answered (Watson et al., 1990).

3. It is important to remember that there is no one “right” rc- sponse. Management should not he afraid to speak about feel- ings and emotions, as this normalizes the reactions of all af- fected i d helps facilitate the healing process to begin for the next phase-peer support.

Feeding the “employee grapevine” with accurate information can be as productive a using professional media resources in spreading information to the public. When employees are accu- rately informed, h e community is accurately informed. Often, such a word-of-mouth network can be very effective in countering false tumors, prevent the unnecessary deterioration of workplace morale, and create ambassadors for the corporation (Falconer, 1992).

Disasters cause changes in organimhonal systems which, in turn,

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require the corporation to adapt quickly to different demands (Pew & Lmdell, 1978). Fear of the unknown is especially evident following a workplace disacter. Nationair employees and their spouses were un- able to acquire needed information as phone lines. to the head office in Montreal and international phone lines to Jedda. were busy (Na- tionair, personal communication, April 1992). A volunteer employee crisis "hot line'' can become the key to asmooth flow of information ensuring fewer residual crises and also meet the needs of em- ployees-to be active and helpful during a time of crisis. Corporations need to obtain, disseminate, and update information about the details of the event a5 quickly as possible (Shulman, 199@). Communication should be a pan of any workplace disaster plan. Critical information eliminates anxiety and dispels rumors in the workplace.

The strategy of sharing information may seem like common sense, but it is a fairly recent development in the corporate world (Falconer, 1992). A compelling argument for early and open com- munication is the hypothesis that early intervention encounters less resistance to counseling and less denial of need, which e f f i m a more rapid recovery of employees (Seroka, Knapp, Knight, Siemon, & Starbuck, 1986). The era of the omnipotent management has faded; today corporations are scrutinized not only by govem- ment and the media but also their own employees. If it is true, that our most important resource is our buman resource then trust and information sharing with employees is anecessity, not an option.

Peer Suppoi?

The psychological and emotional effects of a workplace di- saster spread like ripples from a stone cast into a pond. gener- ally diminishing with distance, but present in significant amounts far from the point of impact. (Kilpatrick, 1981 p. 1)

Generally speaking, there is a direct nlationship between the impact of the disacter and the involvement of the employee. The general guideline is that the closer any individual is to the center of the tragedy. the higher the risk for longer-term sbess reactions (Young, 1991). Nationair CEWS who were in Jedda at the time of the crash were more directly impacted and had a greater sense of fear, powerlessness, and vulnerability (Nationair, personal communication, April 1992).

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Diarie Rose Brrgquisr 67

Employees directly affected by the disaster, close to the point of impact, will need individual counseling, care, and attention. To a+ sum that anyone is psychologically equipped to walk thruugh the burning carnage of a jet crash trying to identify the body p m of workplace friends s h e was just speaking to moments earlier is ludi- CCOUE. “It’s Like my brain made a horror movie,” testified one Na- tionair employee, “that I can’t stop” (Nationair, personal commu- nication, April 1992). Longer-term grief reactions are to be expected when the employee. perceives that the death was preventable andlor the relationship to the deceased was central (Perry & Lindell, 1978).

The general rule is that most behaviors related to bereavement are normal. “Normal disaster reactions” are described as those which do not persist beyond the initial period and remain temporary in nature (Peny & Lindell, 1978). However, if an employee is psychologically unstable before the workplace disaster impact, she will remain so after impact (Perry & Lindell, 1978). Common grief reactions and coping with the phenomenon of death is felt among everyone in a corporation. No one is immune. People in crisis need to ventilate, to be accepted, and to receive supporr, assistance, and encouragement to discover the paths to their own crisis resolution (Roberts, 1991). Collective grief can not be smothered. Given the opponunity, collec- tive grief will bring employees together, but denied, it will tear them apart.

Myrick (Blume et al., 1986 p. 118) states that, “grief is best dealt u,ith when we can share the experience.” Research evidence indi- cates that interactional therapies, including small group approaches, are generally more effective in dealing with a problem than are purely individual-centered approaches (Parad, 1984; Shulman, 1990 Mitchell, 1983). Workplace debriefiigs have advantages not found in individual crisis intervention such as group support, companion- ship, and shared information about community resources (Mitchell & Brady, 1990). Employees em also be very helpful in suggesting to one another alternative coping techniques specific to their work- place. The healing process is significantly accelerated with a goup because of the sense of urgency inherent in a workplace disaster, the constraints of time limits, and the focus.

Young (1991) notes that the best source of validation of emo- tional reactions is the knowledge that others exposed to similar

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horrors reacted in similar ways. Nationair flight crew are a “work family” and therefore only those in the “family” really knew and understood what they were feeling and thinking (Nationair, per- sonal communication, April 1992). As a result, employees initially may resent outside intervention, finding it to be intrusive. In most cases, the most easily accepted helper for an employee is another employee.

It is the work family that becomes ones main support system during a workplace crisis. Peer support networks ensure the em- ployees access to post-impact aid. It is interesting to note that the Nationair crews who were stationed literally around the world, upon hearing of the DC-8 crash, instinctively and immediately gathered together to talk and reassure one another.

Peer support is basically people helping people. Most literature has focused on individual counseling techniques following a di- saster (Sussal & Ojakian, 1988; Fisher & Fisher, 1991; Hillenberg & Wolf, 1988). Not only does individual counseling reach few em- ployees in a large corporation, but its focus has been primarily on dysfunction rather than the normalcy of grief reactions. For an employer to pmvide individual crisis intervention in the workplace following a disaster would not only be nearly impossible, as in our case example with Nationair and its 1403 employees residing far from one another, but also costly, unnecessary, and may even alienate employees from one another.

Workplace debriefmgs reduce the fallacy of uniqueness and ab- normality by normalizing the grief response. The best format for the debriefmg is a mandatory group meeting, for all employees, soon after the disaster. This is ctucial as it doesn’t single anyone out and gives permission to employees to request funher confidential pro- fessional counseling, if they feel it would be helpful, without a label of being “sick,” “weak,” or “unable to handle it.”

Employees involved in a workplace disaster have extreme feel- ings of fear and anxiety, as well as embarrassment over experi- encing these feelings. It is, therefore, imperative that all em- ployees have an opportunity immediately to defuse and to discuss their reactions. Peer support debriefings reduce the severity and duration of emotional trauma by helping employees understand and cope more effectively with their own and each other’s reac-

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tions. These group discussions are designed to put a bad situation into perspective, and they are not considered group therapy (Young, i99i).

Employees should be relieved of their work duties and divided into their peer group, using the case example, management with management, flight crew with flight crew. Groups should be approximately from 7 to 14 people in order to maintain small group dynamics whereby everyone has the opportunity to speak and a group discussion can be easily facilitated. A comfortable and pri- vate room along with rekeshments should be provided. Note taking, recorders, and observers are prohibited.

The following is a guideline for peer support debriefings to help in the facilitation of the healing process following a workplace disaster. These questions should be personalized to each workplace disaster and corporation (Mitchell, t983; Parad, 1984: Young, 1991).

Step 1: Infroduction

1. The peer support facilitator describes the purpose and format of the peer support debriefing.

2. The need for absolute confidentiality is explained and empha- sized.

3. ’he reason why they are gathered together is made explicit. It is because of the workplace disaster which is creating distress and other issues are not to be discussed at this time.

4. Review the motto of peer support debriefing, “people helping people.” Even if they do not see the need for having a de- briefing personally, stress that their colleagues need their help.

Step 2: Ventilarion of Thoughts. Feelings, and Reactions

1. Go around the circle and ask each group member to briefly introduce themselves.

2. Ask each panicipant to describe where they were, what they were doing, whom they were with, and how they heard about the workplace disaster.

3. Ask them to describe their first thought, feeling, and reaction to the tragedy. The flight crew in Jedda vividly remembered the sight of the crash, the smell, the heat, and the deafening

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silence. Other Nationair employees recalled the news broad- casts or other accidents they had been involved with (Na- tionair, personal communication, April 1992).

4. Encourage validation of reactions. The most effective valida- tion comes from one employee to another.

5. The peer facilitator should then give a summary of common grief reactions such as anger, fear, confusion, self-blame, and other strong emotions. Identify common reactions over gener- alizations, misconceptions, and imtional belief statements.

Step 3: Education

1. Ask participants what unusual things they are experiencing now. Have them reflect on their current feelings, relationships with family members and friends, changes in daily living rou- tines, their physical health, and repetitive thoughts.

2. Have them describe any chanps in their life al home or at work since the disaster.

3. Reassure members of the normalcy of these thoughts, feel- ings, and reactions.

4. Ask each g o u p member to briefly describe how they have coped with other losses in their life.

5 . Discuss as a group what works and what doesn’t work. Stress that effective coping styles should include those which maxi- mize an individual’s perception of control.

6. Inform panicipants of the resources available to them such as counseling services, films, books, and articles that may be helpful.

7. The ongoing concern and suppon of the corporation for the employee should be emphasized.

Step 4: Resolution

I. Most of our death rituals center around the burial of the body. Employees may want to participate in a “personalized ritual,” that would acknowledge the disaster and begin the healing process. Activities bond employees together by allowing them to share in their common history. Have the group brainstorm on what they could do in order to feel some closure to the

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Diarw Rose Bergquirt 71

event and perhaps may also be helpful to others. In the case example, Nationair flight crew had engraved personal plaques sent to each of the flight crew victim’s families, in honor of them.

2. Ask group members if there are any loose ends or questions that a t t still needing to be answered.

3. Give participants a hand-out summarizing: common traumatic stress responses; a description of good coping skills such as exercise, nutrition, a reading list, and a support network; and counseling agencies phone numbers and addresses which spe- cialize in crisis intervention.

4. Let employees know how and when they will be informed of upcoming funerals and other meetings and events important to them.

5. Inform participants that they can go back to work, stay and talk, or go home if they wish (if this is at all possible). Usually within the next couple of days. cmployees are able to return to business as usual.

6. Thank participants for coming and remind them that they are each others best resource. Invite group members to stay for re- freshments and inform participants that the peer facilitator will stay to answer any questions.

The potential usefulness of peer support debriefings during a workplace crisis should not be undervalued. First, peer suppo17 debriefings are effective and efficient in workplace disasters and should be promoted. Secondly, it addresses the problems, issues, and concerns employees will face in the future and helps them to prepare for dealing with these matters. Thirdly, an employee’s peers will continue to be at the workplace providing a suppon network long after initial impact thereby ensuring stability. Finally, it is an efficient, effective, and economic medium to helping employees experiencing collective workplace trauma.

The attractiveness of using an employee’s peers is that they do not attempt to maintain objectivity and distance, but rather involve them- selves personally. Reciprocating the roles of giver and receiver strengthens the suppon network and improves morale. Peer support debriefing are in essence a form of psychological first aid. The

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group process is an effective way of helping employees cope with sudden loss and give an understanding that the grieving process is a healthy and normal response to emotional injury. There are times when informal support is the intervention of choice (Shulman, 1990).

Peer suppon is a catalyst that makes the transition much easier for the employee to receive individual crisis intervention. Though it has definite boundaries, it plays a proactive role in the well-being of employees by ensuring that further assistance is readily available and accessible.

There is nothing magical or mystical about debriefmgs following a workplace disater. Simply, they are structured and focused small group meetings that facilitate the ventilation of emotions, provide education and discussion of methods used for stress reduction, fore- warn employees what signs and symptoms of distress might materi- alize later, and most importantly give support and reassurance for one another. The need to ventilate, to be with other employees, and to understand what did and will happen to them are the underpin- nings of peer support debriefings after a workplace disaster.

Education

Having a proactive workplace disaster plan does not take place in a vacuum. In order to make such a plan successful, education becomes the foundation upon which such a plan rests. Four pri- mary principles to consider when developing a plan are (Shulrnan, 1990):

1. Establish a relationship with a mental health practitioner who specializes in crisis intervention and debriefings.

2. In consultation with the mental health practitioner develop a well-defined, simple, and adaptable plan that is able to meet any emergency.

3. The workplace disaster plan should be a part of staff orienta- tion thereby familiarizing all employees of its operation and benefits.

4. Train volunteer peer support leaders in the debriefing process; cognitive, physiological, psychological, and behavioral reac- tions to trauma; and the appropriate use of referral resources.

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Dime Rose Bergrlnisl 73

Employees in corporations are often private, highly educated, and independent learners who use written materials effectively in learning new skills. Concrete activities to assist employees in the reconstruction and the reordering of their lives can easily be achieved through educational materials.

Self-help literature enables employees to detect their problems early on and gives them tips on problem resolution. It also legiti- mires the impact of the workplace disaster upon the employee and provides an implicit statement of the company’s commitment to their recovery. Gaining access to essential information enables employees to access counseling without k i n g embarrawd or ashamed. Na- tionair employees said information addressing topics, which are gen- erally off 1imif.s for discussion at work, such as marital tension. financial problems, or physical and emotional problems would have been helpful (Nationair, personal communication. April 1992). Briefly, the self-help literature distributed should provide ernpluyees information on workplace disaster reactions, coping skills, and pm- cedures for obtaining individual counseling when needed.

Follow-Up Services

There may be those within the corporation that want the work- place disaster forgotten as soon as possible. These persons may contend that follow-up services will only reinforce the employees’ grief over the event. Such statements may come as a genuine con- cern forthe employees’ well-being; however, it does not come from an understanding of the grief healing process.

For most employees, the debriefmgs along with continued peer support will be sufficient to mitigate longer-term reactions, as disas- ters seldom create severe and chronic mental health problems (Shulman, 1990 Perry & Lindell, 1978). Other employees, how- ever. may need individual help and trained mental health profes- sionals will be the source of that follow-up (Young, 1991).

Apan from the immediate therapeutic benefit of peer support debriefmgs, the g o u p process also serves as a way to screen for at risk individuals. When employees understand that other employees may in fact manifest similar symptoms, their usual independent orientation becomes more pliable and therefore more open to indi- vidual counsel. Although peer suppolt is invaluable in a workplace

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disaster, employees do not have the expertise that goes with clinical training or crisis interventions (Walsh & Ruez, 1987).

Pilots, as an example, are trained to be in control and are in positions of great power and responsibility. These characteristics allow them to be competent in their jobs but they also make them hesitant to involve others in their problems (Little et al., 1991). The traditional model of psychiatric diagnosis and treatment is believed to, perhaps, threaten their career so they avoid it at all costs (Little et al., 1991). This independent nature and resistance towards coun- seling, not only found in pilots but also in other professionals, panicularly those in management positions, lead many employees to the denial and suppression of problems.

The stigma related to seeking professional support can best be eliminated through the corporation's close affiliation with local r.- sources and including them in p1,mning and training activities so that mutual understanding. respect. and a relationship can be nurtured (van Goethem, 1990). With the proper facilitation of peer support debricfmgs, the arrival of mental health professionals is usually seen as an act of support and reassurance amid the chaos. Symptoms quiring intervention can be minimized if timely and appropriate crisis intervention techniques are delivered (Shulman, 1990).

The m m e r in which one grieves is a very personal matter. What is clear though, is the recognized phases of the psychological healing process must include working through the impact of the loss upon the corporation and its employees. Employees do not forget trauma easily (Watson et al., 1990).

The first anniversary of the disaster is an excellent opportunity to acknowledge that the workplace disaster has occurred and that people were affected by it. It is a time to quietly and respectively remember those who died. At this lime, a fmal perspective can be gained and a reflection of the healing that has come. Little will be gained by continuing acknowledgment of the workplace disaster beyond the first year (Watson et al., 1990).

Consulting with large numbers of employees during a workplace disaster is a challenge. While there are differences between working with individuals in crisis and employees in collective crises, the enormity of the challenge magnifies the need for specific interven- tion strategies that expedites the maximum resolution.

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Often corporations believe that economic health and human health are inherently incompatible. The decision to orient its em- ployees to a workplace disaster plan, train peer support facilitators, and educate themselves in collective postvention takes time and money; however, the advaniages of developing a workplace disaster plan are obvious when compared to the potentially negative conse- quences for large numben of employees. It is only logical that corporations assume a proactive stance in the development of such a plan. By educating employees of prearranged guidelines for dealing with workplace !muma, a course of action and the rationale behind it, employees are empowered. Employees need to know that even in a disaster, they can influence the outcome.

CONCLUSION

How corporations implement a workplace disaster plan is pa- tially determined by their organizational and social values. A corpo- ration can best deal with a workplace disaster of untimely and unnatural death of its employees by pmviding information, peer support, education, and follow-up services.

The fust ubjective is to develop a cognitive sense of order for employees; the second objective helps employees develop a sense of internal comfort and support; the third and fourth objectives mini- mize both immediate and longer-term mental health problems aig- gered by such events (Shulman, 1990). This appmach attends to the person-in-environment model and to the primary domains of human functioning, namely thinking, feeling, and doing (Paad, 1984). It is the corporation who has an operational workplace disaster plan that stands the best chance of pmviding the right type of help at the light time and therefore the quickest recovery of its employees.

The absolute prevention of workplace disasters is unattainable, but the tragic longer-term aftermath is within the realm of the cor- poration. It is imperative that in this age of workplace violence and disasters that a simple uncomplicated workplace disaster plan such as the one described, be implemented.

Note: Nationair Canada claimed bankruptcy in April of 1993

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