women pub 2010

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An informal report on the status of

Women in the Utah Labor Force

Hard at WHard at WHard at WHard at WHard at WorkorkorkorkorkWWWWWomen in the Utah Labor Forceomen in the Utah Labor Forceomen in the Utah Labor Forceomen in the Utah Labor Forceomen in the Utah Labor Force

A Publication of:

Utah Department of

Workforce Services

PO Box 45249

Salt Lake City, UT

jobs.utah.gov

February 2010

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Execut ive Summ ary

Demographics

Labor Forc e

Occupat ions

Wages

ContentsContentsContentsContentsContents3

8

1624

33

Prepared by Lecia Parks Langston435/[email protected]

435

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That great events areabout to transpire in

which women willperform an active andimportant revolution-

ary part we are notafraid to predict. Thegreat question is, is

she preparing herselffor the position she is

destined to occupy

and the work which willconsequently devolve

upon her?

Emmeline B. Wells,Editor of UtahsThe

Womans Exponent,1880

Just the Facts, Ma'amJust the Facts, Ma'amJust the Facts, Ma'amJust the Facts, Ma'amJust the Facts, Ma'amExExExExExecutive Summaryecutive Summaryecutive Summaryecutive Summaryecutive Summary

PopulationPopulationPopulationPopulationPopulation In a change from previous years, men outnumbered women in Utah based

on Census 2000 data. Males numbered 1,119,000 compared to females at1,114,000. This change occurred primarily because of an influx of work-age male Hispanics. According to the 2008 American Community Survey,that relationship still holds true.

In the 65 years-or-older category, women far outnumber men in Utah.

With 31 percent of its population under the age of 18, Utah has the young-

est population in the nation.

Marriage and FamilyMarriage and FamilyMarriage and FamilyMarriage and FamilyMarriage and Family

According to the 2008 American Community, 56 percent of Utahs women15 years and older are marrieddown from 69 percent in 1950. A higherpercentage of Utahns are married than in any other state in the nation.

The share of Utah women who are divorced has increased from 2 percent in1950 to 10 percent in 2008.

The median age at first marriage in Utah measures 26.1 for the groom and23.5 for the bridelowest in the nation. The median age at first marriage inUnited States measures 28.0 for the groom and 26.2 for the bride.

Utah women who have never married comprised 26 percent of all marriage-able age women in 2008 compared with 19 percent in 1950.

Utahs divorce rate typically runs slightly higher than the U.S. average andhas done so for decades. In addition, the method of determining divorce

rates understates Utahs figures. In 2007, there were 3.5 divorces in Utahper 1,000 populationonly the second time since 1960 that Utah's divorcerate has measured below the national average.

Divorce rates reached their peak in the early 80s and have since moder-ated.

Utahns are more likely than their national counterparts to marry and re-marry .

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Utahs birthrate of 20.4 births per thousand population far outstripped thenational average of 14.3 births per thousand population in 2007. Utahsbirth rate has remained higher than the national average for decades andranks as one of the highest in the nation.

Roughly 14 percent of Utahs households with children are headed bywomen (with no husband present)far lower than the national average of 24percent.

Utahs families are larger than the U.S. norm. Families in Utah include 3.67persons compared to 3.22 nationally. In 1960, the average Utah familyincluded 3.99 persons.

About 5 percent of Utah families include seven or more members com-pared to only 2 percent nationally.

EducationEducationEducationEducationEducation In 2008, 91 percent of Utah women aged 25 and older had graduated from

high school. Utah men showed a high school graduation rate of 90 percent.Together, Utah men and women rank seventh highest in the nation for highschool graduation rates.

Roughly 26 percent of Utah women had a bachelors degree or higher in

2008 compared to 27 percent of U.S. women. Utah men showed a 32 per-cent rate of college graduation in contrast to the U.S. average of 28 percent.

While prior to 1990, Utah women showed a higher rate of college gradua-tion than U.S. women, by 2000, Utah women had lost their bachelorsdegree or higher educational edge.

Utah showsby far the largest gap in the nation between male and femalecollege-graduation rates.

Utah women are getting more education, but are not keeping up with theirmale or U.S. counterparts.

Labor ForceLabor ForceLabor ForceLabor ForceLabor Force In 2008, roughly 62 percent of Utah women over the age of 16were par-

ticipants in the labor market. Nationally, 60 percent of women were in thelabor force.

In 1900, 13 percent of Utah women worked outside the home; in 1940,about a fourth; in 2000, 61 percent.

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The influx of women into the labor market has been relatively steady. Par-ticipation rates have increased by about 8 percentage points each decade.

Women comprise about 44 percent of the Utah labor force.

Utah women fell behind U.S. women in labor force participation until 1980.Since that point, Utah women have shown higher participation rates thanthe national average.

Labor force participation is higher for Utah women partially because of thestates young labor force (younger women are more likely to work).

Utah women aged 20 to 24 are most likely to work.

Almost 59 percent of married Utah women work outside the home.

Roughly 74 percent of Utahs mothers with school-age children work.

About 59 percent of Utahs mothers of preschool-age children work.

Utah women generally experience higher unemployment rates than doUtah men. The exception is during recessionary periods when male joblessrates exceed those of females.

Women make up the largest share of discouraged workers both in Utah andthe U.S. Discouraged workers are those which have stopped looking forwork because they believe they cannot find a job..

About 27 percent of Utah women in the labor force work part-time comparedto 18 percent of U.S. women.

Utah women in metropolitan areas are more likely to work outside thehome than those living in more rural settings.

Summit, Grand, Salt Lake, and Davis counties exhibit the highest femalelabor force participation in Utah.

Piute, Rich, San Juan, and Washington counties show the lowest femalelabor force participation.

The average Utah woman worked 33 hours per week in 2008behind Utahmen with an average of 41 hours per week.

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OccupationsOccupationsOccupationsOccupationsOccupations In 1980, one-fourth of Utah women worked in an occupation where at least

90 percent of the profession was held by women. By 2000, the comparableshare had dropped to 10 percent.

Roughly 84 percent of Utah healthcare-support occupations are held bywomen. Healthcare-support occupations include lower-skilled healthcarepositions such as aides, orderlies, assistants, and massage therapists.

Utah women hold only 2 percent of construction and mining positions. Inaddition, women constitute only 3 percent of installation/maintenance/repair

workers.

A higher percentage of computer/mathematical jobs, healthcare practitio-ners, business/financial operation occupations, life/physical/social scien-tists, and architecture/engineering occupations are held by U.S. womenthan by Utah women.

Some female-dominated occupations have become even more concen-trated with women. For example, in 1980, roughly 66 percent of all el-ementary school teachers in Utah were female. By 2000, Utah women hadincreased their share of this occupation to 78 percent. Female cosmetolo-

gists increased their occupation share from 89 percent in 1980 to 95 per-cent in 2000..

During 2002 (the most recent data available), women owned one-fourth ofall Utah businesses.

EarningsEarningsEarningsEarningsEarnings A number of different data series make providing an ultimate figure for the

gap between mens and womens earnings difficult.

Data from the 2008 American Community Survey for Utah shows the me-dian earnings for year-round, full-time male workers at $45,000. The com-

parable figure for female workers measures $31,200.

On average, Utah women made 69 percent of male earnings.

Nationally, the American Community Survey shows a male/female wageratio of 78 percent.

Utah had the fourth largest wage gap in the nation in 2008, bettering its1990 performance when Utah showed the widest gap in the nation.

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Regardless of the data series used, the wage gap statewide and nationallyhas decreased since 1980.

By age, the wage gap is smallest for women between 20 and 24.

The largest wage gap occurs for Utah men and women with less than a highschool education

The smallest wage gap occurs for Utah men and women with advanceddegrees.

White women and men in Utah show a much larger wage gap than thosefrom minority ethnic or racial groups.

Many of the occupations with the smallest wage gap are those whichrequire math, science, or analytical skills or are jobs dominated by men.

Occupational choice is the largest factor in the wage gap. Other demo-graphic factorsless education, less occupational tenure, etc. also con-tribute to the difference in mens and womens earnings.

No study has explained away the wage gap using the differing demo-graphic characteristics of men and women suggesting that institutionaldiscrimination does exist.

In 2008, according to the American Community Survey, 30 percent of Utahfemale-headed families with children had incomes below the poverty line. Incomparison, only 6 percent of married couple families with children and 13percent for single male-headed families were in poverty.

Data Resources:Data Resources:Data Resources:Data Resources:Data Resources:

U.S. Census Bureau:

www.census.gov

Women-Owned Businesses:http://www.census.gov/csd/sbo/women2002.htm

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics:www.bls.gov

Earnings by Education and Occupation:www.census.gov/hhes/income/earnings/earnings.html

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"We believe that womenare useful, not only to

sweep houses, washdishes, make beds andraise babies, but that

they should standbehind the counter,

study law or physics, orbecome good book-

keepers and be able todo the business in anycounting house, and all

this to enlarge theirsphere of usefulness

for the benefit of societyat large."

Brigham YoungFirst Governor of Utah

1869

Who are TheWho are TheWho are TheWho are TheWho are They?y?y?y?y?The Demographics of Utah'The Demographics of Utah'The Demographics of Utah'The Demographics of Utah'The Demographics of Utah's Ws Ws Ws Ws Womenomenomenomenomen

0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

Female 341.2 445.7 536.1 736.3 867.1 1,114.1 1,356.5

Male 347.6 449.9 523.2 724.7 855.8 1,119.0 1,379.9

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2008

Thousan

ds

Utah Population bUtah Population bUtah Population bUtah Population bUtah Population by Gendery Gendery Gendery Gendery Gender

*Includes only household population.Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

Recent changes in the labor forceexperience of Utah women cannot befully understood without examining thestate's demographics. Variations inpopulation, marital status, and fertility allaffect or are affected by the migrationof women into the labor force. Awomans marital status, whether or notshe has children, and her educationallevel all shape her labor force experi-

ence.

Surprise! Surprise!Surprise! Surprise!Surprise! Surprise!Surprise! Surprise!Surprise! Surprise!More Guys than GalsMore Guys than GalsMore Guys than GalsMore Guys than GalsMore Guys than GalsIts tradition. Women typically out-number men in the population. The2000 Census tallied only 96 men forevery 100 women in the U.S. After all,even though more boy babies are borneach year, women outlive men by an

average of six years.

This rule of thumb generally holds truein Utah, too. In 1990, Utah showed 99men per 100 women. However, whenthe 2000 Census was taken, malesactually outnumbered females in theBeehive state100.4 men for every100 women.

What happened? An influx of Hispanicor Latino men bolstered the male

ranks. From 1990 to 2000, UtahsHispanic population increased by 138percentdoubling its share of the totalpopulation. The male/female ratio forthe non-Hispanic population measured99.9. The male/female ratio for theHispanic population registered 125.7.In other words, an influx of Hispanicmenparticularly in the workingagespushed the number of malesabove the number of females in Utah.

Estimates from the 2008 AmericanCommunity Survey suggest that men inUtah still hold the numerical edge with101.7 men for every 100 women.Another way to look at this number?Roughly 50.4 percent of the Utah popu-lation is male.

The BabThe BabThe BabThe BabThe Baby of the Countryy of the Countryy of the Countryy of the Countryy of the CountryUnless youve been living in a media

vacuum, youve probably heard thatUtah has the youngest population inthe nation. According to the AmericanCommunity Survey, almost 31 percentof Utahs population was under the ageof 18 in 2008the highest rate of anystate in the nation. Yes, there are lots ofkids in Utah. (Someone once said thatin Utah you have a greater chance of

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31%28%

27%26%26%26%26%26%25%25%25%25%25%25%25%

25%25%25%24%24%24%24%24%24%24%24%24%24%24%24%24%24%24%

24%24%23%23%23%23%23%23%

22%22%22%22%22%22%22%

21%21%21%

19%

UtahTexasIdaho

AlaskaArizonaGeorgia

MississippiNevada

CaliforniaNew Mexico

LouisianaNebraska

KansasOklahoma

Indiana

IllinoisArkansasSouth Dakota

ColoradoUnited States

North CarolinaAlabamaMissouri

WyomingMinnesota

MichiganSouth Carolina

MarylandTennessee

OhioIowa

KentuckyDelaware

New JerseyWashingtonVirginia

WisconsinConnecticut

MontanaOregon

New YorkNew

PennsylvaniaHawaii

North DakotaMassachusett

FloridaRhode IslandWest Virginia

MaineVermont

District of

Share of Population Under 182008Share of Population Under 182008Share of Population Under 182008Share of Population Under 182008Share of Population Under 182008

Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

being run over by a stroller than any-where else in the country.) Of course,lots of kids translates into lots of momsor moms with lots of kids.

You might suppose that with such ayoung population, Utah has a hefty birthrate. Good guess. In 2007, Utahs birthrate measured roughly 20 births per1,000 population compared to a U.S.

birth rate of only 14 births per 1,000.

Since 1950, Utahs birth rate hascontinually surpassed the nationalaverage. The gap stretched widest inthe late 1970s and the early 1980s. Inrecent years, the gap has closedsomewhat. Yes, even in Utah, birthrates have dropped substantially fromtheir 1950 levels. However, since 1990rates have remained relatively flat on a

state and national basis.

A Family AffairA Family AffairA Family AffairA Family AffairA Family AffairNot surprisingly, Utahs family size islarger than the average U.S. family. In2008, the average Utah family (two ormore persons living together related bybirth, marriage, or adoption) measured3.67 persons. Thats down about four-tenths of a person since 1960. Nation-ally, the average family size measures

just 3.22 persons.

Yes, Utahns have large families. In2008, 26 percent of Utah families hadfive or more members compared toonly 14 percent nationally.

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0

5

10

15

20

25

30

1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Utah U.S.

Births Per 1,000 PopulationBirths Per 1,000 PopulationBirths Per 1,000 PopulationBirths Per 1,000 PopulationBirths Per 1,000 Population

Source: Utah Department of Health.

5%

2%

8%

3%

13%

9%

19%

20%

20%

23%

36%

43%Two Members

Three Members

Four Members

Five Members

Six Members

Seven or More

Members

Utah U.S.

Members Per Family2008Members Per Family2008Members Per Family2008Members Per Family2008Members Per Family2008

Source: U.S. Census Bureau; American Community Survey.

Here Comes andHere Comes andHere Comes andHere Comes andHere Comes and

There Goes the BrideThere Goes the BrideThere Goes the BrideThere Goes the BrideThere Goes the BrideIn 1950, 69 percent of Utahs marriage-able-age women were joined in thebonds of wedlock. By the 2008, theshare of the married females haddropped to 56 percent. Nevertheless,Utahns are still much more likely thantheir U.S. counterparts to be married.Only 48 percent of U.S. women aremarried.

Common sense and a little observationsuggest that a larger share of the Utahpopulation is now divorcedor justhasnt gotten around to getting mar-ried. In 1950, only 2 percent of thepopulation was divorced compared to10 percent in 2008. In addition, womenand men are postponing or foregoingmarriage. In 1950, only 19 percent of

the adult population had never beenmarried contrasted to 26 percent in2008.

After hitting their peak in the early 80s,divorce rates have moderated. In 1950,Utah displayed a divorce rate (divorcesper 1,000 population) of 3.0. By 1981,the rate peaked at 5.5 only to taper offto 3.5 by 2007.

Incidentally, Utah almost always showsa higher divorce rate than the nationalaverageeven back in 1950. In addi-tion, the rate understates Utahs divorcerate because of its large under-mar-riageable-age population.

Utah's higher-than-average divorce ratemay be connected to its young mar-riages. In 2008, Utah showed thelowest age of women at first marriageof any state in the nation. On the other

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3.99

3.88

3 .66 3.6 6

3.57

3.67

196 0 1 97 0 1 980 1 990 20 00 20 08

AAAAAverage Members Per Utah Familyverage Members Per Utah Familyverage Members Per Utah Familyverage Members Per Utah Familyverage Members Per Utah Family


Separated2%

Widowed6%

Divorced10%

Never

Married26%

Married56%

2008

Married69%

Separated1%

Widowed9%

Divorced2%

Never

Married19%

1950

Marital SMarital SMarital SMarital SMarital Status of Utah Wtatus of Utah Wtatus of Utah Wtatus of Utah Wtatus of Utah Women, 15 Yomen, 15 Yomen, 15 Yomen, 15 Yomen, 15 Years and Olderears and Olderears and Olderears and Olderears and Older


hand, Utah women are much morelikely to marry and remarry than theirU.S. counterparts.

A SA SA SA SA Strong Influencetrong Influencetrong Influencetrong Influencetrong InfluenceMany of Utahs atypical demographicstatisticshigh birth rates, largerfamilies, more and younger mar-riagesreflect the culture of Utahsdominant religion. Approximately 60

percent of Utahs population belongs tothe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-daySaints. Cultural and religious beliefsabout marriage, family, and workingmothers have a strong influence onUtahs demographics.

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The WThe WThe WThe WThe Working Connectionorking Connectionorking Connectionorking Connectionorking ConnectionWhy are these demographic numbersimportant in a report about Utahwomens labor market experience?Here are some relationships that canexplain certain labor market trends.

Unmarried women are morelikely to be labor force partici-pants.

Marriage postponement pro-vides more time for women to getan education.

Women are less likely to con-tinue their education after mar-riage than are men.

Women with employment andincome have the financial inde-

pendence to leave bad mar-riages.

The fewer children a woman has,the more likely she is to workoutside the home.

Women who have children tendto earn less than childlesswomen.

The higher a womans educa-

tional attainment, the fewerbirths she has or expects tohave.

The closer a wifes earnings areto her husbands, the more likelyshe is to delay having children.

29.728.228.228.127.827.627.327.126.826.826.826.726.726.626.526.526.426.326.326.226.226.226.126.026.026.026.0

25.925.925.825.725.725.625.625.625.525.525.525.425.425.325.3

25.225.025.024.924.624.524.424.3

23.523.5

District of ColumbiaConnecticut

Massachusetts

New YorkRhode Island

New Jersey

MarylandVermont

Hawaii

IllinoisPennsylvania

California

South CarolinaMichigan

Maine

New HampshireFlorida

Delaware

OhioUnited States

New Me xico

North CarolinaWisconsin

Arizona

MinnesotaMississippi

Virginia

GeorgiaOregon

IndianaNevada

Washington

ColoradoLouisiana

Missouri

AlaskaIowa

MontanaNorth Dakota

South Dakota

NebraskaTexas

AlabamaKentucky

Tennessee

Kansas

West VirginiaWyoming

Oklahoma

ArkansasIdaho

Utah

Female Median AFemale Median AFemale Median AFemale Median AFemale Median Age at First Marriage, 2008ge at First Marriage, 2008ge at First Marriage, 2008ge at First Marriage, 2008ge at First Marriage, 2008


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Share of Men 25 YShare of Men 25 YShare of Men 25 YShare of Men 25 YShare of Men 25 Years and Olderears and Olderears and Olderears and Olderears and OlderWWWWWith At Least a Bachelor'ith At Least a Bachelor'ith At Least a Bachelor'ith At Least a Bachelor'ith At Least a Bachelor's Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees Degree

7%

10%

14%

23%

26%

28%

10%

13%

19%

26%

20%

27%

30%

32%

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2008

U.S. Utah


5,075

4,299

9,507 9,579

2,2391,588

120 216

Associate Bachelor's Master's Doctorate

Female Male

Utah Degrees ConfUtah Degrees ConfUtah Degrees ConfUtah Degrees ConfUtah Degrees Conferred berred berred berred berred by Ty Ty Ty Ty Title IVitle IVitle IVitle IVitle IVInstitutions, 2003-2004 Academic YInstitutions, 2003-2004 Academic YInstitutions, 2003-2004 Academic YInstitutions, 2003-2004 Academic YInstitutions, 2003-2004 Academic Yearearearearear

Source: U.S. Department of Education

As you can see on the graph that plotsthe share of Utah and U.S. men with at

least a bachelors degree, Utah menhave sustained an educational leadover the past 50 years. In 2008, roughly32 percent of Utah adult men hadobtained at least a bachelors degreecompared to 28 percent of U.S. men.

On the other hand, while Utah womenstarted out with a lead in 1950, they lostthe high ground in 1990. By 2000, theylost even a little more ground. At lastcount in 2008, 26 percent of Utahwomen over age 25 had at least abachelors degreeslightly below thecomparable 27 percent of U.S. women.

The difference in Utah women andmens comparative educational levelsalso shows up dramatically when they

are ranked against other states. In2000, Utahs overall ranking for indi-viduals with a bachelors degree orhigher was 15. However, for men, Utahranked number nine. Women slippeddown halfway to number 25 in thenation.

In addition, this large difference ineducation must surely factor into Utah's

large male-female wage gap. Typically,depending on the data series, Utahshows one of the largest wage gaps inthe nation.

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Perhaps the most troubling ranking isthis: At more than 6 percentage points,Utah has the largest college-degreegap for women and men of any state inthe nationnext closest ranks Idahowith less than a 3-percentage-pointgap. In other words, in Utah, women arefarther behind men in obtaining acollege educationconsiderably morethan in any other state.

The IssuesThe IssuesThe IssuesThe IssuesThe IssuesOf course, this widening education gaphas many policy implications. It bearsmentioning that as education in-creases, so do wagesespecially forwomen. In Utah, where most mothersand wives work, less education forwomen means less income for families.

DiffDiffDiffDiffDifference in the Share of Adult Males anderence in the Share of Adult Males anderence in the Share of Adult Males anderence in the Share of Adult Males anderence in the Share of Adult Males andFemales with at Least a Bachelor'Females with at Least a Bachelor'Females with at Least a Bachelor'Females with at Least a Bachelor'Females with at Least a Bachelor's Degrees Degrees Degrees Degrees Degree20082008200820082008

6.02.72.6

2.52.52.52.42.4

2.21.91.81.71.71.71.61.61.51.41.41.31.31.31.31.21.21.11.11.01.01.01.00.90.8

0.60.3

0.20.10.1

0.0-0.1-0.1

-0.3-0.4-0.4

-0.6-0.7

-0.9-1.0

-1.6-3.3

-3.6

UtahIdaho

FloridaNew JerseyWashington

PennsylvaniaRhode IslandConnecticut

New HampshireArizona

MassachusettsOhio

TexasMichiganAlabamaVirginia

CaliforniaKansasNevada

United StatesTennessee

OregonOklahomaMinnesotaNebraskaMissouri

ArkansasMaryland

IllinoisIndiana

South CarolinaColoradoDelaware

GeorgiaNew York

South DakotaHawaii

IowaNorth Carolina

New MexicoKentucky

LouisianaMississippi

North DakotaWest Virginia

WisconsinWyomingMontana

MaineVermont

Alaska

Percentage Point Difference


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WWWWWorking forking forking forking forking for a Livingor a Livingor a Livingor a Livingor a LivingLabor Force Participation of Utah'Labor Force Participation of Utah'Labor Force Participation of Utah'Labor Force Participation of Utah'Labor Force Participation of Utah's Ws Ws Ws Ws Womenomenomenomenomen

Woman has alwayshad one opportunity

the opportunity to work;this one thing has never

been denied her. Manhas never considered

that she was out of hersphere when she toiled

in the fields andfactories; he has never

criticized her for leavingher home for any kindof drudgery. But when

she began to enter theprofessional field and

when she began tocompete with men inthe great work of the

world, she was re-minded that she wasgoing out of her own

sphere and wasneglecting her home.

Annie Wells Cannon,Member of the UtahState Legislature, 1913

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2008

U.S. Utah

Female Civilian Labor ForceFemale Civilian Labor ForceFemale Civilian Labor ForceFemale Civilian Labor ForceFemale Civilian Labor ForceParticipation RatesParticipation RatesParticipation RatesParticipation RatesParticipation Rates


Theyre here. In 2007, 63 percent ofUtahs women 16 years and olderwere working or actively seekingemployment. Even though recordnumbers of women are now employed,they have played an important part inAmericas paid labor force since be-fore the turn of the century.

In 1890, 18 percent of U.S. working-

age women were part of the laborforce. From that point, female partici-pation rates have grown at a steadyspeedexcept for the swell experi-enced in World War II as women filledthe employment gaps left by soldiers.

The influx of women into the labormarket has occurred gradually. Sincethe post WWII years, womens partici-pation rates have increased about 8

percentage points every decade. (Aparticipation rate is the share of theworking-age population working orlooking for work.)

A Utah Participation HistoryA Utah Participation HistoryA Utah Participation HistoryA Utah Participation HistoryA Utah Participation HistoryThe Census for 1950 indicated that 25percent of Utahs working-age womenhad joined the labor force. This ratefell significantly below the national

average of 30 percent for the year.Now, the Bureau of Labor Statistics tellsus that more than 63 percent of Utahwomen work outside the homemorethan double the 1950 rate.

Utah played catchup in 1980, when itsparticipation rate of 50 percent equaledthe national average. Since that point,Utah has consistently shown higherparticipation rates than the U.S.

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11%

51%

68%

73%

71%

66%

71%

82%

60%16-19 Years

20-24 Years

25-29 Years

30-34 Years

35-44 Years

45-54 Years

55-59 Years

60-64 Years

65 Years and Older

Utah 2008 Female Participation RatesUtah 2008 Female Participation RatesUtah 2008 Female Participation RatesUtah 2008 Female Participation RatesUtah 2008 Female Participation Ratesbbbbby Ay Ay Ay Ay Agegegegege


Utah Labor Force SUtah Labor Force SUtah Labor Force SUtah Labor Force SUtah Labor Force Status of Marriedtatus of Marriedtatus of Marriedtatus of Marriedtatus of Married

Couple FamiliesCouple FamiliesCouple FamiliesCouple FamiliesCouple Families


Husband and

Wife in Labor

Force

54%Husband in

Labor Force,

Wife Out

29%

Wife in Labor

Force,

Husband Out

5%

Husband and

Wife Out of

Labor Force

12%

2008

average. People may think that asmaller share of Utah women work thanthe national average, but its just not so.In 2008, Utahs rate measured morethan 62 percent compared to a 59-percent rate for the United States.

Behind this higher-than-average ratelies Utah's unusual demographics.Younger women are more likely to workoutside the home and Utah has a lot of

young women.

Men Losing GroundMen Losing GroundMen Losing GroundMen Losing GroundMen Losing GroundWhile Utah womens rate of labor forceparticipation had climbed steadilyupwards, Utah men have actuallydecreased their participation. In 1950,almost 83 percent of Utah men were inthe labor force compared to 77 per-cent in 2000. This drop in the male

workforce participation has resultedlargely from the trend toward earlyretirement.

It'It'It'It'It's an As an As an As an As an Age Thingge Thingge Thingge Thingge ThingAge has a definite bearing on a Utahwoman's likelihood of working. In 2008,Utah women between the ages of 20and 24 were most likely to work82percent worked outside the home.

Females between the ages of 45-54are next most likely to work. During theadult years, Utah women are least likelyto work between the ages of 60 and 64.This may reflect a trend toward earlierretirement for this group also. However,

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it's probably a generational characteris-tic, too. Many of these women have hadcareers in the home, rather than outsidethe home.

While female teens show a 57-percentparticipation rate, 11 percent of women65 years and older are still makingmoney in the labor market. Comparedto the U.S., a smaller-than-averagepercentage of Utah women participates

in the labor force between the ages of30 and 34a time when many womenleave the labor market for home andmaternal duties.

Utahs Families at WUtahs Families at WUtahs Families at WUtahs Families at WUtahs Families at WorkorkorkorkorkGone are the days of the traditionalworking father and stay-at-home momas the prime family type. In 2008, mostof Utahs married couple families (53percent) included both a working hus-band and working wife. Keep in mindthat 13 percent of married-couplefamilies have neither wife nor husbandin the workforce (many are retired). Inaddition, 5 percent of these familieshave a wife who works and a husbandwho does not.

In a ranking of states, Utah falls belowaverage in the percentage of marriedcouple families with both spouses in the

labor force. Many of the other low-ranking counties are in the southernpart of the country. In addition, severalof these low-ranking states are retire-ment meccas which undoubtedly con-tributes to their lower-than-averagefigures since retirees have removedthemselves from the labor force.

65%

65%

65%

65%

64%

63%

63%

62%

62%

62%61%

60%

59%

59%

59%

59%

59%

59%

58%

58%

58%

58%

57%

56%

56%

56%56%

55%

55%

55%

55%

55%

54%

54%

54%

54%

54%

53%

53%

53%

53%

53%

52%

52%

51%

51%

51%

50%

50%

49%

49%

45%

North Dakota

Minnesota

South Dakota

Nebraska

Iowa

New Hampshire

Vermont

Maryland

Wisconsin

MassachusettsKansas

Distr ict of Columbia

Alaska

Connecticut

Rhode Island

Wyoming

New Jersey

Maine

Colorado

Illinois

Indiana

Virginia

Missouri

Georgia

Ohio

HawaiiNorth Carolina

Pennsylvania

United States

Montana

Washington

Nevada

New York

Delaware

Idaho

Michigan

Oregon

Texas

Utah

California

Oklahoma

Tennessee

Mississippi

South Carolina

Alabama

Arkansas

Louisiana

Kentucky

New Me xico

Florida

Arizona

West Virginia

2008 Married Couple Families with2008 Married Couple Families with2008 Married Couple Families with2008 Married Couple Families with2008 Married Couple Families withBoth Spouses in the Labor ForceBoth Spouses in the Labor ForceBoth Spouses in the Labor ForceBoth Spouses in the Labor ForceBoth Spouses in the Labor Force


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Dead LastDead LastDead LastDead LastDead LastWhile Utah certainly reflects the trendtoward more working mothers, it ranksdead last for the percentage of childrenin 2008 with both parents in the laborforce. Nevertheless, notice that half ofUtah's children still have both parentsworking outside the home.

Moms WMoms WMoms WMoms WMoms Working, Torking, Torking, Torking, Torking, Too .oo .oo .oo .oo .Most moms work. In Utah during 2008,59 percent of mothers with only pre-school-age children worked outside thehome. That figure measures noticeablylower than the U.S. average. However,Utah almost closes the gap with theU.S. in the participation rankings formothers with children 6-17. Roughlythree-fourths of both Utah and U.S.mothers of only school-age childrenwork outside the home.

Not That DifferentNot That DifferentNot That DifferentNot That DifferentNot That DifferentProbably every working mother wantsto know how her labor force participa-tion affects her children. Suzanne M.Bianchi, a well known demographerand researcher has surveyed the cur-rent research literature. Bianchi pointsout:

Despite the fact that morewomen are in the paid labor forcethan ever before, the time moth-ers spend with their children haschanged very little over time.

Although much effort has beendevoted to searching for negativeresults from mom workingoutside the home, there hasbeen relatively little negativeconsequence for children.

78%75%75%75%74%74%74%

72%71%71%70%

69%69%69%69%69%68%68%68%67%67%67%66%66%66%66%65%65%

65%65%65%65%65%65%64%64%63%63%63%63%63%62%62%61%61%61%60%60%60%60%

58%52%

South DakotaVermont

NebraskaNorth Dakota

IowaWisconsinMinnesota

MarylandRhode Island

DelawareNew Hampshire

MaineMissouriKansas

MississippiOhio

IndianaMassachusetts

ConnecticutFlorida

VirginiaNorth Carolina

MichiganHawaii

LouisianaSouth Carolina

PennsylvaniaNew Jersey

AlaskaTennesseeIllinois

AlabamaMontana

United StatesWyomingArkansasColoradoDistrict ofNew York

GeorgiaKentucky

NevadaNew Mexico

OklahomaOregon

West VirginiaCalifornia

TexasWashington

ArizonaIdahoUtah

2008 Children with Both Parents in the2008 Children with Both Parents in the2008 Children with Both Parents in the2008 Children with Both Parents in the2008 Children with Both Parents in theLabor ForceLabor ForceLabor ForceLabor ForceLabor Force


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On the other hand, the lack oftwo-parent families does causeproblems for childrenbothbehaviorally and monetarily.

Research by Cathleen Zick andKeith Bryant indicates that moth-ers today report spending as

much time with their children asdid mothers during the BabyBoom.

Per family, Zick and Bryantestimate mothers in the 1920sspent the same time in child careactivities as those in the 1970s.

59%

70%

53%

65%

74%79% 77% 74%

Children Under

6 Only

Children Under

6 and 6-17

Children 6-17

Only

No Children

Under 18

Utah U.S.

WWWWWomen in the Labor Force in 2008omen in the Labor Force in 2008omen in the Labor Force in 2008omen in the Labor Force in 2008omen in the Labor Force in 2008bbbbby Presence and Ay Presence and Ay Presence and Ay Presence and Ay Presence and Age of Childrenge of Childrenge of Childrenge of Childrenge of Children


In the early twentieth century,mothers spent much of their timeinvolved in unpaid family workand housework. In addition,larger families meant olderchildren could mind youngerchildren.

Because families today aresmaller, mothers actually spend

more care time per child thanmothers in previous generations.

Although mothers who workoutside the home do spendslightly less time with their chil-dren than nonworking mothers,the amount of time is not signifi-cant.

Research suggests that workingmothers protect time with theirchildren by reallocating theirpriorities. They may do lesshousework or volunteer work andat the same time give up leisuretime and sleep.

Evidence suggests that mothers,on average, have not reducedtheir time with children, whilefathers (at least married fathers)have significantly increased the

time they spend with their chil-dren.

The Country Mouse andThe Country Mouse andThe Country Mouse andThe Country Mouse andThe Country Mouse andthe City Mousethe City Mousethe City Mousethe City Mousethe City MouseIn general, more densely populatedareas have higher labor force participa-tion rates. Utahs most metropolitancounties all rank near the top of the

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43%

47%

47%

49%

50%

51%51%

51%

51%

53%

54%

56%56%

57%

57%

57%

58%

58%58%

59%

59%

59%

59%

59%

61%

62%

63%

63%

64%

64%69%

Piute

Rich

San Juan

Washington

Millard

Duchesne

Sevier

Emery

Sanpete

Carbon

Uintah

KaneBeaver

Juab

Box Elder

U.S.

Wasatch

Wayne

Daggett

Tooele

Garfield

Iron

Utah

Morgan

tate of Utah

Weber

Cache

Davis

Salt Lake

Grand

Summit

Utah 2000 Female Participation RatesUtah 2000 Female Participation RatesUtah 2000 Female Participation RatesUtah 2000 Female Participation RatesUtah 2000 Female Participation Ratesbbbbby Countyy Countyy Countyy Countyy County


participation rankings. However, twoless-populated countiesSummit andGrand show the highest participationrates69 and 64 percent respectively.Coincidentally, these two economiesare heavily invested in the tourismtrade.

Counties where the population is lessdense and older tend to have the lowest

participation rates. Piute County is oneof the smallest counties in the state andalso has the oldest population. It showsthe lowest female participation rate in2000 in Utahonly 43 percent.

A Dubious HonorA Dubious HonorA Dubious HonorA Dubious HonorA Dubious HonorWhile more and more women are apart of the labor force, they are morelikely than men to be unemployed.Typically, female unemployment rates

have exceeded male unemploymentrates. For example, in 2007, Utahwomen's unemployment rate measured2.9 percent compared to the malefigure of 2.4 percent. The fact thatwomen tend to move in and out of thelabor market more than their malecounterparts accounts for much of thispattern.

Since 1988, Utah female unemploy-

ment rates have surpassed male job-less ratesexcept during economicdownturns. The recessionary year of2008 proved no differentmale joblessrate proved higher (4.1 percent) thanthat of women (2.8 percent).

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Utah AUtah AUtah AUtah AUtah Average Wverage Wverage Wverage Wverage Weekly Hours at Weekly Hours at Weekly Hours at Weekly Hours at Weekly Hours at Workorkorkorkork20082008200820082008

per week in 2008not all that farbehind men with an average of 41hours per week.

Why are More and More WWhy are More and More WWhy are More and More WWhy are More and More WWhy are More and More WomenomenomenomenomenWWWWWorking?orking?orking?orking?orking? Because of their marital status,

workforce participation has be-come an economic necessity.

Many work to provide familieswith a higher standard of living.

Smaller families and delayedchild birth make it easier forwomen to combine home andwork responsibilities.

Women are obtaining moreeducation providing access tomore interesting and better

paying jobs.

The opportunity cost of foregoingemployment for better educatedwomen is higher.

Women find paid employmentoffers them opportunities to useand develop skills and talentsnot necessarily needed in thehome.

Changes in social mors ornorms make employment moreacceptable for women.

Economic expansion has pro-vided employment.

The times they are a-changing. Laborforce participation for Utah women hasnow become the norm rather than theexception.

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2%

3%

12%

16%

15%

19%

21%

32%

33%

33%

39%

43%

44%

45%

49%

53%

59%

65%

74%

81%

84%

3%

4%

14%

15%

20%

27%

23%

29%

38%

46%

37%

47%

51%

50%

55%

62%

56%

75%

74%

78%

89

Construction,Extraction

Installation,

Maintenance, Repair

Architecture,

Engineering

Transportation/Material

Moving

Farming, Fishing,

Forestry

Computer

Mathematical

Protective Service

Production

Management

Life, Physical, Social

Science

Building/Grounds

Cleaning/Maintenance

Art, Design,

Entertainment, Sports,

Legal Occupations

Sales and Related

Business, Financial

Operation

Community, SocialSerivce

Food Preparation,

Serving Related

Healthcare

Practioners, Technical

Office, Administrative

Support

Personal Care, Service

Healthcare Support

U.S.Utah

Female Percentage of MajorFemale Percentage of MajorFemale Percentage of MajorFemale Percentage of MajorFemale Percentage of MajorOccupational Groups, 2008Occupational Groups, 2008Occupational Groups, 2008Occupational Groups, 2008Occupational Groups, 2008


to attract many women, many otherwomen are moving out into occupationspreviously dominated by men.

Group HugGroup HugGroup HugGroup HugGroup HugA change in the occupational codingstructure and the way in which theCensus Bureau publishes data makescomparisons over time problematicparticularly since the major groups

have changed dramatically. However,data from the 2008 American Commu-nity Survey certainly reveals that womenare still concentrated in certain occupa-tional groups.

Which major occupational group ismost dominated by females? Roughly84 percent of Utah healthcare-supportoccupations are held by women.Healthcare-support occupations in-

clude lower-skilled healthcare positionssuch as aides, orderlies, assistants,and massage therapists. These occu-pations are typically the lowest-paying

jobs in healthcare.

Close behind is the personal care andservice occupations group. This groupincludes cosmetologists, amusement/recreation attendants, child careworkers, flight attendants, etc. Again,

many of these positions are low-paying.

Other major occupational groups thatcontain high concentrations of womenare administrative support (secretar-ies, receptionists, etc.), healthcarepractitioners (such as nurses anddoctors), food preparation occupations,

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99%

98%

97%

97%

95%

93%

93%

92%

91%

91%

91%

91%

90%

90%

89%

89%

88%

88%

88%

88%

88%

88%

87%

Preschool and Kindergarten

Teachers

Dental Hygienists

Dental Assistants

Chid Care Workers

Hairsylists/Cosmetologists

Payroll/Timekeeping Clerks

Tailors/Dressmakers/Sewers

Teacher Assistants

Word Processors and

Typists

Dietitians/Nutritionists

Medical Records and Health

Information Technicians

Special Education Teachers

Hosts/Hostesses,

RestaurantCourt, Municipal, License

Clerks

Registered Nurses

Speech-Language

PathologistsProofreaders and Copy

Markers

Licensed Practical Nurses

Billing and Posting Clerks

Maids/Housekeeping

Cleaners

Sewing Machine Operators

Loan Interviewers and

ClerksBookkeeping, Accounting,

and Auditing Clerks

Utah Female Share of CertainUtah Female Share of CertainUtah Female Share of CertainUtah Female Share of CertainUtah Female Share of CertainFemale-Dominated Occupations, 2000Female-Dominated Occupations, 2000Female-Dominated Occupations, 2000Female-Dominated Occupations, 2000Female-Dominated Occupations, 2000


and community/social service occupa-tions (such as social workers andcounselors).

Mens ClubMens ClubMens ClubMens ClubMens ClubSeveral major occupational groupsconstitute almost a men only club.For example, women hold only 2 per-cent of construction and mining posi-tions. In addition, women constitute only

3 percent of installation/maintenance/repair workers. Also, only 12 percent ofarchitects and engineers are women.

Its in the DetailsIts in the DetailsIts in the DetailsIts in the DetailsIts in the DetailsWhich detailed individualoccupationsare dominated by Utah women? Thecurrent sample size of the AmericanCommunity Survey only publishes datafor a limited number of individual occu-

pations. So, first we'll examine the datafrom the 2000 Census.

For the most part, female-dominatedoccupations can be found within themajor occupational groups dominatedby women. Preschool/kindergartenteachers are 99 percent female andwomen hold 98 percent of all dentalhygienist positions. Other occupationsthat are at least 90 percent femaleinclude child care workers, hairstylists/cosmetologists, payroll clerks, tailors/dressmakers, teacher assistants, wordprocessors/typists, dietitians, medicalrecords technicians, special educationteachers, hosts/hostesses, and court/municipal clerks.

Which occupations exhibit a dearth ofwomen workers? Only 1 percent of autoservices techs/mechanics are female.

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1%

2%

2%

3%

3%

3%

3%

4%

4%

4%

4%

4%

5%

5%

5%

5%

6%

6%

6%

6%

6%

7%

7%

8%

Auto Services Techs/Mechanics

Carpet, Floor, Tile Installers

Carpenters

Drywall Installers

Pipelayers, Plumbers, Pipefitters

Electricians

Dentists

Mechanical Engineers

Construction Laborers

Machinists

Welding, Sodering Brazing Workers

Industrial Machinery Mechanics

Fire Fighters

Construction Managers

Aircraft Mechanics and Service Techs

Electrical Engineers

Civil Engineers

General Maintenance and Repair

Workers

Painters

dustrial Truck and Tractor Operators

Aerospace Engineers

First-Line Supervisors Landscaping

Construction and Building Inspectors

Driver/Sales Workers

Utah Female Share of CertainUtah Female Share of CertainUtah Female Share of CertainUtah Female Share of CertainUtah Female Share of CertainMale-Dominated Occupations, 2000Male-Dominated Occupations, 2000Male-Dominated Occupations, 2000Male-Dominated Occupations, 2000Male-Dominated Occupations, 2000


Other occupations with few womeninclude many construction occupations,dentists, machinists and mechanicalengineers. All these occupations areless than 5 percent female.

Utah VUtah VUtah VUtah VUtah Versus the U.S.ersus the U.S.ersus the U.S.ersus the U.S.ersus the U.S.How does Utahs occupational segre-gation stack up against the U.S. fig-ures? For the most part, theres not a

whole lot of difference. However, ahigher percentage of U.S. computer/mathematical jobs, healthcare practi-tioners, business/financial operationoccupations, life/physical/social scien-tists, and architecture/engineeringoccupations are held by women. Thedifference is particularly striking incomputer/mathematical positionswhere females make up only 20 per-cent of Utah workers compared to 30percent of U.S. workers.

This data seems to suggest that Utahwomen have been slower to entermale-dominated occupations than theirU.S. counterparts. This difference mayaccount for at least part of the larger-than-average male/female wage gapexperienced by Utah.

Making a ChangeMaking a ChangeMaking a ChangeMaking a ChangeMaking a ChangeNow, lets take a quick look at a handfulof male-dominated occupations andfemale-dominated occupations to seehow Utah womens occupationalchoices have changed over the past 20years.

Interestingly, some female-dominatedoccupations have become even moreconcentrated with women. For ex-

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97%

95%

95%

89%

86%

82%

81%

77%

74%

73%

Secretaries/Admin

Assistants

Childcare Workers

Personal

Appearance

Workers

Bookkeeping Clerks

Registered Nurses

Teachers,

Preschool to Middle

School

Information/Records

Clerks

Librarian/Curatorss

Cashiers

Waiters/Waitresses

Utah Female Share of CertainUtah Female Share of CertainUtah Female Share of CertainUtah Female Share of CertainUtah Female Share of CertainFemale-Dominated Occupations, 2008Female-Dominated Occupations, 2008Female-Dominated Occupations, 2008Female-Dominated Occupations, 2008Female-Dominated Occupations, 2008


ample, in 1980, roughly 66 percent ofall elementary school teachers werefemale. By 2000, Utah women hadincreased their share of this occupationto 78 percent. Female cosmetologistsincreased their occupation share from89 percent in 1980 to 95 percent in2000. On the other hand, many female-dominated occupations have incorpo-rated more men between 1980 and

2000.

On the flip side, women are makinginroads into many male-dominatedoccupations. For example, between1980 and 2000, Utah women doubledtheir share of the mail carrier occupa-tion to 30 percent. Utah women alsoaccount for a higher share of physi-cians, engineers, lawyers, and police/detectives.

Nevertheless, Utah women held asmaller share of auto mechanic andtruck driving jobs in 2000 than they didin 1980. It appears, in general, thatcollege-educated women are makingmore inroads into male-dominatedoccupations than are non-college-educated women.

Up to DateUp to DateUp to DateUp to DateUp to Date

While the 2008 American CommunitySurvey doesn't supply the occupationaldetail level of the 2000 Census, it stillshows that the most heavily dominatedoccupations by females have remainedbasically the same. The opposite isalso true. Occupations dominated bymen in the past continued to be mostlyheld by males. With the exception of

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1%

1%

2%

3%

4%

4%

6%

7%

10%

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99%

96%

95%

89%

92%

87%

92%

86%

66%

97%

90%

89%

95%

86%

87%

85%

76%

78%

Secretaries

Receptionists

Registered Nurses

Cosmetologists

Bank Tellers

Bookkeepers

Data Entry Keyers

Cashiers

lementary School

Teacher

1980 2000

Utah Female Share of Selected Female-Utah Female Share of Selected Female-Utah Female Share of Selected Female-Utah Female Share of Selected Female-Utah Female Share of Selected Female-Dominated ProfDominated ProfDominated ProfDominated ProfDominated Professionsessionsessionsessionsessions


Moreover, most married women inUtah work outside the home. Amarried womans earnings affect notonly her well-being but the well-beingof her husband and children. In otherwords, if women are relegatedforwhatever reasonto certain low-paying jobs, it affects the communityat large.

In addition, sex stereotyping of jobsyields other unfavorable conse-quences. When women are concen-trated into certain occupations,regardless of their abilities, talents,or knowledge, the whole economy

loses through an under-utilization ofresources or the inefficient allocation ofthose resources. The country ends upwith substantially less productivity thanis possible at a notable economic cost.Underemployment or less productiveemployment of women deprives every-one of increased economic well-be-ingnot just women and their children.

Who Built the WWho Built the WWho Built the WWho Built the WWho Built the Walls?alls?alls?alls?alls?Why do women congregate in specificoccupations? After all, Utah women arehardly forced as part of some greatdiabolical governmental plan intocertain positions. Why do they tend toflock together? Here are some possibleanswers:

Women may consciously tradehigher wages, chances for greater

advancement, and job status forthe flexibility and reduced de-mands they believe female occu-pations usually offer. In otherwords, women may choose these

jobs because they want toinorder to integrate home and worklife. Unfortunately, many nontra-ditional jobs actually offer moreflexibility plus the advantage of ahigher wage.

Despite evidence to the contrary,many women underestimatesubstantially the chances that theywill work. Remember, in Utah,most married women and moth-

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29%

13%

25%

Total Firms

Firms withEmployees

NonEmployer Firms

Utah WUtah WUtah WUtah WUtah Women-Owned Businesses as Shareomen-Owned Businesses as Shareomen-Owned Businesses as Shareomen-Owned Businesses as Shareomen-Owned Businesses as Shareof Tof Tof Tof Tof Total Firms, 2002otal Firms, 2002otal Firms, 2002otal Firms, 2002otal Firms, 2002


Her Own BossHer Own BossHer Own BossHer Own BossHer Own BossMany women are bypassing employ-ment in favor of running their ownbusinesses. During 2002 (the mostrecent data available), women ownedalmost one-fourth of all Utah busi-nesses. In addition, the number ofwomen-owned businesses increasedmore than 70 percent between 1987and 2002. Women owned 13 percentof all Utah businesses with paid em-ployees in 2002.

Utah women-owned firms with employ-ees tend to be concentrated in theservice industry. In 2002, these firmsaccounted for 40 percent of all serviceindustry businesses with employees.

FinallyFinallyFinallyFinallyFinally

All in all, while many women are mak-ing progress into traditionally male-dominated occupations, the change isslow. College-educated women seemto be integrating more quickly thantheir less educated sisters. Sinceoccupational choice is at the heart ofthe wage gap, occupational integra-tion remains an important issue.

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Dollars & SenseDollars & SenseDollars & SenseDollars & SenseDollars & SenseThe Income and WThe Income and WThe Income and WThe Income and WThe Income and Wages of Utah Wages of Utah Wages of Utah Wages of Utah Wages of Utah Womenomenomenomenomen

The needle and themidnight candle are

yet considered by toomany, the proper

appliances of womanssphere. Custom alsosays that if a woman

does as much work asa man, and does itwell, she must not

receive equal pay forit, and therein a wrongis inflicted upon her by

the deprivation of aright to which she is

justly entitled.

Eliza R. SnowProminent Pioneer

and Utah Author, 1872

Utah Median Earnings ofUtah Median Earnings ofUtah Median Earnings ofUtah Median Earnings ofUtah Median Earnings ofYYYYYearearearearear-Round, Full-time W-Round, Full-time W-Round, Full-time W-Round, Full-time W-Round, Full-time Workorkorkorkorkers, 2008ers, 2008ers, 2008ers, 2008ers, 2008


Talking about womens wagesits acomplex proposition. Especially whenasking for that one piece of informationthat we really want to knowhow dothey compare to mens wages?

Traditionally, economists refer to thewage gap as the difference betweenthe wages of the average male andthe average female. Typically, a fe-

male-to-male ratio is established. Justdivide the average female wage by theaverage male wage.

Unfortunately, there exists a fairly largenumber of wage data series. Comingup with a definitive wage gap figure isproblematic. Basically, wages aremeasured differently in each series.Therefore, ratios end up with differentresults. Truth is, the male/female wagegap is determined by which data seriesyou choose to use. The hardest ques-tion is, What series should we use?

For Utah, until recently, a decent wagegap figure was only available onceevery ten years when the Census was

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Utah Female Median Annual EarningsUtah Female Median Annual EarningsUtah Female Median Annual EarningsUtah Female Median Annual EarningsUtah Female Median Annual EarningsAs a Percent of Male Median AnnualAs a Percent of Male Median AnnualAs a Percent of Male Median AnnualAs a Percent of Male Median AnnualAs a Percent of Male Median AnnualEarnings, 2008Earnings, 2008Earnings, 2008Earnings, 2008Earnings, 2008


WWWWWomens 2008 Median Earnings as aomens 2008 Median Earnings as aomens 2008 Median Earnings as aomens 2008 Median Earnings as aomens 2008 Median Earnings as aPercent of Mens Median EarningsPercent of Mens Median EarningsPercent of Mens Median EarningsPercent of Mens Median EarningsPercent of Mens Median Earnings

*Year-round, full-time workers.Source: U.S. Census Bureau.

published. Currently, there are severaldata sources for Utahs wage gap.Again, which series to use?

There are so many data series with somany different figures; its enough tomake even a data queens head spin.For example, for Utah, you can comeup with wage gap figures ranging from

57 percent to 75 percentfor thesame year!

Census RulesCensus RulesCensus RulesCensus RulesCensus RulesBecause of its sheer size, the decen-nial Census provides some of the bestearnings figures, and is therefore ableto show the best detail. Lets starthere. Census 2000 figures for Utah

show the median earnings for year-round, full-time male workers at$36,935. The comparable figure forfemale workers measures $24,872. Inother words, the wage gap measured67 percent.

Youll notice that we used data for year-round, full-time workers. So, seasonalworkers and those who work part-time

are excluded. Its best when makingwage gap comparisons to keep theworking characteristics of the twogroups as equal as possible. In thisway, we make sure were comparingapples and applesnot apples andoranges.

TTTTTrailing the Packrailing the Packrailing the Packrailing the Packrailing the PackNationally, Census 2000 shows a male/female wage gap of 73 percent. That

places the Utah near the middle of a

69 Percent69 Percent69 Percent69 Percent69 Percent

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88.0%84.8%

83.2%83.1%82.8%82.4%81.4%

80.5%79.9%79.7%79.3%79.2%79.0%

78.6%78.3%78.2%77.9%77.5%77.1%76.9%76.8%76.7%76.5%

75.9%75.9%75.9%

75.8%75.8%75.8%75.6%75.6%75.6%75.4%74.6%74.4%74.3%74.2%74.1%74.0%

74.0%74.0%73.9%73.5%

72.4%71.7%71.7%

71.5%71.1%

69.3%67.3%67.1%

64.3%

istrict of Columbia

California

ArizonaMaryland

New YorkVermontGeorgia

HawaiiFlorida

Maine

North Carolina

New Jersey

Delaware

OregonTexas

MassachusettsUnited States

Colorado

MontanaNevada

Tennessee

Minnesota

Iowa

PennsylvaniaNew Mexico

Kentucky

ConnecticutSouth Dakota

South Carolina

NebraskaOklahoma

MissouriVirginia

Arkansas

OhioWisconsin

Rhode Island

AlabamaMississippi

WashingtonKansas

Illinois

Alaska

MichiganNorth Dakota

IdahoNew Hampshire

Indiana

UtahLouisiana

West Virginia

Wyoming

Female Median Annual Earnings as aFemale Median Annual Earnings as aFemale Median Annual Earnings as aFemale Median Annual Earnings as aFemale Median Annual Earnings as aPercent of MensPercent of MensPercent of MensPercent of MensPercent of Mens Full-TFull-TFull-TFull-TFull-Time,ime,ime,ime,ime,YYYYYearearearearear-Round W-Round W-Round W-Round W-Round Workorkorkorkorkers, 2008ers, 2008ers, 2008ers, 2008ers, 2008


state-by-state ranking. Yes, that meansthat Utah (where women make 67 centson the male dollar) shows one of thelargest wage gaps in the nation. In fact,Utah ranked fourth from the bottomhigher than only Michigan, Louisiana,and Wyoming.

Of course, Utah has made someprogress. In the 1990 Census, it

showed the largestwage gap in theUnited States.

Interestingly, with the exception ofWyoming , Utah was pretty much sur-rounded by states with smaller-than-average male/female wage gaps in2000. California, Nevada, Arizona, NewMexico, and Colorado show male/female earnings ratios of 75 percent orhigher.

Newer NumbersNewer NumbersNewer NumbersNewer NumbersNewer NumbersEstimates from the 2008 AmericanCommunity Survey show Utah's female/male wage ratio improving to 69.3percent. However, Utah still shows thefourth-largest wage gap in the U.S. Inaddition, we're still pretty much sur-rounded by states with small wagegaps. Plus, keep in mind that AmericanCommunity Survey samples are domi-

nated by larger communitieswherethe wage gaps tend to be smaller.

The Good NewsThe Good NewsThe Good NewsThe Good NewsThe Good NewsThe good news for women and theirfamilies? The wage gap is now nar-rowing. In the 30 years following1950a period when women made

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0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006

U.S. Female Median WU.S. Female Median WU.S. Female Median WU.S. Female Median WU.S. Female Median Weekly Earnings as aeekly Earnings as aeekly Earnings as aeekly Earnings as aeekly Earnings as aPercent of Mens, Full-TPercent of Mens, Full-TPercent of Mens, Full-TPercent of Mens, Full-TPercent of Mens, Full-Time Wime Wime Wime Wime Workorkorkorkorkersersersersers

Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.

$670

$857

$378

$497

$620

$709

$628

$830

$955

$1,285

Total

Less than High

School Diploma

High School

Graduates, No

College

Some College or

Associate Degree

College

Graduates

Female Male

2008 U.S. A2008 U.S. A2008 U.S. A2008 U.S. A2008 U.S. Average Wverage Wverage Wverage Wverage Weekly Earnings beekly Earnings beekly Earnings beekly Earnings beekly Earnings byyyyyEducational LeEducational LeEducational LeEducational LeEducational Level, fvel, fvel, fvel, fvel, for Full-Tor Full-Tor Full-Tor Full-Tor Full-Time Wime Wime Wime Wime Workorkorkorkorkersersersersers


gains in the high paying professionsvery little changed. Data published bythe U.S. Bureau of Labor Statisticsshow that before the early 80s, the U.S.male/female earnings ratio for full-timeworkers hovered around 60 percent.There was virtually no significant nar-rowing in the wage gapuntil 1980.

In the last 20-plus years, the wage gaphas slowly narrowed. According to a

Bureau of Labor Statistics data series,in 1979, the ratio of female-to-maleweekly earnings ratio measured about63 percent. By 2006, the comparablefigure registered almost 81 percent.Yes, the gap is narrowing.

What about in Utah? Using 1980, 1990and 2000 Census figures, we find thatthe female/male earnings ratio grewfrom about 53 percent in 1980 to 57

percent in 1990 to 67 percent in 2000.Yes, here in Utah, women are makingearnings gains.

Other NumbersOther NumbersOther NumbersOther NumbersOther NumbersThe U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics(BLS) also publishes male/femaleearnings information. However, insteadof publishing annual data, BLS pub-lishes weekly earnings. These figures

would tend to be more reflective ofactual difference in earnings than theannual figures because men tend towork more weeks and hours thanwomen. When we can eliminate anydifferences in hours/weeks worked, weget a more accurate picture of the truedifference in wages by gender. On the

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other hand, the sample size is smallerthan the American Community Surveywhich could lead to more bias.

In this case, Utah's female/male wageratio measures 72.6 percent and in astate-by-state ranking Utah drops tosecond from the bottom. Only Wyomingshows a higher wage gap.

While the Bureau of Labor Statisticspublishes wage gap figures for Utah,the series fluctuates dramatically. Thisis due to the relatively small samplesize for this particular survey. However,it's becoming rather obvious that thereis certainly no one wage-gap figure.

Best-Paying JobsBest-Paying JobsBest-Paying JobsBest-Paying JobsBest-Paying JobsAfter perusing Census 2000 data, itbecomes obvious that the best-paying

jobs for men are also generally thebest-paying jobs for women. Physi-cians, dentists, air traffic controllers,chief executives, lawyers, engineeringmanagers, optometrists, and pharma-cists are among the highest-paidpositions for both men and women.

However, you just might notice thatthese jobs are typically dominated bymen. For example, in Utah, physicians

and surgeons are only 17 percentfemale, dentists are only 3 percentfemale, air traffic controllers are 15percent female, chief executives are13 percent female, engineering manag-ers are 8 percent female, optometristsare 20 percent female, and lawyers are18 percent female. Of these high pay-ing occupations only onepharmacists

92.2%86.9%86.6%

84.9%

84.1%83.8%83.6%

83.2%83.1%

82.1%82.1%

81.7%81.4%81.2%

81.1%80.9%80.4%80.2%79.9%79.9%79.6%

79.5%79.3%79.1%79.1%

78.9%78.8%78.7%

78.2%77.9%77.9%77.5%

77.3%77.1%76.6%76.2%

76.1%76.0%

75.9%75.8%75.3%75.0%74.1%

74.0%73.9%73.8%

73.0%72.9%72.9%72.7%

72.6%67.8%

District of ColumbiaArkansasCalifornia

Arizona

TexasNew YorkMaryland

North CarolinaHawaii

South DakotaVermont

FloridaTennessee

IowaMinnesota

New MexicoSouth Carolina

NevadaUnited States

DelawareOregon

MaineWisconsinNebraska

OhioColorado

PennsylvaniaRhode Island

VirginiaIllinois

AlabamaWashington

GeorgiaNew Jersey

KentuckyIndiana

IdahoMassachusetts

North DakotaOklahomaMissouri

MississippiAlaska

MichiganWest Virginia

MontanaConnecticut

New HampshireKansas

LouisianaUtah

Wyoming

Female Median WFemale Median WFemale Median WFemale Median WFemale Median Weekly Earnings as aeekly Earnings as aeekly Earnings as aeekly Earnings as aeekly Earnings as aPercent of Mens Full-TPercent of Mens Full-TPercent of Mens Full-TPercent of Mens Full-TPercent of Mens Full-Time Wime Wime Wime Wime Workorkorkorkorkers,ers,ers,ers,ers,20082008200820082008


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57%

61%

58%

56%

59%

68%

All

Not a High

SchoolGraduate

High School

Graduate

Some College

Bachelor

Degree

Advanced

Degree

Utah Female/Male Earnings RatioUtah Female/Male Earnings RatioUtah Female/Male Earnings RatioUtah Female/Male Earnings RatioUtah Female/Male Earnings Ratiobbbbby Educationy Educationy Educationy Educationy EducationWWWWWorkorkorkorkorkers 25 and Olderers 25 and Olderers 25 and Olderers 25 and Olderers 25 and Older, 2008, 2008, 2008, 2008, 2008


(with 36 percent female)has morethan a one-fifth share of positions heldby women.

Interestingly, in these occupationswomen typically make more than 80percent of the median wage of theirmale counterparts. In other words, thewage gap is smaller than average forthese occupations. Of course, the wage

gap often shrinks when individualoccupations are examined. As wellexplain later, occupational choice is theprimary reason for the male/femalewage gap.

Learning to EarnLearning to EarnLearning to EarnLearning to EarnLearning to EarnHow does the wage gap between menand women stack up by educationallevel? Contrary to what one mightsuppose, increased education does notnecessarily shrink the wage gap. Ac-cording to the U.S. Bureau of LaborStatistics, on average in 2008, U.S.women with at least a four-year degreemade 74 percent of the median weeklywage of men with at least a four-yeardegree. However, women who onlygraduated from high school made 87percent of the comparable male worker

While comparable figures for Utah are

not available from the Bureau of LaborStatistics, the American CommunitySurvey data can shed some light onmale/female earnings by educationalattainment. However, these numbersreflect annual rather than weekly earn-ings. Also, these numbers are for theentire labor force, not just year-roundfull-time workers. This means the ratios

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$24,000

$16,000

$21,000

$22,600

$30,700

$48,100

All

Not a HighSchool

Graduate

High School

Graduate

Some College

Bachelor's

Degree

Advanced

Degree

Utah Female MedianUtah Female MedianUtah Female MedianUtah Female MedianUtah Female MedianAnnual Earnings bAnnual Earnings bAnnual Earnings bAnnual Earnings bAnnual Earnings by Educationy Educationy Educationy Educationy EducationWWWWWorkorkorkorkorkers 25 and Olderers 25 and Olderers 25 and Olderers 25 and Olderers 25 and Older, 2008, 2008, 2008, 2008, 2008


will be lower than in previously men-tioned seriesbecause women aremuch more likely to work part-time.

In Utah, women who only graduatedfrom high school showed a slightlylarger-than-average wage differentialwith their male counterpartsbutsmaller than that of college graduates.Getting an advanced degree seems to

be the best road for women trying toclose the wage gap. Women with anadvanced degree in Utah most closelyapproximate their male counterparts'earnings.

It Pays. . .It Pays. . .It Pays. . .It Pays. . .It Pays. . .Continuing ones education increasesones earning powermale or female.The differences are particularly strikingfor women. American Community

Survey data tells us that a Utah womanwith a bachelors degree made $9,700more a year than one with only a highschool diploma.

National 2008 data from the Bureau ofLabor Statistics shows that a college-educated woman makes 54 percentmore than her high school-only edu-cated sister.

Jobs with the Smallest WJobs with the Smallest WJobs with the Smallest WJobs with the Smallest WJobs with the Smallest Wage Gapage Gapage Gapage Gapage GapIf youre a Utah woman and want a jobin Utah where youre most likely tomake as much as your male co-worker, what occupation should youchoose? According to Census 2000figures, choose a technical/science/math-related position or one thatstypically dominated by men. There are

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107%

102%

101%

100%

100%

100%

99%

99%

99%

99%

99%

98%

98%

98%

Conservation

Scientists/Foresters

TV/Video/Motion

Picture Camera

Operators

Misc Plant & Systems

Operators

Avionics Technicians

Engine and Other

Machines Assemblers

Mining and Geological

Engineers

Computer Control

Programmers/

Operators

Power Plant

Oper/Distrib/Dispatch

Natural Sciences

Managers

Supervisors/Managers

of Police/Detectives

Materials Engineers

Aerospace Engineers

Engineering Managers

Locomotive

Engineers/Operators

Utah Occupations with a High Female/Utah Occupations with a High Female/Utah Occupations with a High Female/Utah Occupations with a High Female/Utah Occupations with a High Female/Male WMale WMale WMale WMale Wage Ratio,age Ratio,age Ratio,age Ratio,age Ratio,YYYYYearearearearear-Round, Full-T-Round, Full-T-Round, Full-T-Round, Full-T-Round, Full-Time Wime Wime Wime Wime Workorkorkorkorkers, 1999ers, 1999ers, 1999ers, 1999ers, 1999


almost 60 occupations in Utah wherethe average woman makes 95 percentor more of the average mans wage.

Many of these positions are in science,healthcare, and engineering fields(which also pay extremely well) andrequire at least a bachelors degree.Others are technically oriented, requir-ing some post-high school training.

Others require only on-the-job training,but are occupations traditionally held bymen.

Jobs with the Largest WJobs with the Largest WJobs with the Largest WJobs with the Largest WJobs with the Largest Wage Gapage Gapage Gapage Gapage GapDrilling down to the occupational leveldoesnt always narrow the wage gap.In some Utah occupations, the male/female wage gap is extraordinarilylarge. For instance, in Utah, Census2000 reports that the average female

model/demonstrator (working year-round/full-time) made only 15 percentof the average male model/demonstra-tor.

However, that occupation is an outlier.Where the wage gap is largest, theratio of womens median annual earn-ings to mens median annual earningsmeasures about 35 percent.

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60%

60%

64%

64%

65%

66%

68%

69%

70%

71%

71%

Securities/Commodities

Sales Agents

First-line Supervisors

Housekeeping/Janitorial

SvcsMarketing/Sales

Managers

Physicians

Financial Managers

Insurance Sales Agents

Personal FinancialAdvisors

Inspectors/Testers

Social/Community

Service Managers

First-line Supervisors

Production Workers

Retail Salespersons

U.S. Occupations with a LoU.S. Occupations with a LoU.S. Occupations with a LoU.S. Occupations with a LoU.S. Occupations with a Low Female/w Female/w Female/w Female/w Female/Male WMale WMale WMale WMale Wage Ratio,age Ratio,age Ratio,age Ratio,age Ratio,Full-TFull-TFull-TFull-TFull-Time Wime Wime Wime Wime Workorkorkorkorkers, 2008ers, 2008ers, 2008ers, 2008ers, 2008


between the ages of 55 and 64. Theytypically make only 73 percent of theirmale counterparts wage. Of course,these are the women who are leastlikely to have a labor market experienceor educational attainment similar totheir male counterparts.

The Rainbow ConnectionThe Rainbow ConnectionThe Rainbow ConnectionThe Rainbow ConnectionThe Rainbow ConnectionRace and ethnicity make a difference

when it comes to the wage gap. Ameri-can Community Survey 2006-2008data indicates that white men andwomen in Utah have the largest wagediscrepancy. The median wage foryear-round, full-time white womenworkers measures only 68 percent ofthe comparable figure for white men.

On the other hand, Asians show thesmallest wage gap. The average fe-

male worker in this racial group makes81 percent of the average maleworkers wages. In fact, every nonwhiteethnic or racial minority group shows asmaller wage gap than does the white,non-Hispanic group.

This makes sense. In general, minoritymale wages fall noticeably behind whitemale wages. In other words, manyminority workers make lower-than-

average wages than do white malesregardless of gender. For example, themedian annual wage for a white, full-

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83%

106% 107%109% 110%

106%110%

103%

87% 87%93%

86% 87%

1-4

5-9

10-14

15-19

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39 40

41-44

45-48

49-59

60+

Hours Worked Per Week

U.S. Female Median WU.S. Female Median WU.S. Female Median WU.S. Female Median WU.S. Female Median Weekly Earnings aseekly Earnings aseekly Earnings aseekly Earnings aseekly Earnings asa Percent of Mens, ba Percent of Mens, ba Percent of Mens, ba Percent of Mens, ba Percent of Mens, by Hours Wy Hours Wy Hours Wy Hours Wy Hours Workorkorkorkorkededededed20082008200820082008


Studies suggest that even for college-educated professionals, choice ofoccupation accounts for 30-70 percentof the entire wage gap.

Other FactorsOther FactorsOther FactorsOther FactorsOther FactorsOther factors also influence the wagegap. The labor force experience ofwomen may differ substantially fromthat of men as women strive to combine

home and family responsibilities. Manywomen move in and out of the work-force choosing to remain at home whiletheir children are young.

Because, in general, women are newerto the labor force than men, they tend tohave spent less time in a particular job.Economists call this occupationaltenure. In addition, because the shareof women in the labor force keeps

increasing, more women are at thebottom of the career ladder than men. Inother words, recent female entrantsmay depress the average wage.

Womens educational attainment fallsbelow mens thus limiting their earningpower. Moreover, women remain dis-proportionately illiterate in mathemat-ics, science, and engineeringthehighest paying positions.

Certain groups of women may pulldown the average female wage. Whilemany women are delaying marriage/childbirth and obtaining a better educa-tion than their predecessors, others arenot. Significant numbers of very youngwomen still become pregnant early,marry early or not at all, or divorce with

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0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

1959 1964 1969 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 1999 2004

U.S. Female-headed Families* inU.S. Female-headed Families* inU.S. Female-headed Families* inU.S. Female-headed Families* inU.S. Female-headed Families* inPoverty as a Percentage of AllPoverty as a Percentage of AllPoverty as a Percentage of AllPoverty as a Percentage of AllPoverty as a Percentage of AllFamilies*Families*Families*Families*Families*

* With Children under 18.


LoLoLoLoLower Wwer Wwer Wwer Wwer Wages Hurtages Hurtages Hurtages Hurtages HurtLower wages impact our society andeconomy. In 2008, according to Ameri-can Community Survey figures,roughly 30 percent of Utah female-headed families with children hadincomes below the poverty line. Incomparison, only 5 percent of mar-ried-couple families with children and13 percent for single male-headedfamilies were in poverty.

Despite lower-than-average wages,Utah manages to consistently experi-ence a lower-than-average povertyrate. For example, the U.S. povertyrate from Census 2000 for female-headed families with children mea-sured 35 percent to Utahs 29 percent.Nevertheless, poverty in Utahs fe-male-headed households remains

significantputting a drain on govern-ment resources.

In addition, over time, women-headedfamilies are making up a larger andlarger share of all families in poverty.Back in 1960, U.S. female-headedfamilies with children accounted foronly 27 percent of total families inpoverty. By 2008, they constituted 60percent of families in poverty.

Whether through divorce, desertion,death, or remaining single, more than85 percent of American women canexpect to have to support themselvesand/or their children at some time intheir lives. If these women are improp-erly prepared for the labor force, theymay find themselves in the ranks of thepoor.

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Hard at WHard at WHard at WHard at WHard at WorkorkorkorkorkWWWWWomen in the Utah Labor Forceomen in the Utah Labor Forceomen in the Utah Labor Forceomen in the Utah Labor Forceomen in the Utah Labor Force

Department of Workforce ServicesAttn: Workforce Research and Analysis Division140 East 300 SouthSalt Lake City, UT 84111

E-mail: [email protected]: 801-526-9786

Fax: 801-526-9238

The WThe WThe WThe WThe Workforce Research and Analysis Divisionorkforce Research and Analysis Divisionorkforce Research and Analysis Divisionorkforce Research and Analysis Divisionorkforce Research and Analysis Division generates accurate, timely, andunderstandable data and analyses that provide knowledge of ever-changing workforceenvironments to inform sound planning and decision making.

Equal Opportunity Employment ProgramEqual Opportunity Employment ProgramEqual Opportunity Employment ProgramEqual Opportunity Employment ProgramEqual Opportunity Employment Program Auxiliary aids and services are availableupon request to individuals with disabilities. Call 801-526-9240. Individuals with speechand/ or hearing impairments may call the state relay at 1-800-346-4128.

This is a web-only publication. If a hard copy is desired,This is a web-only publication. If a hard copy is desired,This is a web-only publication. If a hard copy is desired,This is a web-only publication. If a hard copy is desired,This is a web-only publication. If a hard copy is desired,please print one from the following website:please print one from the following website:please print one from the following website:please print one from the following website:please print one from the following website:

http:/ / jobs.utah.gov/ opencms/ wi/ pubs/ hardatworkhttp:/ / jobs.utah.gov/ opencms/ wi/ pubs/ hardatworkhttp:/ / jobs.utah.gov/ opencms/ wi/ pubs/ hardatworkhttp:/ / jobs.utah.gov/ opencms/ wi/ pubs/ hardatworkhttp:/ / jobs.utah.gov/ opencms/ wi/ pubs/ hardatwork

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