wiley organizational behavior - chapter 2 - 13th edition

8/18/2019 Wiley Organizational Behavior - Chapter 2 - 13th Edition

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28 CHAPER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

Individual Differencesand Diversity

L E A R N I N GR O A D M A P

SELF CONCEP, SELFAWARENESS, AND AWARENESS OF OHERS

VALUINGOR NO VALUINGDIVERSIY • DIVERSIY ISSUES IN HE WORKPLACEDIVERSIY AND SOCIAL IDENIY

People are complex. You approach a situation one way, and someone else may approachit quite differently. Tese differences among people can make it diffi cult to predict andunderstand individual behavior in relationships, teams, and organizations. Tey alsocontribute to what makes the study of organizational behavior so fascinating. Te term

individual differences refers to the ways in which people are similar and dissimilar in personal characteristics.

Te mix of individual differences in organizations creates workforce diversity. Someof these differences are easily observable and often demographic. Tey represent

surface-level diversity based on quite visible physical attributes such as ethnicity, race,sex, age, and abilities. Other individual differences—such as personalities, values, andattitudes—are more psychologically innate and less immediately visible. Tey represent

deep-level diversity that may take time and effort to understand.1 Regardless of the level, diversity issues are of great interest in OB. Women, for example, now lead global companies such as PepsiCo, Xerox, IBM, and Kraft. But they still holdonly 3 percent of top jobs in American rms.2 Why have so few women so far made it tothe top?3 Society is becoming more diverse in its racial and ethnic makeup. But a researchstudy found that résumés of people with white-sounding rst names—such as Brett—received 50 percent more responses from potential employers than those with black-sounding rst names—such as Kareem.4 How can these results be explained given thatthe résumés were created equal?

Self-Concept, Self-Awareness, and Awareness of Others

o best understand and deal well with individual differences and diversity, it only makes

sense that it’s important to have a strong sense of self. Te self-concept is the view individ-uals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritual or moral beings.5 It is a way of recog-nizing oneself as a distinct human being. wo factors that increase awareness of individualdifferences—our own and others—are self-awareness and awareness of others. Self-awareness means being aware of our own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, personali-ties, and so on. Awareness of others means being aware of these same things in others.

A person’s self concept shows up in self-esteem, a belief about one’s own worth basedon an overall self-evaluation.6 People high in self-esteem see themselves as capable, worth- while, and acceptable; they tend to have few doubts about themselves. People who are lowin self-esteem are full of self-doubt and are often afraid to act because of it. Someone’sself-concept is also displayed in self-effi cacy , sometimes called the effectance motive, which is a more specic version of self-esteem. It is an individual’s belief about the likeli-

hood of successfully completing a specic task. You could have high self-esteem and yethave a feeling of low self-effi cacy about performing a certain task, such as public speaking.

What determines the development of the self? How, for example, can we explain

prejudice in the form of negative, irrational, and superior opinions and attitudes toward per-sons who are different from ourselves? Perhaps you have heard someone say “She acts like hermother,” or “Bobby is the way he is because of the way he was raised.” Tese two commentsillustrate the nature/nurture controversy : Are we the way we are because of heredity —geneticendowment, or because of environment —the cultural places and situations in which we havebeen raised and live? It is most likely that these two forces act in combination, with hereditysetting the limits and environment determining how a person develops within them.7

Individual differences arethe ways in which people aresimilar and dissimilar in

personal characteristics.

Surface-level diversity involves individual differencesin visible attributes such asrace, sex, age, and physicalabilities.

Deep-level diversity involvesindividual differences inattributes such as personalityand values.

Self-concept is the viewindividuals have of themselvesas physical, social, spiritual, ormoral beings.

Self-awareness means beingaware of one’s own behaviors,

preferences, styles, biases, personalities, and so on.

Awareness of others is beingaware of the behaviors,

preferences, styles, biases, and personalities of others.

Self-esteem is a belief about

one’s own worth based on anoverall self-evaluation.

Self-effi cacy is an individual’sbelief about the likelihood ofsuccessfully completing aspecic task.

Prejudice is the display ofnegative, irrational, andsuperior opinions andattitudes toward persons whoare different from ourselves.


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denied the full benets of organizational membership. An example is when a managerfabricates reasons not to interview a minority job candidate, or refuses to promote a working mother on the belief that “she has too many parenting responsibilities to do agood job at this level.” Such thinking underlies a form of discrimination called the glassceiling effect, an invisible barrier or “ceiling” that prevents women and minorities fromrising above a certain level of organizational responsibility.11

Diversity Issues in the Workplace

Race and Ethnicity Te value of heterogeneous perspectives within teams andorganizations can be gained from multicultural workforces with a rich mix of racial andethnic diversity. And Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protects individuals againstemployment discrimination on the basis of race and ethnicity, as well as national origin,sex, and religion. It applies to employers with 15 or more employees, including state andlocal governments.

According to itle VII, equal employment opportunity cannot be denied any personbecause of his/her racial group or perceived racial group, his/her race-linked characteris-tics (e.g., hair texture, color, facial features), or because of his/her marriage to or associa-tion with someone of a particular race or color. It also prohibits employment decisions

based on stereotypes and assumptions about abilities, traits, or the performance of individuals of certain racial groups. But, as noted earlier in the research showing prejudice in job searches against person’s with black-sounding rst names, it’s still an imperfect world.12

Gender Women are bringing not just task expertise but valuable interpersonal skillsand styles to the workplace, such as listening and collaborative skills, and abilities tomultitask and synthesize alternative viewpoints effectively and quickly. Research showsthat companies with a higher percentage of female board directors and corporate offi -cers, on average, nancially outperform companies with the lowest percentages by signif-icant margins.13 Te presence of women leaders is also benecial because they encouragemore women in the pipeline and act as role models and mentors for younger women.Moreover, the presence of women leaders sends important signals that an organizationhas a broad and deep talent pool, and offers an inclusive workplace.

Despite these benets to organizations and anti-discrimination protections affordedthem under itle VII of the U.S. Civil Rights Act of 1964, women have not penetratedthe highest level of organizational leadership to the extent we would expect. Even worse,many are still abandoning corporate careers just as they are positioned to attainhigher-level responsibilities. Te term leaking pipeline was coined by Professor LyndaGratton and colleagues of the London Business School to describe this phenomenon.14 In one study of 61 organizations operating in 12 European countries, they found that thenumber of women decreases the more senior the roles become.

Te nonprot research organization Catalyst reports that women consistently iden-tify gender stereotypes as a signicant barrier to advancement and cause for the leaking pipeline.15 Tey describe a “think-leader-think-male” mind-set in which men are largelyseen as leaders by default because of stereotypically masculine “take charge” skills such

as inuencing superiors and problem solving. Women, by contrast are stereotyped for“caretaking skills” such as supporting and encouraging others. Tis creates what is calleda leadership double bind for women. If they conform to the stereotype they are seen as weak, and if they go against the stereotype they are breaking norms of femininity. As some describe it, female leaders are “damned if they do, doomed if they don’t.”16 Organizations can help address these stereotypes by creating workplaces that are moremeaningful and satisfying to successful women, such as cultures that are lesscommand-and-control and status-based. As Catalyst reports, “Ultimately, it is not women’s leadership styles that need to change but the structures and perceptions thatmust keep up with today’s changing times.”17

Te glass ceiling effect isan invisible barrier limitingcareer advancement of

women and minorities.

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 protectsindividuals againstemployment discriminationon the basis of race and color,as well as national origin, sex,and religion.

Te leaking pipeline describes how women dropout of careers before reachingthe top levels of organizations.

Te leadership double bind describes how women areseen as weak in leadership ifthey conform to the femininestereotype and also weak ifthey go against it.


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points of conict based on age stereotypes. Baby Boomers may view Millennials as feel-ing a sense of entitlement and not being hard working due to the way they dress and theirinterest in exible hours. Millennials may view Baby Boomers and Gen Xers as moreconcerned about the hours they work than what they produce.22

Te generational mix in organizations provides an excellent example of how diver-sity can deliver benets. For example, Millennials seem to embrace gender equality andsexual, cultural, and racial diversity more than any previous generation, and they bringthese values to work. Millennials also have an appreciation for community andcollaboration. Tey can help create a more relaxed workplace that reduces some of the problems that come from too much focus on status and hierarchy. At the same time,Boomers and Gen Xers bring a wealth of experience, dedication, and commitment thatcontribute to productivity, and a sense of professionalism that is beneting their younger counterparts.23

Ability In recent years the “disability rights movement” has been working to bringattention and support to the needs of disabled workers.24 Estimates indicate that over50 million Americans have one or more physical or mental disabilities, and studies showthese workers do their jobs as well as, or better than, nondisabled workers. Despite this,nearly three-quarters of severely disabled persons are reported to be unemployed, andalmost 80 percent of those with disabilities say they want to work.25

WORTH CONSIDERING ...OR BEST AVOIDED?

Employers find a lot to like in the skills Generation Ymembers—the Millennials—bring to the workplace. Noproblem with technology—they’re always on the cusp ofthings. No problem with collaboration—they’ve grown upwith teamwork and social media. No problem either withmotivation—they’re task oriented and career focused.

But Gen Ys also need special handling. They can bespoiled and self-centered, quick to complain when theirbosses don’t communicate enough, when their skills aren’tfully tapped, and when work rules and bureaucracy get too

restrictive. They’re also impatient for new assignments andpromotions, and flexible work arrangements. And whenthey don’t get them they’re quick to move on. Loyalty to a

single-employer career isn’t part of their DNA.Some employers go to great lengths to keep their Gen Ys

happy, even to the point where “older” employers feel a bitput upon. The online book service Chegg cut middle man-agement positions to make room for younger employees to

advance. CEO Dan Rosensweig said, “If they don’t feel likethey’re making a contribution to a company overall quickly,they don’t stay.” Software firm Aprimo guarantees Gen Yspromotion and a raise in a year if they perform up to expec-tations. When some of the older workers balked at thisspecial treatment, President Bob Boehnlein said, “I had tostrong-arm a little bit.”

Would You Please Move Over?We’re Making Room for Generation Y

Do the AnalysisDo Gen Ys deserve special treatment? And when they getit, should it come at the expense of their more seniorco-workers? Just how do you blend the needs and interestsof a new generation of workers with others who have beenaround awhile—perhaps quite awhile? Who gains and wholoses when the new generation pushes employers to rethinkthe nature of the employment contract?

Barry Austin/Moodboard/Corbis


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Questions like those just posed are the focus of social identity theory as developed bysocial psychologists Henri ajfel and John urner in their quest to understand the psycho-logical basis of discrimination.30 According to the theory, individuals have not one butmultiple “personal selves.” Which self is activated depends on the group with which the person identies. Te mere act of identifying, or “categorizing,” oneself as a member of agroup will generate favoritism toward that group, and this favoritism is displayed in theform of “in-group” enhancement. Tis in-group favoritism occurs at the expense of theout-group. In terms of diversity, social identity theory suggests that simply having diversityin groups makes that identity salient in peoples’ minds. Individuals engage these identitiesand experience feelings of in-group membership and out-group membership. Te implications of social identity theory are straightforward. When organizations havestrong identities formed around in-group and out-group categorizations based on diversity,this will work against a feeling of inclusion. Such in-group and out-group categorizationscan be subtle but powerful, and they may be most noticeable to those in the “out-group”category. Organizations may not intend to create discriminatory environments, but whenonly a few members of a group are present, this may evoke a strong out-group identity. Teymay end up feeling uncomfortable and less a part of the organization. Managers and orga-nizations try to deal with all this by creating work cultures and environments that welcomeand embrace inclusion. Te concept of valuing diversity emphasizes an appreciation of dif-ferences while creating a workplace where everyone feels valued and accepted.31

PersonalityL E A R N I N GR O A D M A P

BIG FIVE PERSONALIY RAIS • SOCIAL RAIS PERSONAL CONCEPION RAIS

Te term personality encompasses the overall combination of characteristics thatcapture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts to and interacts with others.It combines a set of physical and mental characteristics that reect how a person looks,thinks, acts, and feels. Tink of yourself, and of your family and friends. A key part of how you interact with others depends on your own and their personalities, doesn’t it? If youhave a friend who has a sensitive personality, do you interact with that person differentlythan you do with a friend or family member who likes to joke around? Sometimes attempts are made to measure personality with questionnaires or specialtests. Frequently, personality can be inferred from behavior alone. Either way, personalityis an important individual characteristic to understand. It helps us identify predictableinterplays between people’s individual differences and their tendencies to behave incertain ways.

Big Five Personality Traits

Numerous lists of personality traits—enduring characteristics describing an indivi-

dual’s behavior—have been developed, and used in OB research. A key starting point is toconsider the personality dimensions known as the “Big Five Model”:32

■ Extraversion—the degree to which someone is outgoing, sociable, and assertive. An extravert is comfortable and condent in interpersonal relationships; an intro- vert is more withdrawn and reserved.

■ Agreeableness —the degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, andtrusting. An agreeable person gets along well with others; a disagreeable person isa source of conict and discomfort for others.

■ Conscientiousness —the degree to which someone is responsible, dependable, andcareful. A conscientious person focuses on what can be accomplished and meets

Social identity theory isa theory developed tounderstand the psychologicalbasis of discrimination.

A feeling of in-groupmembership exists whenindividuals sense they are

part of a group andexperience favorable statusand a sense of belonging.

A feeling of out-groupmembership exists whenindividuals sense they arenot part of a group andexperience discomfort and

low belongingness.

Personality is the overallcombination ofcharacteristics that capturethe unique nature of a personas that person reacts to andinteracts with others.

Personality traits areenduring characteristicsdescribing an individual’sbehavior.

Big Five Personality Dimensions


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OB IN POPULAR CULTURE

Ambition and

The Social Network Sony’s movie The Social Network is based on Facebook’sstory and especially the role of visionary and contro-

versial founder Mark Zuckerberg (played by Jesse

Eisenberg). Although Zuckerberg calls the film pure

“fiction,” it raises ethical questions about his actions

while developing the initial Web site, refining it, and

eventually turning it into a global company valued at

over $50 billion. Two former Harvard classmates,

Cameron and Tyler Winklevoss, sued him, claiming the

original idea was theirs. Another early collaborator and

co-founder, Eduardo Saverin, was initially left out of the

new firm’s financial gains.

In its reaction to the film, Entertainment Weekly asks,

“Why did Zuckerberg betray these people? Or, in fact,

did he really?”

One thing that cannot be denied is Zuckerberg’s

ambition, the desire to succeed and reach for high

goals. He’s the youngest self-made billionaire in busi-

ness history. As the movie shows, ambition is one of

those personality traits that can certainly have a big

impact on individual behavior—both for the good and

for the bad.

Get to Know Yourself Better Watch The Social Network and discuss with your friends and classmateshow different personalities and talents played out in creating the Facebook revolution. What can you learn that

might help you deal with the ethics and intricacies of human behavior in work situations? Then take “Assessment 19:

Your Personality Type” in theOB Skills Workbook . Personality is a good starting point for exploring your preferences

and gaining a better understanding of who you are. How difficult would it be for someone else to understand you?

Spend a few minutes looking at that. After you score the assessment, sit down with your roommate or a close friendand discuss the results. Is what you discovered consistent with how they see you?

Columbia Pictures/Photofest

Te second component of problem solving, evaluation, involves making judgmentsabout how to deal with information once it has been collected. Styles of informationevaluation vary from an emphasis on feeling to an emphasis on thinking. Feeling-type individuals are oriented toward conformity and try to accommodate themselves toother people. Tey try to avoid problems that may result in disagreements. Tinking-typeindividuals use reason and intellect to deal with problems and downplay emotions. When the two dimensions of information gathering and evaluation are combined,four basic problem-solving styles can be identied. As shown in Figure 2.1, people can be

classied into combinations of sensation–feeling (SF), intuitive–feeling (IF), sensation–thinking (S), and intuitive–thinking (I). Research indicates that there is a t between the styles of individuals and the kinds ofdecisions they prefer. For example, Ss (sensation–thinkers) prefer analytical strategies—those that emphasize detail and method. IFs (intuitive–feelers) prefer intuitivestrategies—those that emphasize an overall pattern and t. Not surprisingly, mixed styles(sensation–feelers or intuitive–thinkers) select both analytical and intuitive strategies.Other ndings also indicate that thinkers tend to have higher motivation than do feelers,and that individuals who emphasize sensations tend to have higher job satisfaction thando intuitives. Tese and other ndings suggest a number of basic differences among


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Personality

different problem-solving styles, emphasizing the importance of tting such styles with atask’s information processing and evaluation requirements.35

Personal Conception Traits

What are known as personal conception traits represent various ways people thinkabout their social and physical setting, their major beliefs, and personal orientationstoward a range of issues. Personal conception traits often discussed in the work contextinclude locus of control, proactive personality, authoritarianism/dogmatism, Machiavel-lianism, and self-monitoring.

Locus of Control Te extent to which a person feels able to control his or her ownlife is known as locus of control.36 People have personal conceptions about whetherevents are controlled primarily by themselves, which indicates an internal orientation, orby outside forces, such as their social and physical environment, which indicates an

external orientation.

Internals , or persons with an internal locus of control, believe thatthey control their own fate or destiny. In contrast, externals , or persons with an externallocus of control, believe that much of what happens to them is beyond their control andis determined by environmental forces (such as fate). In general, externals are more extraverted in their interpersonal relationships and aremore oriented toward the world around them. Internals tend to be more introverted and aremore oriented toward their own feelings and ideas. Figure 2.2 suggests that internals tend todo better on tasks requiring complex information processing and learning as well as initiative.

Proactive Personality Some people in organizations are passive recipients whenfaced with constraints, whereas others take direct and intentional action to change their

FIGURE 2.1 Four problesolving styles of the Jungtypology.

Sensation–Feeling

InterpersonalSpecific human detailFriendly, sympatheticOpen communication

Respond to people nowGood at:

EmpathizingCooperating

Goal : To be helpful

Sensation–Thinking

Technical detail orientedLogical analysis of hard dataPrecise, orderlyCareful about rules and proceduresDependable, responsibleGood at :

Observing, orderingFiling, recalling

Goal : Do it correctly

Intuitive–Feeling

Insightful, mysticalIdealistic, personalCreative, originalGlobal ideas oriented to peopleHuman potentialGood at :

ImaginingNew combinations

Goal : To make things beautiful

Intuitive–Thinking

SpeculativeEmphasize understandingSynthesize, interpretLogic-oriented ideasObjective, impersonal, idealisticGood at :

Discovery, inquiryProblem solving

Goal : To think things through

I

S

TF

Personal conception trashow up as personal belieand orientations towardsettings and issues.

Locus of control is theextent a person feels ablecontrol his or her own lifeis concerned with a perso

internal–external orienta


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FIGURE 2.2 Ways in whichinternal locus of control differsfrom external locus of control.

Information processing

Job satisfaction

Performance

Self-control, risk, andanxiety

Motivation,expectancies, andresults

Response to others

Internals make more attempts to acquire information,are less satisfied with the amount of information theypossess, and are better at utilizing information.

Internals are generally more satisfied, less alienated,less rootless, and there is a stronger job satisfaction/performance relationship for them.

Internals perform better on learning and problem-solving tasks when performance leads to valuedrewards.

Internals exhibit greater self-control, are morecautious, engage in less risky behavior, and are lessanxious.

Internals display greater work motivation, see astronger relationship between what they do and whathappens to them, expect that working hard leads togood performance, and feel more control over their time.

Internals are more independent, more reliant ontheir own judgment, and less susceptible to theinfluence of others; they are more likely to acceptinformation on its merit.

circumstances. Te disposition that identies whether or not individuals act to inuencetheir environments is known as proactive personality . Individuals with high proactive personalities identify opportunities and act on them, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs. Tose low in proactivity are the opposite.Tey fail to identify—let alone seize—opportunities to change things. Tey tend to be

passive and reactive, preferring to adapt to circumstances rather than change them.37

In the ever more demanding world of work, many employers are seeking individuals with more proactive qualities—individuals willing to take initiative and engage in pro-active problem solving. Research supports this, showing that proactive personality is positively related to job performance, creativity, leadership, and career success. Otherstudies have shown that proactive personality is related to team effectiveness andentrepreneurship. Moreover, when organizations try to make positive and innovativechange, these changes have more positive effects for proactive individuals—they aremore involved and more receptive to change. Tis research is showing that proactive personality is an important and desirable element in today ’s work environment.

Authoritarianism/Dogmatism Both authoritarianism and dogmatism as personalconception traits deal with the rigidity of someone’s beliefs. A person high in authoritarian-ism tends to adhere rigidly to conventional values and to obey recognized authority. Tis person is concerned with toughness and power and opposes the use of subjective feelings.Highly authoritarian individuals present a special problem because they can be so eager tocomply with directives from authority gures that they end up willing to behave unethically. 38

An individual high in dogmatism sees the world as a threatening place. Tis personregards legitimate authority as absolute, and accepts or rejects others according to howmuch they agree with accepted authority. Superiors who possess these latter traits tendto be rigid and closed. At the same time, dogmatic subordinates tend to want certaintyimposed on them.

A proactive personality isthe disposition that identies

whether or not individualsact to inuence their

environments.

Authoritarianism is atendency to adhere rigidly toconventional values and toobey recognized authority.

Dogmatism leads a person tosee the world as a threatening

place and to regard authorityas absolute.


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Personality

Machiavellianism Te very name of the sixteenth-century author Niccolo Machiavellioften evokes visions of someone who acts with guile, deceit, and opportunism. Machiavelliearned his place in history by writing Te Prince, a nobleman’s guide to the acquisition anduse of power.39 Te subject of Machiavelli’s book is manipulation as the basic means of gain-ing and keeping control of others. From its pages emerges the personality prole of Machia-

vellianism—the practice of viewing and manipulating others purely for personal gain. Persons high in Machiavellianism approach situations logically and thoughtfully, andare even capable of lying to achieve personal goals.40 Tey are rarely swayed by loyalty,friendships, past promises, or the opinions of others, and they are skilled at inuencingothers. Tey can also be expected to take control and try to exploit loosely structuredenvironmental situations but will perform in a perfunctory, even detached, manner inhighly structured situations. Where the situation permits, they might be expected to door say whatever it takes to get their way. Tose low in Machiavellianism, by contrast, tendto be more strongly guided by ethical considerations and are less likely to lie, cheat, or getaway with lying or cheating.

Machiavellianism cause

someone to view andmanipulate others purely

personal gain.

CHECKING ETHICS IN OB

Personality TestingDear [your name goes here]:

I am very pleased to invite you to a second round of

screening interviews with XYZ Corporation. Your on-

campus session with our representative went very well,

and we would like to consider you further for a full-time

position. Please contact me to arrange a visit date. We

will need a full day. The schedule will include several

meetings with executives and your potential team

members, as well as a round of personality tests.

Thank you again for your interest in XYZ Corp. I look

forward to meeting you during the next step in our

recruiting process.

Sincerely,

/signed /

Human Resource Director

Getting a letter like this is great news: a nice confir-

mation of your hard work and performance in college.

You obviously made a good first impression. But have

you thought about this “personality test” thing? What

do you know about them and how they are used for

employment screening?

Make the Decision What are the ethical issues of personality testing? When might the use of persontests be considered an invasion of privacy? When might their use be considered unethical? Now go back to situation just described: Will you take the tests at XYZ? Will you ask any questions about the tests when you con

the human resources director? Is the fact that XYZ uses personality tests a positive or a negative in terms of y

likely fit with the firm?

Tek Image/Photo Researchers,

The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Comm

sion says that personality tests can’t have an adve

impact on members of protected groups. And

report in the Wall Street Journal advises that lawsu

can result when employers use personality tests t

weren’t specifically designed for hiring decisio

Some people might even consider their use

invasion of privacy.


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Self-Monitoring Self-monitoring reects a person’s ability to adjust his or herbehavior to external, situational (environmental) factors.41 High self-monitors are sensitiveto external cues and tend to behave differently in different situations. High self-monitorscan present a very different appearance from their true self. In contrast, low self-monitors,are less able to disguise their behaviors—“What you see is what you get.” Tere is alsoevidence that high self-monitors are closely attuned to the behavior of others and conformmore readily than do low self-monitors.42 Tus, they appear exible and may be especiallygood at adjusting their behavior to t different kinds of situations and the people in them.

Personality and StressL E A R N I N GR O A D M A P

YPE A ORIENAION AND SRESS • WORK AND LIFE SRESSORS OUCOMES OF SRESS • APPROACHES O MANAGING SRESS

An individual’s personality can also be described in terms of emotional adjustmenttraits that indicate how one handles emotional distress or displays unacceptable acts,such as impatience, irritability, or aggression.43 Among these, a personality with Type Aorientation is characterized by impatience, desire for achievement, and perfectionism. Incontrast, those with a Type B orientation are characterized as more easygoing and lesscompetitive in relation to daily events.44 ype A people tend to work fast and to be abrupt,uncomfortable, irritable, and aggressive. Such tendencies may show up as “obsessive”behavior. When carried to the extreme, it may lead to greater concerns for details than forresults, resistance to change, and overzealous attempts to exert control. In contrast, ype B people tend to be much more laid back and patient in their relationships with others.

Type A Orientation and Stress

In one survey of college graduates, 31 percent reported working over 50 hours per week,60 percent rushed meals and 34 percent ate lunches “on the run,” and 47 percent of thoseunder 35 and 28 percent of those over 35 had feelings of job burnout. A study by the Soci-ety for Human Resources Management found that 70 percent of those surveyed worked

over and above scheduled hours, including putting in extra time on the weekends; over50 percent said that the pressure to do the extra work was “self-imposed.”45

Te situations just described all evidence the presence of stress as a state of internaltension experienced by individuals who perceive themselves as facing extraordinarydemands, constraints, or opportunities.46 If you look back to the discussion of ype A andype B personalities, the fact is that ype As often bring stress upon themselves. Teymay even do this in situations others may nd relatively stress free. You can spot ype A personality tendencies in yourself and others through the following patterns of behavior:

■ Always moving, walking, and eating rapidly

■ Acting impatient, hurrying others, put off by waiting

■ Doing, or trying to do, several things at once

■ Feeling guilty when relaxing

■ Hurrying or interrupting the speech of others47

Work and Life Stressors

Not all stress that we experience is personality driven. Any variety of things can causestress for individuals. Some stressors can be traced directly to what people experience inthe workplace, whereas others derive from life situations and nonwork factors.

Work Stressors Tere is no doubt that work can be stressful and job demands cansometimes disrupt one’s work–life balance. Work stressors can arise from excessively

Self-monitoring is a person’sability to adjust his or herbehavior to externalsituational (environmental)factors.

Type A Behaviors

Emotional adjustmenttraits are traits related tohow much an individualexperiences emotionaldistress or displaysunacceptable acts.

Persons with Type Aorientations tend to beimpatient, achievementoriented, and competitive.

Persons with Type B

orientations tend to beeasygoing and lesscompetitive.

Stress is a state of tension inresponse to extraordinarydemands, constraints, oropportunities.


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Personality and Stress

high or low task demands, role conicts or ambiguities, poor interpersonal relations,career progress that is either too slow or too fast, and more. Te following is a list of com-mon stressors:

■ ask demands —being asked to do too much or being asked to do too little

■ Role ambiguities —not knowing what one is expected to do or how work perfor-mance is evaluated

■ Role conicts —feeling unable to satisfy multiple, possibly conicting, performanceexpectations

■ Ethical dilemmas —being asked to do things that violate the law or personal values

■ Interpersonal problems —experiencing bad relationships or working with others with whom one does not get along

■ Career developments —moving too fast and feeling stretched; moving too slowlyand feeling stuck on a plateau

■ Physical setting —being bothered by noise, lack of privacy, pollution, or otherunpleasant working conditions

Life Stressors Life stressors such as family events (e.g., the birth of a new child), eco-

nomic diffi culties (e.g., loss of income by a spouse), and personal affairs (e.g., a separationor divorce) can all be extremely stressful. Tat pretty much goes without saying. But it’salso true that people can easily suffer from spillover effects that result when forces in their personal lives spill over to affect them at work or when forces at work spill over to affecttheir personal lives. Because it is often diffi cult to completely separate work and nonworklives, especially in this age of smart devices that keep us continually in touch with workand personal affairs, life stressors and spillover effects are highly signicant.

Outcomes of Stress

Te stress we experience at work or in personal affairs isn’t always negative. Scholarstalk about two types of stress.48 Te rst is eustress—constructive stress that results in positive outcomes. It occurs when moderate—not extreme—stress levels prompt things

like increased work effort, greater creativity, and more diligence. You may know suchstress as the tension that causes you to study hard before exams, pay attention in class,and complete assignments on time. Te second type of stress is distress—destructivestress that turns out to be dysfunctional for both the individual. Key symptoms of individuals suffering distress are changes from regular attendance to absenteeism, from punctuality to tardiness, from diligent work to careless work, from a positive attitude to

Eustress is constructivestress that results in posit

outcomes for the individu

Distress is destructive stthat is dysfunctional for tindividual.

Learning to Power Down:Vacation Habits Vary Aroundthe World

“Most years I leave my vacation days on the table”—so

says a bank marketing manager. Sound farfetched? Not

necessarily; perhaps a bit extreme but still indicative of

a pattern. A global survey of vacation habits nds that

Americans on the average take fewer vacation days than

they are allowed: an average of 12 out of 14. Tey leave

anywhere from 2 to 11 days unused. Tis contrasts with

French and Spanish workers who take all of their

allocated 30 days, whereas the Japanese take only 4 of

10. One worker says, “It’s almost not worth the stress of

having double the

work when you

get back.” Some

employers are

trying to curbtendencies to

“work too much”

as a way of helping

people “do better

work.” Te

consulting rm KPMG uses a wellness scorecard to

track and counsel workers who skip vacations and

work excessive overtime.

Photomorphic/Robert Church

Common Work Stresso


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a negative attitude, from openness to change to resistance to change, or from coopera-tion to hostility.

One possible outcome of extended distress, for example, is the job burnout thatshows up as loss of interest in and satisfaction with a job due to stressful working condi-tions. Someone who is “burned out” feels emotionally and physically exhausted, and isless able to deal positively with work responsibilities and opportunities. More extremereactions to distress include bullying of co-workers and even workplace violence. It isalso clear that too much stress can overload and break down a person’s physical andmental systems, resulting in absenteeism, turnover, errors, accidents, dissatisfaction,reduced performance, unethical behavior, and even illness.49

Approaches to Managing Stress

Coping Mechanisms Along with rising sensitivities to stress in the workplace,interest is also growing in how to manage, or cope, with distress. Coping is a response orreaction to distress that has occurred or is threatened. It involves cognitive and behav-ioral efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by the stressful situation.

Tere are two major types of coping mechanisms. Problem-focused coping strate-gies try to manage the problem that is causing the distress. Indicators of this type of

coping are comments like “I’ll get the person responsible to change his or her mind,” “I’llmake a new plan of action and follow it,” and “I ’m going to stand my ground and ght for what I need.” Emotion-focused coping strategies try to regulate the emotions drawnforth by stress. Indicators of this type of coping include comments like “I’ll look for thesilver lining, try to look on the bright side of things,” “I’ ll accept the sympathy and under-standing offered by others,” and “I ’ll just try to forget the whole thing.”50

People with different personalities tend to cope with stress in different ways. In respectto the Big Five, emotional stability has been found linked with increased use of hostile reac-

tion, escapism/fantasy, self-blame, withdrawal, wishful thinking, pas-sivity, and indecisiveness. Peoplehigh in extraversion and optimism

tend to show rational action, posi-tive thinking, substitution, andrestraint. And individuals high inopenness to experience are likely touse humor in dealing with stress.

Stress Prevention Stress prevention is the best rst-linestrategy in the battle againststress. It involves taking action to present stress from reachingdestructive levels. Work and life

stressors must be recognizedbefore one can take action to prevent their occurrence or tominimize their adverse impacts.Persons with ype A personali-ties, for example, may exerciseself-discipline, whereas supervi-sors of ype A employees maytry to model a lower-key, morerelaxed approach to work. Family

Job burnout is a loss ofinterest in or satisfaction witha job due to stressful workingconditions.

Coping is a response orreaction to distress that hasoccurred or is threatened.

Problem-focused coping mechanisms manage the

problem that is causing thedistress.

Emotion-focused coping aremechanisms that regulateemotions or distress.

Persons high in achievement-striving can be overwhelmed by opportunities.Tey may end up over committed and less successful in the long run. A keyelement of managing stress is learning to say “No.”51

When to Say No

• Focus on what matters most—focus on your priorities.

• Weigh the yes-to-stress ratio—how much added stress will this cause? Is it

worth it?

• ake guilt out of the equation—guilt is inated due to feeling of self-

importance—it’s okay to say no.

• Sleep on it—discipline yourself to not automatically say yes; what will it cost you?

How to Say No

• Just say no—or “I’m sorry but I can’t. . . .”

• Be brief—state your reason and avoid elaborations or justications—“I’m

swamped.”

• Be honest—don’t fabricate reasons; the truth is always best and people do

understand.

• Be respectful—”I am honored to be asked but I can’t do it.”

• Be ready to repeat—stick to it if they ask again; just hit the replay button, don’t

give in.

Achievement-Striving, and Learning to Say “No”


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Values

problems may be partially relieved by a change of work schedule; simply knowing that your supervisor understands your situation may also help to reduce the anxiety causedby pressing family concerns.

Personal Wellness o keep stress from reaching a destructive point, special tech-niques of stress management can be implemented. Tis process begins with the recogni-tion of stress symptoms and continues with actions to maintain a positive performanceedge. Te term wellness is increasingly used these days. Personal wellness involves the pursuit of one’s job and career goals with the support of a personal health promotion pro-gram. Te concept recognizes individual responsibility to enhance and maintain wellnessthrough a disciplined approach to physical and mental health. It requires attention to suchfactors as smoking, weight management, diet, alcohol use, and physical tness.

ValuesL E A R N I N GR O A D M A P SOURCES OF VALUES • PERSONAL VALUES • CULURAL VALUES

Values

are broad preferences concerning appropriate courses of action or outcomes.Tey reect a person’s sense of right and wrong or what “ought” to be. 52 Statementslike “Equal rights for all” and “People should be treated with respect and dignity” areindicators of values. And we recognize that values tend to inuence attitudes andbehavior.

Sources of Values

Parents, friends, teachers, siblings, education, experience, and external reference groupsare all possible inuences on individual values. Our values develop as a product of thelearning and experience we encounter in the cultural setting in which we live, as learningand experiences differ from one person to another. Value differences result. Such differ-ences are likely to be deep seated and diffi cult (though not impossible) to change. Many

have their roots in early childhood and the way a person has been raised.53

Personal Values

Te noted psychologist Milton Rokeach classied values into two broad categories. 54

Terminal values reect a person’s preferences concerning the “ends” to be achieved; they arethe goals an individual would like to achieve during his or her lifetime. Instrumental values reect the “means” for achieving desired ends. Tey represent how you might go aboutachieving your important goals. Rokeach identies the eighteen terminal values andeighteen instrumental values shown in Figure 2.3. ake a look at the list. Ten ask this: Whatare my top ve values, and what do they say about me and how I relate or work with others? Bruce Meglino and colleagues discuss the importance of value congruence betweenleaders and followers. 55 It occurs when individuals express positive feelings upon encoun-

tering others who exhibit values similar to their own. When values differ, or areincongruent, conicts over such things as goals and the means to achieve them mayresult. Research nds that satisfaction with a leader is greater when there is congruenceamong the four values of achievement, helping, honesty, and fairness.56

■ Achievement —getting things done and working hard to accomplish diffi cult thingsin life

■ Helping and concern for others —being concerned for other people and with helpingothers

■ Honesty —telling the truth and doing what you feel is right

■ Fairness —being impartial and doing what is fair for all concerned

Personal wellness involvthe pursuit of one’s job ancareer goals with the suppof a personal health

promotion program.

Terminal values reect a person’s preferencesconcerning the “ends” to bachieved.

Instrumental values re person’s beliefs about themeans to achieve desired

Megilino Values Schem

Values are broad preferenconcerning appropriatecourses of action oroutcomes.


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Cultural Values

Values can also be discussed for their presence at the level of national or societal culture. Inthis sense, culture can be dened as the learned, shared way of doing things in a particularsociety. It is the way, for example, in which its members eat, dress, greet and treat oneanother, teach their children, solve everyday problems, and so on.57 Geert Hofstede, a Dutchscholar and consultant, refers to culture as the “software of the mind,” making the analogy

that the mind’s “hardware” is universal among human beings.58 But the software of culturetakes many different forms. We are not born with a culture; we are born into a society thatteaches us its culture. And because culture is shared among people, it helps to dene theboundaries between different groups and affect how their members relate to one another.

Cultures are known to vary in their underlying patterns of values, and these differencesare important in OB. Te way people think about such matters as achievement, wealth andmaterial gain, risk, and change, for example, may inuence how they approach work andtheir relationships with organizations. Increasingly now you will hear the term culturalquotient (CQ) used to describe someone’s ability to work effectively across cultures. And it’sa point well worth considering in terms of personal growth and professional development.

One framework for understanding how value differences across national cultures was developed by the cross-cultural psychologist Hofstede. His framework is shown in

Figure 2.4 and includes these ve dimensions of national culture:■ Power distance is the willingness of a culture to accept status and power differ-

ences among its members. It reects the degree to which people are likely to respecthierarchy and rank in organizations. Indonesia is considered a high-power-distanceculture, whereas Sweden is considered a relatively low-power-distance culture.

■ Uncertainty avoidance is a cultural tendency toward discomfort with risk and am-biguity. It reects the degree to which people are likely to prefer structured versusunstructured organizational situations. France is considered a high-uncertainty-avoidance culture, whereas Hong Kong is considered a low-uncertainty-avoidanceculture.

Culture is the learned andshared way of thinking andacting among a group of

people or society.

Cultural quotient, or CQ,describes someone’s abilityto work effectively acrosscultures.

Power distance is a culture’sacceptance of the status and

power differences among itsmembers.

Uncertainty avoidance isthe cultural tendency tobe uncomfortable withuncertainty and risk ineveryday life.

FIGURE 2.3 Terminal and Instrumental Values in the Rokeach value survey.

Instrumental Values

• Ambitious (hardworking)

• Broad-minded (open-minded)

• Capable (competent, effective)

• Cheerful (lighthearted, joyful)

• Clean (neat, tidy)

• Courageous (standing up for beliefs)• Forgiving (willing to pardon)

• Helpful (working for others' welfare)

• Honest (sincere, truthful)

• Imaginative (creative, daring)

• Independent (self-sufficient, self-reliant)

• Intellectual (intelligent, reflective)

• Logical (rational, consistent)

• Loving (affectionate, tender)

• Obedient (dutiful, respectful)

• Polite (courteous, well mannered)

• Responsible (reliable, dependable)

• Self-controlled (self-disciplined)

Terminal Values

• A comfortable life (and prosperous)

• An exciting life (stimulating)

• A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution)

• A world at peace (free of war and conflict)

• A world of beauty (beauty of nature and the arts)

• Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity)• Family security (taking care of loved ones)

• Freedom (independence, free choice)

• Happiness (contentedness)

• Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict)

• Mature love (sexual and spiritual intimacy)

• National security (attack protection)

• Pleasure (leisurely, enjoyable life)

• Salvation (saved, eternal life)

• Self-respect (self-esteem)

• Social recognition (admiration, respect)

• True friendship (close companionship)

• Wisdom (mature understanding of life)


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46 CHAPTER 2 ■ Diversity, Personality, and Values

Key Questions and Answers

Why are individual differences and diversity important?• Te study of individual differences attempts to identify where behavioral tendencies

are similar and where they are different to more accurately predict how and why peoplebehave as they do.

• Self-concept is the view individuals have of themselves as physical, social, and spiritualor moral beings. It is a way of recognizing oneself as a distinct human being.

• Both self-awareness (being aware of our own behaviors, preferences, styles, biases, and personalities) and awareness of others (being aware of these same things in others) areimportant capabilities if we are to best understand individual differences and diversity.

• Te nature/nurture controversy addresses whether we are the way we are because ofheredity or because of the environments in which we have been raised and live.

• Tere are many types of diversity, but the most commonly discussed in the workplaceare racial/ethnic, gender, age, disability, and sexual orientation.

• In recent years there has been a shift from a focus on diversity to a focus on inclusion.Tis represents a need to emphasize not only recruitment but retention.

• Social identity theory suggests that many forms of discrimination are subtle but power-ful, and may occur in subconscious psychological processes that individuals of out-groups perceive in the workplace.

• Organizations can value diversity by promoting cultures of inclusion that implement policiesand practices to help create a more equitable and opportunity-based environment for all.

What is personality?

• Personality captures the overall prole, or combination of characteristics, that repre-sents the unique nature of an individual as that individual interacts with others.• Personality is determined by both heredity and environment; across all personality

characteristics, the mix of heredity and environment is about 50–50. Te Big Five personality traits are extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability,and openness to experience.

• A useful personality framework consists of social traits, personal conception traits,emotional adjustment traits, and personality dynamics, where each category repre-sents one or more personality dimensions.

How are personality and stress related?

• Stress emerges when people experience tensions caused by extraordinary demands,

constraints, or opportunities in their jobs.• Personal stressors derive from personality type, needs, and values; they can inuence

how stressful different situations become for different people.

• Work stressors arise from such things as excessive task demands, interpersonal prob-lems, unclear roles, ethical dilemmas, and career disappointments.

• Nonwork stress can spill over to affect people at work; nonwork stressors may be tracedto family situations, economic diffi culties, and personal problems.

• Stress can be managed by prevention—such as making adjustments in work and nonworkfactors; it can also be dealt with through coping mechanisms and personal wellness—takingsteps to maintain a healthy body and mind capable of better withstanding stressful situations.

Study Guide2


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Self-est 2

What are values, and how do they vary across cultures?• Values are broad preferences concerning courses of action or outcomes.• Rokeach identies terminal values (preferences concerning ends) and instrumental values (preferences concerning means); Meglino and his associates classify values intoachievement, helping and concern for others, honesty, and fairness.

• Hofstede’s ve dimensions of national culture values are power distance, individualism–

collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity–femininity, and long-term/short-term orientation.

• Culture is the learned and shared way of doing things in a society; it represents deeplyingrained inuences on the way people from different societies think, behave, and solve problems.

Terms to Know Americans with

Disabilities Act (p. 33)

Authoritarianism (p. 38)

Awareness of others (p. 28)

Coping (p. 42)Culture (p. 44)

Cultural quotient (p. 44)

Deep-level diversity (p. 28)

Discrimination (p. 29)

Distress (p. 41)

Dogmatism (p. 38)

Ecological fallacy (p. 45)

Emotion-focused coping(p. 42)

Emotional adjustmenttraits (p. 40)

Eustress (p. 41)

Glass ceiling effect (p. 30)

In-group membership (p. 34)

Individual differences (p. 28)

Individualism–collectivism(p. 45)

Instrumental values (p. 43)

Job burnout (p. 42)

Leaking pipeline (p. 30)

Leadership double bind

(p. 30)Locus of control (p. 37)

Long-term/short-termorientation (p. 45)

Machiavellianism (p. 39)

Masculinity–femininity(p. 45)

Out-group membership(p. 34)

Personal conception traits(p. 37)

Personal wellness (p. 43)Personality (p. 34)

Personality traits (p. 34)

Power distance (p. 44)

Prejudice (p. 28)

Proactive personality (p. 38)

Problem-focused coping(p. 42)

Problem-solving style (p. 35)

Self-awareness (p. 28)

Self-concept (p. 28)Self-effi cacy (p. 28)

Self-esteem (p. 28)

Self-monitoring (p. 40)

Social identity theory (p. 34)

Social traits (p. 35)

Stigma (p. 33)

Stress (p. 40)

Surface-level diversity (p. 28)

erminal values (p. 43)

itle VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (p. 30)

ype A orientation (p. 40)

ype B orientation (p. 40)

Uncertainty avoidance (p. 44)

Universal design (p. 33)

Values (p. 43)

Self-Test 2

Multiple Choice

1. Individual differences are important because they ____________.

(a) mean we have to be different

(b) reduce the importance of individuality

(c) show that some cultural groups are superior to others

(d) help us more accurately predict how and why people act as they do

2. Self-awareness is ____________ awareness of others.

(a) more important than (b) less important than

(c) as important as (d) not at all related to


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3. Self-effi cacy is a form of ____________.

(a) self-awareness (b) self-esteem

(c) nurture (d) agreeableness

4. Personality encompasses ____________.

(a) the overall combination of characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person

(b) only the nurture components of self (c) only the nature components of self

(d) how self-aware someone is

5. People who are high in internal locus of control ____________.

(a) believe what happens to them is determined by environmental forces such as fate

(b) believe that they control their own fate or destiny

(c) are highly extraverted

(d) do worse on tasks requiring learning and initiative

6. Proactive personality is ____________ in today’s work environments.

(a) punished (b) missing

(c) becoming more important (d) losing importance

7. People who would follow unethical orders without question would likely be high in ____________.

(a) internal locus of control

(b) Machiavellianism

(c) proactive personality and extraversion

(d) authoritarianism and dogmatism

8. Managers who are hard-driving, detail-oriented, have high performance standards,and thrive on routine could be characterized as ____________.

(a) ype B (b) ype A (c) high self-monitors (d) low Machs

9. Eustress is ____________ stress, while distress is ____________ stress.

(a) constructive, destructive (b) destructive, constructive

(c) negative, positive (d) the most common, the most relevant

10. Coping involves both ____________ and ____________ elements.

(a) cognitive, intellectual (b) promotion, prevention

(c) problem-focused, emotion-focused (d) cultural, psychological

11. When it comes to values, ____________.

(a) instrumental values are more important than terminal values

(b) value congruence is what seems to be most important for satisfaction

(c) it is rare that people hold similar values

(d) most cultures share the same values

12. Culture is ____________.

(a) a person’s major beliefs and personal orientation concerning a range of issues

(b) the way a person gathers and evaluates information

(c) the way someone appears to others when interacting in social settings

(d) the learned, shared way of doing things in a particular society


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wiley organizational behavior - chapter 2 - 13th edition

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