organizational behaviour, 2008 edition french, rayner, rees, &rumbles, john wiley & sons,...

Organizational Behaviour, Organizational Behaviour, 2008 Edition 2008 Edition

French, Rayner, Rees, French, Rayner, Rees, &Rumbles, &Rumbles,

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Chapter 1Chapter 1 Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

Define organizational behavior (OB)Define organizational behavior (OB)• Get Get acquainted with basic OB terminologyacquainted with basic OB terminology

Describe what managers doDescribe what managers do

Understand why managers must know Understand why managers must know

about OBabout OB

Identify the three levels of analysis in OBIdentify the three levels of analysis in OB

My Best Manager exMy Best Manager ex

What is an Organization?What is an Organization?

An organization is a collection of people who work together to achieve individual and organizational goals.

ORGANIZATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCEPERFORMANCE

Depends on the organizations’ ability to Depends on the organizations’ ability to attain organizational goals in an attain organizational goals in an effectiveeffective and and efficient efficient manner.manner.

EffectivenessEffectiveness : the degree to which the : the degree to which the organization achieves a stated goalorganization achieves a stated goal

EfficiencyEfficiency : the use of minimal resources : the use of minimal resources to produce a desired volume of output.to produce a desired volume of output.

What is Management?What is Management?

Management is the Management is the process of planning, process of planning, organizing, leading, organizing, leading, and controlling an and controlling an organization’s organization’s resources to aresources to attattain in organizational goals organizational goals in an effective and in an effective and efficient mannerefficient manner ..

Prentice Hall, 2001Prentice Hall, 2001 Chapter 1Chapter 1 77

The Roles of The Roles of ManagementManagement

InformationalInformationalInterpersonalInterpersonal

DecisionalDecisional

TheThe monitormonitor = seeking current information = seeking current information from many sources.from many sources.

The The disseminatordisseminator = transmits information = transmits information to others both inside and outside the to others both inside and outside the organization.organization.

TheThe spokespersonspokesperson = to provide official = to provide official statements to people outside the statements to people outside the organization about company policies, organization about company policies, actions, or plans.actions, or plans.

Informational roles Informational roles = maintain & = maintain & develop information networkdevelop information network

The The figureheadfigurehead = ceremonial activities = ceremonial activities

TheThe leaderleader = motivation, communication, = motivation, communication, and influence of subordinates.and influence of subordinates.

The The liaisonliaison = = development of development of a web of a web of relationshipsrelationships both inside and outside the both inside and outside the organization.organization.

Interpersonal roles Interpersonal roles pertain to pertain to relationships with othersrelationships with others

The The entrepreneurialentrepreneurial = initiation of change. = initiation of change.

The The resource allocator resource allocator = how to allocate = how to allocate resources to achieve outcomes.resources to achieve outcomes.

TheThe negotiatornegotiator = negotiating and = negotiating and bargaining for unit of responsibility.bargaining for unit of responsibility.

The The disturbance handler disturbance handler = resolving = resolving conflicts between subordinates or other conflicts between subordinates or other departments.departments.

Decisional roles Decisional roles = make choice = make choice requiring conceptual & human skills.requiring conceptual & human skills.

http://www.ba.metu.edu.tr/user/pinarhttp://www.ba.metu.edu.tr/user/pinar

My Best ManagerMy Best Manager

Make a list of the attributes that describe Make a list of the attributes that describe the best manager you ever worked for.the best manager you ever worked for.

In groups of 4-5, share your lists.In groups of 4-5, share your lists.

As a group create one list that combines As a group create one list that combines all the unique attributes.all the unique attributes.

Each group will read its list to class.Each group will read its list to class.

Managerial SkillsManagerial SkillsConceptual SkillsConceptual Skills: The ability to : The ability to analyze and diagnose a situation analyze and diagnose a situation and distinguish between cause and distinguish between cause and effect.and effect.Human SkillsHuman Skills: The ability to : The ability to understand, work with, lead, and understand, work with, lead, and control the behavior of other control the behavior of other people and groups.people and groups.Technical SkillsTechnical Skills: Job-specific : Job-specific knowledge and techniques.knowledge and techniques.

The Management PyramidThe Management Pyramid

First-lineFirst-lineManagersManagers

MiddleMiddleManagersManagers

TopTopManagersManagers

What is Organizational Behavior?What is Organizational Behavior?

Organizational Organizational behavior (OB) is the behavior (OB) is the study of factors that study of factors that affect how individuals affect how individuals and groups act in and groups act in organizations and organizations and how organizations how organizations manage their manage their environments.environments.

Insert Figure 1.1 here

Organizational Behavior TerminologyOrganizational Behavior Terminology

Dependent Variables: Factors that Dependent Variables: Factors that you want to explain and that are you want to explain and that are affected by other factors.affected by other factors.


The The DependentDependentVariablesVariables

ProductivityProductivityProductivityProductivity

AbsenteeismAbsenteeismAbsenteeismAbsenteeism

Job SatisfactionJob SatisfactionJob SatisfactionJob Satisfaction

TurnoverTurnoverTurnoverTurnover

Organizational Behavior Organizational Behavior TerminologyTerminology

IndIndependent Variables: ependent Variables: Determinants of Determinants of dependent factorsdependent factors

Individual levelIndividual level Group levelGroup level Organization levelOrganization level


Independent VariablesIndependent Variables

Individual Group Organization

•Biographical Traits

•Personality

•Values & Attitudes

•Ability

•Perception

•Motivation

•Individual Learning

•Decision Making

•Communication

•Other Groups

•Conflict

•Power & Politics

•Group Structure

•Work Teams

•Leadership

•Decision Making

•Culture

•Structure

•Design

•Technology

•Work Processes

•Selection Processes

•Training Programs

•Appraisal Practices

OB FormulaOB Formula

Behavior, Attitudes = f( person, environment)Behavior, Attitudes = f( person, environment)

Chapter 2Chapter 2

Individual differencesIndividual differences

AgendaAgenda

Explain role of nature and nurture in determining Explain role of nature and nurture in determining personalitypersonality

Discuss the Big Five Personality ModelDiscuss the Big Five Personality Model

Explain individual personality factorsExplain individual personality factors

Explain role of the situationExplain role of the situation

Identify tIdentify threehree types of ability types of ability

Discuss valuesDiscuss values

Discuss 3 components of attitudesDiscuss 3 components of attitudes

Discuss attitude-behavior relationshipDiscuss attitude-behavior relationship

The Individual Performance The Individual Performance EquationEquation

Job performanceJob performance

==

Individual attributesIndividual attributes

XX

Work effortWork effort

X X

Organizational supportOrganizational support

Individual Performance FactorsIndividual Performance Factors

Individual attributesIndividual attributes

Work effortWork effort

Organizational supportOrganizational support

Demographic DifferencesDemographic Differences

GenderGender

AgeAge

Ethnic backgroundEthnic background

StereotypingStereotyping

Prejudice in our lives ex on page W91Prejudice in our lives ex on page W91

Differences in AbilitiesDifferences in Abilities

Cognitive abilitiesCognitive abilities

Physical abilitiesPhysical abilities

Emotional intelligenceEmotional intelligence


The Ability-Job FitThe Ability-Job Fit

Abilities of the Abilities of the

employeeemployee

Requirements of Requirements of

the jobthe job

EQ testEQ test

Strongly disagree 1Strongly disagree 1Disagree 2Disagree 2Neither agree nor disagree 3Neither agree nor disagree 3Agree 4Agree 4Strongly agree 5Strongly agree 5For question 2 & 3: deduct your response For question 2 & 3: deduct your response from 6from 6Then calculate the sum of your responses Then calculate the sum of your responses

Personality DifferencesPersonality Differences

Personality is the overall profile or Personality is the overall profile or combination of traits that characterize the combination of traits that characterize the unique nature of a person.unique nature of a person.

Personality DeterminantsPersonality Determinants

The nature/nurture controversy is the The nature/nurture controversy is the argument over whether personality is argument over whether personality is determined by heredity, or genetic determined by heredity, or genetic endowment, or by one’s environment.endowment, or by one’s environment.

Key Dimensions of PersonalityKey Dimensions of Personality

Extroversion – introversionExtroversion – introversion

ConscientiousnessConscientiousness

AgreeablenessAgreeableness

Emotional stabilityEmotional stability

Openness to experienceOpenness to experience

Surgency means extroversionSurgency means extroversion

Adjustment means emotional stability Adjustment means emotional stability

Problem-Solving StylesProblem-Solving Styles

Sensation typeSensation type

Intuitive typeIntuitive type

Feeling typeFeeling type

Thinking typeThinking type

Occupational MatchesOccupational Matches

Locus of ControlLocus of Control

The extent to which people feel able to The extent to which people feel able to affect their livesaffect their lives

Internal locus of controlInternal locus of control

External locus of controlExternal locus of control

Authoritarianism / DogmatismAuthoritarianism / Dogmatism

AuthoritarianismAuthoritarianism

Dogmatism Dogmatism

Type A vs. Type B PersonalityType A vs. Type B Personality

Type B: A person who tends to be easygoing and relaxed.

Type A: A person who has an intense desire to achieve, is extremely competitive, and has a strong sense of urgency.

MachiavellianismMachiavellianism

Machiavellians are people who view and Machiavellians are people who view and manipulate others for purely personal gain.manipulate others for purely personal gain.

Self-ConceptSelf-Concept

The concept individuals have of The concept individuals have of themselves as physical, social and themselves as physical, social and spiritual or moral beings.spiritual or moral beings.

Self-EsteemSelf-Esteem

The extent to which The extent to which people have pride in people have pride in themselves and their themselves and their capabilities.capabilities.– Can be high or low Can be high or low

– Not situation specificNot situation specific

Self-MonitoringSelf-Monitoring The extent to which The extent to which

people try to control the people try to control the way they present way they present themselves to others.themselves to others.– Can be high or lowCan be high or low

Individual DifferencesIndividual Differences

Recruitment and employment conditionsRecruitment and employment conditions

Education, training and developmentEducation, training and development

Rewards and promotionsRewards and promotions

Personality-Job FitPersonality-Job Fit

Personalities among individuals differPersonalities among individuals differ

Demands of jobs differDemands of jobs differ

Matching personality and job leads to Matching personality and job leads to higher satisfaction and lower turnover.higher satisfaction and lower turnover.

Advice to ManagersAdvice to ManagersRealize and accept that some workers are more likely than Realize and accept that some workers are more likely than others to be positive and enthusiastic because of their others to be positive and enthusiastic because of their personalities. Similarly, realize and accept that some workers personalities. Similarly, realize and accept that some workers are more likely than others to complain and experience stress are more likely than others to complain and experience stress because of their personalities.because of their personalities.Provide an extra measure of direct supervision to workers who Provide an extra measure of direct supervision to workers who don’t take the initiative to solve problems on their own and don’t take the initiative to solve problems on their own and always seem to blame someone or something else when always seem to blame someone or something else when things go wrong.things go wrong.Provide additional encouragement and support to workers with Provide additional encouragement and support to workers with low self-esteem who tend to belittle themselves and question low self-esteem who tend to belittle themselves and question their abilities.their abilities.Realize and accept that Type A individuals can be difficult to Realize and accept that Type A individuals can be difficult to get along with and sometimes have a hard time working in get along with and sometimes have a hard time working in teams.teams.Let subordinates who seem overly concerned about other Let subordinates who seem overly concerned about other people liking them know that sometimes it is necessary to give people liking them know that sometimes it is necessary to give honest feedback and be constructively critical (such as when honest feedback and be constructively critical (such as when supervising others).supervising others).

ValuesValues

Values are global beliefs that guide Values are global beliefs that guide actions and judgments across a variety of actions and judgments across a variety of situations.situations.

Classification SchemesClassification SchemesRokeachRokeach– TerminalTerminal– InstrumentalInstrumental

AllportAllport– TheoreticalTheoretical– EconoEconomicmic– AestheticAesthetic– SocialSocial– PoliticalPolitical– ReligiousReligious

Meglino & AssociatesMeglino & Associates– AchievementAchievement– Helping and concern for othersHelping and concern for others– HonestyHonesty– FairnessFairness

Work ValuesWork Values

A worker’s personal convictions about A worker’s personal convictions about what outcomes one should expect from what outcomes one should expect from work and how one should behave at work and how one should behave at work.work.Values can be Values can be intrinsicintrinsic (i.e., related to the (i.e., related to the nature of work itself) or nature of work itself) or extrinsicextrinsic (i.e., (i.e., related to the consequences of work).related to the consequences of work).

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Work ValuesIntrinsic vs. Extrinsic Work Values

Intrinsic ValuesIntrinsic Values

Interesting workInteresting work

Challenging workChallenging work

Learning new thingsLearning new things

Making important Making important contributionscontributions

Responsibility and Responsibility and autonomyautonomy

Being creativeBeing creative

Extrinsic ValuesExtrinsic Values

High payHigh pay

Job securityJob security

Job benefitsJob benefits

Status in wider Status in wider communitycommunity

Social contactsSocial contacts

Time with familyTime with family

Time for hobbiesTime for hobbies

Results of the Beutell and Brenner (1986) Results of the Beutell and Brenner (1986) Study (1 is the strongest ranking)Study (1 is the strongest ranking)

ItemItem MenMen Women Women Provides job securityProvides job security 2.52.5 2.02.0 Provides the opportunity to earn Provides the opportunity to earn

a high incomea high income 2.52.5 5.05.0 Permits advancement/responsibilityPermits advancement/responsibility 4.04.0 6.56.5 Is respected by other peopleIs respected by other people 5.55.5 3.03.0 Provides comfortable working Provides comfortable working

conditionsconditions 7.07.0 4.04.0 Rewards good performance with Rewards good performance with

recognitionrecognition 5.55.5 8.58.5 Encourages continued Encourages continued

development…development… 8.08.0 6.56.5 Is intellectually stimulatingIs intellectually stimulating 9.09.0 8.58.5

Advice to ManagersAdvice to Managers

Do not assume that most workers have Do not assume that most workers have strong intrinsic work values just because you strong intrinsic work values just because you do.do.Realize that any attempt you make to Realize that any attempt you make to improve attitudes, motivation, or improve attitudes, motivation, or performance will be most effective when the performance will be most effective when the change you implement is consistent with change you implement is consistent with workers’ values.workers’ values.

Values and national culture.Values and national culture.

Cultures vary in underlying patterns of Cultures vary in underlying patterns of values and attitudes.values and attitudes.Hofstede’s five dimensions of national Hofstede’s five dimensions of national culture:culture:– Power distance.Power distance.– Uncertainty avoidance.Uncertainty avoidance.– Individualism-collectivism.Individualism-collectivism.– Masculinity-femininity.Masculinity-femininity.– Long-term/short-term orientation.Long-term/short-term orientation.

Values and national culture.Values and national culture. Power distance.Power distance.

– The willingness of a culture to accept status The willingness of a culture to accept status and power differences among members.and power differences among members.

– Respect for hierarchy and rank in Respect for hierarchy and rank in organizations.organizations.

– Example of a high power distance culture Example of a high power distance culture — — Indonesia.Indonesia.

– Example of a low power distance culture Example of a low power distance culture — — Sweden.Sweden.


Uncertainty avoidance.Uncertainty avoidance.– The cultural tendency toward discomfort with The cultural tendency toward discomfort with

risk and ambiguity.risk and ambiguity.– Preference for structured versus unstructured Preference for structured versus unstructured

organizational situations.organizational situations.– Example of a high uncertainty avoidance Example of a high uncertainty avoidance

culture culture — France.— France.– Example of a low uncertainty avoidance Example of a low uncertainty avoidance

culture culture — Hong Kong.— Hong Kong.


Individualism-collectivism.Individualism-collectivism.– The cultural tendency to emphasize individual The cultural tendency to emphasize individual

or group interests.or group interests.– Preferences for working individually or in Preferences for working individually or in

groups.groups.– Example of an individualistic culture Example of an individualistic culture — United — United

States.States.– Example of a collectivist culture Example of a collectivist culture — Mexico.— Mexico.

Values and national culture.Values and national culture. Masculinity-femininity.Masculinity-femininity.

– The tendency of a culture to value stereotypical The tendency of a culture to value stereotypical masculine or feminine traits.masculine or feminine traits.

– Emphasizes competition/assertiveness versus Emphasizes competition/assertiveness versus interpersonal sensitivity/relationships.interpersonal sensitivity/relationships.

– Example of a masculine culture Example of a masculine culture — Japan.— Japan.– Example of a feminine culture Example of a feminine culture — Thailand.— Thailand.


Long-term/short-term orientation.Long-term/short-term orientation.– The tendency of a culture to emphasize The tendency of a culture to emphasize

future-oriented values versus present-oriented future-oriented values versus present-oriented values.values.

– Adoption of long-term or short-term Adoption of long-term or short-term performance horizons.performance horizons.

– Example of a long-term orientation culture Example of a long-term orientation culture — — South Korea.South Korea.

– Example of a short-term orientation culture Example of a short-term orientation culture — — United States.United States.

Values and national cultureValues and national culture

AttitudesAttitudes

A predisposition to respond in a positive or A predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to someone or something in negative way to someone or something in your environment.your environment.

Components of AttitudesComponents of Attitudes

Cognitive componentsCognitive components

Affective componentsAffective components

Behavioral componentsBehavioral components

Components of AttitudesComponents of Attitudes

Importance Importance of the Elementsof the Elements

Importance Importance of the Elementsof the Elements

CognitiveCognitiveDissonanceDissonanceCognitiveCognitive

DissonanceDissonanceDegree ofDegree of

Personal InfluencePersonal InfluenceDegree ofDegree of

Personal InfluencePersonal Influence

RewardsRewardsInvolvedInvolvedRewardsRewardsInvolvedInvolved

Types of AttitudesTypes of Attitudes

Job satisfaction: General attitude toward Job satisfaction: General attitude toward

one’s jobone’s job

Organizational commitment: a state in Organizational commitment: a state in

which one identifies with a particular which one identifies with a particular

organization and its goals and wishes to organization and its goals and wishes to

maintain membershipmaintain membership

Attitudes and BehaviorAttitudes and Behavior

Attitudes and behaviorAttitudes and behavior

Attitudes and cognitive consistencyAttitudes and cognitive consistency

Job satisfaction as an attitudeJob satisfaction as an attitude

Facets of Job SatisfactionFacets of Job Satisfaction

The workThe work

Quality of supervisionQuality of supervision

Relationship with co-workersRelationship with co-workers

Promotion opportunitiesPromotion opportunities

Pay Pay

Job Satisfaction and Workplace Job Satisfaction and Workplace BehaviorBehavior

PerformancePerformance

AbsenteeismAbsenteeism

Turnover Turnover

Relationship between Relationship between Satisfaction and PerformanceSatisfaction and PerformanceSatisfaction causes performance?Satisfaction causes performance?

Performance causes satisfaction?Performance causes satisfaction?

Rewards cause both performance and Rewards cause both performance and satisfactionsatisfaction

Potential ConsequencesPotential Consequencesof Job Satisfactionof Job Satisfaction

PerformancePerformance: Satisfied workers are only : Satisfied workers are only slightly more likely to perform at a higher level slightly more likely to perform at a higher level than dissatisfied workers.than dissatisfied workers.– Satisfaction is most likely to affect work behaviors Satisfaction is most likely to affect work behaviors

when workers are free to vary their behaviors and when workers are free to vary their behaviors and when a worker’s attitude is relevant to the when a worker’s attitude is relevant to the behavior in question. behavior in question.

AbsenteeismAbsenteeism: Satisfied workers are less : Satisfied workers are less likely to be absent than dissatisfied workers.likely to be absent than dissatisfied workers.TurnoverTurnover: Satisfied workers are less likely to : Satisfied workers are less likely to leave the organization than dissatisfied leave the organization than dissatisfied workers.workers.

Potential ConsequencesPotential Consequencesof Job Satisfactionof Job Satisfaction

Organizational citizenship behaviorOrganizational citizenship behavior (OCB): (OCB): Satisfied workers are more likely to engage Satisfied workers are more likely to engage in this behavior than dissatisfied workers.in this behavior than dissatisfied workers.– OCBOCB: Behavior that is above and beyond the call : Behavior that is above and beyond the call

of duty but is nonetheless necessary for of duty but is nonetheless necessary for organizational survival and effectivenessorganizational survival and effectiveness

Helping coworkers, spreading goodwillHelping coworkers, spreading goodwill

Worker well-beingWorker well-being: Satisfied workers are : Satisfied workers are more likely to have strong well-being than more likely to have strong well-being than dissatisfied workers.dissatisfied workers.– Worker well-beingWorker well-being: How happy, healthy, and : How happy, healthy, and

prosperous workers areprosperous workers are

Advice to ManagersAdvice to ManagersRealize that some workers are going to be more satisfied than Realize that some workers are going to be more satisfied than others with the same job simply because they have different others with the same job simply because they have different personalities and work valuespersonalities and work values. Also realize that you can take steps . Also realize that you can take steps to increase levels of job satisfaction because it is determined not to increase levels of job satisfaction because it is determined not only by personality but also by the only by personality but also by the work situationwork situation..Try to place newcomers in work groups whose members are Try to place newcomers in work groups whose members are satisfied with their jobs.satisfied with their jobs.Ask workers what facets of their jobs are important to them, and do Ask workers what facets of their jobs are important to them, and do what you can to ensure that they are satisfied with these facets.what you can to ensure that they are satisfied with these facets.Because job satisfaction has the potential to impact workers’ Because job satisfaction has the potential to impact workers’ behaviors in organizations and their well-being, use existing behaviors in organizations and their well-being, use existing measurement scales to periodically survey your subordinates’ measurement scales to periodically survey your subordinates’ levels of job satisfaction. When levels of job satisfaction are low, levels of job satisfaction. When levels of job satisfaction are low, follow the advice in the preceding step.follow the advice in the preceding step.Recognize that workers’ evaluations of job facets, not what you Recognize that workers’ evaluations of job facets, not what you think about them, determine how satisfied workers are and that think about them, determine how satisfied workers are and that changing some facets may have longer-lasting effects on job changing some facets may have longer-lasting effects on job satisfaction than changing others.satisfaction than changing others.

Advice to ManagersAdvice to ManagersDo not assume that poor performers are dissatisfied with their jobs or that Do not assume that poor performers are dissatisfied with their jobs or that good performers are satisfied with their jobs.good performers are satisfied with their jobs.Do not assume that workers who are absent are dissatisfied or that they Do not assume that workers who are absent are dissatisfied or that they were not motivated to come to work. Absence is also a function of ability were not motivated to come to work. Absence is also a function of ability to attend.to attend.Manage absenteeism. Don’t try to eliminate it, and keep in mind that a Manage absenteeism. Don’t try to eliminate it, and keep in mind that a certain level of absence is often functional for workers and organizations.certain level of absence is often functional for workers and organizations.Realize that turnover has both costs and benefits for an organization and Realize that turnover has both costs and benefits for an organization and that you need to evaluate both. In particular, before becoming concerned that you need to evaluate both. In particular, before becoming concerned about worker turnover, examine the performance levels of those who quit.about worker turnover, examine the performance levels of those who quit.If workers do only what they are told and rarely, if ever, exhibit If workers do only what they are told and rarely, if ever, exhibit organizational citizenship behavior, measure their levels of job organizational citizenship behavior, measure their levels of job satisfaction, identify the job facets they are dissatisfied with, and make satisfaction, identify the job facets they are dissatisfied with, and make changes where possible.changes where possible.Even if job satisfaction does not seem to have an effect on important Even if job satisfaction does not seem to have an effect on important behaviors in your organization, keep in mind that it is an important factor behaviors in your organization, keep in mind that it is an important factor in worker well-being.in worker well-being.

Doc Marten’s CaseDoc Marten’s Case

What specific things What specific things does does Doc Marten’sDoc Marten’s do do to raise levels of to raise levels of – Job satisfactionJob satisfaction– Organizational Organizational commitment?commitment?

Notice how Doc Marten’sNotice how Doc Marten’s manages manages differences in values.differences in values.

AgendaAgenda

Define perceptionDefine perception

Identify factors that affect perceptionIdentify factors that affect perception

Discuss pDiscuss perceptual distortionserceptual distortions

DiscussDiscuss aattributionttribution

DiscussDiscuss iimpression managementmpression management

PerceptionPerception

PerceptionPerception

People are not entirely objective People are not entirely objective information processorsinformation processors– Perception not necessarily the same as realityPerception not necessarily the same as reality– Perceptions of two people are not necessarily Perceptions of two people are not necessarily

the same when describing the same eventthe same when describing the same event

Perception is biased in a number of Perception is biased in a number of predictable wayspredictable ways

Factors Influencing PerceptionFactors Influencing Perception

The perceiverThe perceiver

The settingThe setting

The perceivedThe perceived

Factors Influencing PerceptionFactors Influencing Perception

Stages of PerceptionStages of Perception

Attention and selectionAttention and selection

OrganizationOrganization

InterpretationInterpretation

RetrievalRetrieval

Perceptual DistortionsPerceptual Distortions

StereotypesStereotypes

Halo effectsHalo effects

Selective perceptionSelective perception

Projection Projection


Be careful not to jump to conclusions about coworkers, Be careful not to jump to conclusions about coworkers, superiors, and subordinates simply because they appear to superiors, and subordinates simply because they appear to fit your preexisting thoughts and opinions. Wait to form your fit your preexisting thoughts and opinions. Wait to form your opinions until you have gathered enough information to opinions until you have gathered enough information to make a fair judgment.make a fair judgment.Make sure your perceptions of workers are based on their Make sure your perceptions of workers are based on their skills, capabilities, accomplishments, on-the-job behaviors, skills, capabilities, accomplishments, on-the-job behaviors, and levels of job performance.and levels of job performance.Do not allow your perceptions to be influenced by Do not allow your perceptions to be influenced by characteristics of a target (such as race, age, and gender) characteristics of a target (such as race, age, and gender) that are unrelated to job behaviors and performance.that are unrelated to job behaviors and performance.Try to treat organizational members who stand out from Try to treat organizational members who stand out from others the same as you treat those who do not stand out.others the same as you treat those who do not stand out.


Be careful not to let your first impressions have too Be careful not to let your first impressions have too strong an effect on your perceptions of others. Avoid strong an effect on your perceptions of others. Avoid categorizing workers until you have sufficient categorizing workers until you have sufficient information to form an accurate perception.information to form an accurate perception.When evaluating or interviewing a series of individuals, When evaluating or interviewing a series of individuals, do not let your evaluations of preceding individuals do not let your evaluations of preceding individuals influence your ratings of those that follow.influence your ratings of those that follow.Be careful not to be lenient in your perceptions of Be careful not to be lenient in your perceptions of people who are similar to you and overly harsh to people who are similar to you and overly harsh to those who are dissimilar to you.those who are dissimilar to you.

Attribution TheoryAttribution Theory


Attribution of Cause

InterpretationObservation

Attribution Attribution

Theory andTheory and

IndividualIndividual

BehaviorBehavior

ExternalExternal

ExternalExternal

InternalInternal

InternalInternal

ExternalExternal

DistinctivenessDistinctiveness

ConsensusConsensus

ConsistencyConsistency

HighHigh

LowLow

HighHigh

LowLow

HighHigh

LowLow

InternalInternal

Fundamental Attribution ErrorFundamental Attribution Error

Tendency to explain other people’s Tendency to explain other people’s behavior with internal attributions and to behavior with internal attributions and to underemphasize plausible situational underemphasize plausible situational causes of the behavior in questioncauses of the behavior in question

Inhibits managers from fixing situational Inhibits managers from fixing situational problemsproblems

Self-Serving BiasSelf-Serving Bias

The tendency to deny personal The tendency to deny personal responsibility for poor performance but to responsibility for poor performance but to accept personal responsibility for high accept personal responsibility for high performance when explaining our own performance when explaining our own behaviorbehavior


Make sure your attributions for other people’s behavior Make sure your attributions for other people’s behavior are as accurate as possible. are as accurate as possible. Consider external factors that may be responsible for Consider external factors that may be responsible for other people’s behavior, such as inadequate resources other people’s behavior, such as inadequate resources or supplies, an exceptionally difficult task, or chance or supplies, an exceptionally difficult task, or chance occurrences.occurrences.Consider internal factors that may be responsible for Consider internal factors that may be responsible for your own behavior, such as your personality, your your own behavior, such as your personality, your strengths and weaknesses, and your level of strengths and weaknesses, and your level of motivation.motivation.Be aware of the tendency in yourself and in others to Be aware of the tendency in yourself and in others to take credit for successes and avoid blame for errors.take credit for successes and avoid blame for errors.

Managing PerceptionsManaging Perceptions

Self-awarenessSelf-awareness

Seek informationSeek information

Be empathicBe empathic

Avoid common perceptual distortionsAvoid common perceptual distortions

Impression Management TacticsImpression Management Tactics

BehavioralMatching

The target of perception matcheshis or her behavior to that of theperceiver.

A subordinate tries to imitate her boss’sbehavior by being modest and soft-spokenbecause her boss is modest and soft-spoken.

Self-Promotion

The target tries to present herselfor himself in as positive a light aspossible.

A worker reminds his boss about his past accomplishments and associates with co-workers who are evaluated highly.

Conformingto SituationalNorms

The target follows agreed-uponrules for behavior in the organization.

A worker stays late every night even if she hascompleted all of her assignments becausestaying late is one of the norms of her organization.

Appreciatingor FlatteringOthers

The target compliments the per-ceiver. This tactic works best whenflattery is not extreme and when it involves a dimension importantto the perceiver.

A coworker compliments a manager on his excellent handling of a troublesome employee.

BeingConsistent

The target’s beliefs and behaviors are consistent. There is agreementbetween the target’s verbal andnonverbal behaviors.

A subordinate delivering a message to his bosslooks the boss straight in the eye and has a sincere expression on his face.

LearningLearning

Chapter 3Chapter 3

Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory

Present behavior can be explained by past Present behavior can be explained by past environmental responses B = F(C).environmental responses B = F(C).

Thorndike’s Law of Effect:Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is Behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is

likely to be repeated; behavior that results in an likely to be repeated; behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.

• Behavior can be controlled by manipulating its Behavior can be controlled by manipulating its consequences (called operant conditioning)consequences (called operant conditioning)

• Organizational Behavior ModificationOrganizational Behavior Modification

OB Mod StrategiesOB Mod Strategies

Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement

Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

PunishmentPunishment

ExtinctionExtinction

ReinforcementReinforcement

Positive Reinforcement:Positive Reinforcement: The administration The administration of positive consequences to workers who of positive consequences to workers who perform desired behaviors.perform desired behaviors.– Pay, promotions, interesting work, praise, Pay, promotions, interesting work, praise,

awardsawards

Negative Reinforcement:Negative Reinforcement: The removal of The removal of negative consequences when workers negative consequences when workers perform desired behaviors.perform desired behaviors.– Nagging, complainingNagging, complaining

Advice to Managers: Advice to Managers: ReinforcementReinforcement

Administer rewards only when workers perform desired behaviors or close approximations of them.

When using reinforcement, make sure you identify the right behaviors to reinforce (those that help the organization achieve its goals).

Because job performance is likely to vary across workers, administer rewards so that high-performing workers receive more rewards than low-performing workers.

Do not assume that a given reward will function as a positive reinforcer to all workers. Take individual preferences into account.

Make sure the consequences of a behavior are equal to the behavior.

Make sure that workers know what reinforcers are available for desired behaviors. Don’t just assume that they know.

Extinction and PunishmentExtinction and Punishment

Extinction: Extinction: Removing a consequence that Removing a consequence that is currently reinforcing an undesirable is currently reinforcing an undesirable behavior in an effort to decrease the behavior in an effort to decrease the probability that the behavior will occur again probability that the behavior will occur again in the future.in the future.

Punishment:Punishment: Administering negative Administering negative consequences to workers who perform consequences to workers who perform undesirable behaviors in an effort to undesirable behaviors in an effort to decrease the probability that the behavior will decrease the probability that the behavior will occur again in the future.occur again in the future.– Verbal reprimands, docking pay, loss of privilegesVerbal reprimands, docking pay, loss of privileges

Negative Reinforcement vs. Negative Reinforcement vs. PunishmentPunishment

These two concepts are often confused; however, These two concepts are often confused; however, they differ from each other in two important ways.they differ from each other in two important ways.First difference:First difference:– Punishment Punishment reducesreduces the probability of an the probability of an undesiredundesired

behavior.behavior.– Negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement increasesincreases the probability of a the probability of a

desireddesired behavior. behavior.

Second difference:Second difference:– Punishment involves Punishment involves administeringadministering a a negativenegative

consequenceconsequence when an when an undesiredundesired behavior occurs. behavior occurs.– Negative reinforcement entails Negative reinforcement entails removingremoving a a negativenegative

consequenceconsequence when a when a desireddesired behavior occurs. behavior occurs.

Advice to Managers: PunishmentAdvice to Managers: Punishment

Remember that all behaviors, good and bad, are performed because they are reinforced in some way. Undesired behaviors can be eliminated by determining how the behavior is being reinforced and removing the reinforcer.

When feasible, use extinction rather than punishment to eliminate undesired behaviors.

When you use punishment, make sure workers know exactly why they are being punished.

Make sure the chosen negative consequence is indeed a punishment for the individual in question.

Downplay the emotional element in punishment, punish immediately after the undesired behavior, and do not punish in front of others.

Chapter 4Chapter 4

Motivation theoriesMotivation theories

AgendaAgenda

Define motivationDefine motivation

Discuss link between motivation & Discuss link between motivation & performanceperformance

Discuss link between motivation & rewardsDiscuss link between motivation & rewards

Content/Need theories of motivationContent/Need theories of motivation

Process theories of motivationProcess theories of motivation

Reinforcement theoryReinforcement theory

Motivating the WorkforceMotivating the Workforce

Motivation to work refers to forces within Motivation to work refers to forces within an individual that account for the an individual that account for the level, level, direction and persistencedirection and persistence of effort of effort expended at work.expended at work.

What are the determinants of an individual’s What are the determinants of an individual’s performance?performance?

→Individual attributes - capacity to performIndividual attributes - capacity to perform→Organizational support - opportunity to Organizational support - opportunity to

performperform→Work effort Work effort

MMotivation & Performanceotivation & Performance

Motivation

IndividualAbility

Work Effort

OrganizationalSupport

Work Performance

Motivation TheoriesMotivation Theories

Content Theories: Focus on understanding Content Theories: Focus on understanding individual needs - what motivates an individual.individual needs - what motivates an individual.

Process Theories: Focus on the thought Process Theories: Focus on the thought processes that give meaning to rewards and processes that give meaning to rewards and influence behavior - how a person becomes influence behavior - how a person becomes motivated.motivated.

Reinforcement Theory: Focuses on learning.Reinforcement Theory: Focuses on learning.

Content Perspectives Content Perspectives (Need Theory)(Need Theory)

Assumption: People are motivated to satisfy Assumption: People are motivated to satisfy their needs; if we know what they need, we’ll their needs; if we know what they need, we’ll know how to motivate them.know how to motivate them.Needs: Physiological or psychological Needs: Physiological or psychological deficiencies that people feel some compulsion to deficiencies that people feel some compulsion to eliminate.eliminate.Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs TheoryMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs TheoryAlderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG TheoryAcquired Needs TheoryAcquired Needs TheoryTwo Factor TheoryTwo Factor Theory

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs TheoryTheory

Higher order needsHigher order needs

Lower order needsLower order needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsNeeds

Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG TheoryExistence NeedsExistence Needs: Basic needs for human : Basic needs for human survival such as the need for food, water, survival such as the need for food, water, clothing, shelter, and a secure and safe clothing, shelter, and a secure and safe environment.environment.Relatedness NeedsRelatedness Needs: The needs to have : The needs to have good interpersonal relations, to share good interpersonal relations, to share thoughts and feelings, and to have open thoughts and feelings, and to have open two-way communication.two-way communication.Growth NeedsGrowth Needs: The needs for self-: The needs for self-development and creative and productive development and creative and productive work.work.

Advice to ManagersAdvice to ManagersDo not assume that all workers are motivated by Do not assume that all workers are motivated by

the same needs or desires. the same needs or desires. To determine what will motivate any given worker, To determine what will motivate any given worker,

determine what needs that worker is trying to determine what needs that worker is trying to satisfy on the job.satisfy on the job.

Make sure you have the ability to administer or Make sure you have the ability to administer or withhold consequences that will satisfy a worker’s withhold consequences that will satisfy a worker’s needs.needs.

Structure work situations so that workers can Structure work situations so that workers can satisfy their needs by performing behaviors that satisfy their needs by performing behaviors that enable the organization to achieve its goals.enable the organization to achieve its goals.

McClelland’s Acquired Needs McClelland’s Acquired Needs TheoryTheory

Need for achievementNeed for achievement

Need for affiliationNeed for affiliation

Need for powerNeed for power

Acquired Needs TheoryAcquired Needs Theory

Herzberg’s Two-factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-factor Theory

Hygiene factorsHygiene factors

Motivator factorsMotivator factors

Hygiene Factors found in work Hygiene Factors found in work settingssettings

Comparison of Content Comparison of Content TheoriesTheories

Process TheoriesProcess Theories

Focus on thought processes that underlie Focus on thought processes that underlie individual responses to work situations.individual responses to work situations.– Equity TheoryEquity Theory

– Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

Equity TheoryEquity Theory

Negative inequityNegative inequity

Positive inequityPositive inequity

The Equity DynamicThe Equity Dynamic

Advice to ManagersAdvice to ManagersBecause inputs are likely to vary across workers, Because inputs are likely to vary across workers, outcomes should also vary. Do not give all workers at a outcomes should also vary. Do not give all workers at a given level or holding the same job title the same level of given level or holding the same job title the same level of outcomes unless their inputs are identical.outcomes unless their inputs are identical.Distribute outcomes to workers based on their inputs to Distribute outcomes to workers based on their inputs to their jobs and the organization. Because underpayment their jobs and the organization. Because underpayment inequity or overpayment inequity can have negative inequity or overpayment inequity can have negative organizational consequences, strive to maintain equity for organizational consequences, strive to maintain equity for maximum motivation.maximum motivation.Because it is the perception of equity or inequity that Because it is the perception of equity or inequity that drives motivation, frequently monitor and assess workers’ drives motivation, frequently monitor and assess workers’ perceptions about relevant outcomes and inputs, as well perceptions about relevant outcomes and inputs, as well as their own standing on these outcomes and inputs. as their own standing on these outcomes and inputs. Correct any inaccurate perceptions workers may have.Correct any inaccurate perceptions workers may have.Realize that failure to recognize above-average levels of Realize that failure to recognize above-average levels of inputs has major motivational implications.inputs has major motivational implications.

Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

People will do…. People will do….

……..what they can do…. ..what they can do….

……..when they want to...when they want to.

Managerial Foundations of Managerial Foundations of Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

Managerial Implications of Managerial Implications of Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

A manager must try to understand A manager must try to understand individual thought processes, then actively individual thought processes, then actively intervene in the work situation to influence intervene in the work situation to influence them.them.

Advice to ManagersAdvice to ManagersDetermine what outcomes your subordinates desire. More specifically, Determine what outcomes your subordinates desire. More specifically, identify outcomes that have high positive valence for your subordinates in identify outcomes that have high positive valence for your subordinates in order to motivate them to perform at a high level.order to motivate them to perform at a high level.Once you have identified desired outcomes, make sure that you have Once you have identified desired outcomes, make sure that you have control over them and can give them to subordinates or take them away control over them and can give them to subordinates or take them away when warranted.when warranted.Let subordinates know that obtaining their desired outcomes depends on Let subordinates know that obtaining their desired outcomes depends on their performing at a high level (raise instrumentalities). Administer the their performing at a high level (raise instrumentalities). Administer the highly valent outcomes only when subordinates perform at a high level (or highly valent outcomes only when subordinates perform at a high level (or engage in desired organizational behaviors).engage in desired organizational behaviors).Do whatever you can to encourage workers to have high expectancies: Do whatever you can to encourage workers to have high expectancies: Express confidence in subordinates’ abilities, let them know that others like Express confidence in subordinates’ abilities, let them know that others like themselves have been able to perform at a high level, and give them themselves have been able to perform at a high level, and give them guidance in terms of how to perform at a high level.guidance in terms of how to perform at a high level.Periodically assess workers’ beliefs concerning expectancies and Periodically assess workers’ beliefs concerning expectancies and instrumentalities and their valences for different outcomes by directly asking instrumentalities and their valences for different outcomes by directly asking them or administering a survey. Using these assessments, make different them or administering a survey. Using these assessments, make different outcomes available to workers, and clarify instrumentalities, or boost outcomes available to workers, and clarify instrumentalities, or boost expectancies when necessary.expectancies when necessary.

Chapter 5Chapter 5

Goal Setting & Job DesignGoal Setting & Job Design

Goal SettingGoal Setting

The process of developing, negotiating The process of developing, negotiating and formalizing objectives.and formalizing objectives.

Locke’s researchLocke’s research

A Goal-setting FrameworkA Goal-setting Framework

Source: Adapted from Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham, ‘Work motivation and satisfaction: Light at the end of the tunnel’, Psychological Science, vol. 1, no. 4 (July 1990), p. 244. Reprinted by permission of Blackwell Publishers.

The MBO ProcessThe MBO Process

Job DesignJob Design

Job Design involves the planning and Job Design involves the planning and specification of job tasks, and the work specification of job tasks, and the work setting designated for their setting designated for their accomplishment.accomplishment.

Alternative Job Design Alternative Job Design StrategiesStrategies

Job simplificationJob simplification

Job enlargementJob enlargement

Job rotationJob rotation

Job enrichmentJob enrichment

Job SimplificationJob Simplification

Job simplification is standardizing work Job simplification is standardizing work procedures and employing people in procedures and employing people in clearly defined and specialized tasks.clearly defined and specialized tasks.

Job automationJob automation

Job Enlargement and Job Enlargement and Job RotationJob Rotation

Job Enlargement: combining two or more Job Enlargement: combining two or more tasks into one jobtasks into one job

Job Rotation: periodically shifting workers Job Rotation: periodically shifting workers among jobsamong jobs

Job EnrichmentJob Enrichment

The practice of building motivating factors The practice of building motivating factors into job contentinto job content

Vertical loadingVertical loading

Horizontal loading Horizontal loading

A Continuum of Job Design A Continuum of Job Design StrategiesStrategies

Job Characteristics TheoryJob Characteristics Theory

Skill varietySkill variety

Task identityTask identity

Task significanceTask significance

AutonomyAutonomy

Job feedbackJob feedback

Individual differences: Individual differences: moderators of job moderators of job

characteristics theorycharacteristics theory

The five core job characteristics do The five core job characteristics do not affect all people in the same not affect all people in the same way. There are three important way. There are three important individual difference moderators:individual difference moderators:– Growth-need strengthGrowth-need strength– Knowledge and skillKnowledge and skill– Context satisfactionContext satisfaction

Growth Needs and Core Job Growth Needs and Core Job CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Source: Adapted from J. Richard Hackman, Greg Oldham, Robert Janson and Kenneth Purdy, ‘A new strategy for job enrichment, California Management Review, vol. 17, no. 4 (1975), p. 60.

Socio-technical Job DesignSocio-technical Job Design

The design of jobs to optimize the The design of jobs to optimize the relationship between the technology relationship between the technology system and the social system.system and the social system.

Q & A – Job EnrichmentQ & A – Job Enrichment

Is it expensive?Is it expensive?

Can it be applied to groups and Can it be applied to groups and individuals?individuals?

Will people demand more pay?Will people demand more pay?

What do the unions say?What do the unions say?

Should everyone’s job be enriched?Should everyone’s job be enriched?

Chapter 6Chapter 6

Groups & TeamworkGroups & Teamwork

What is a Group?What is a Group?

Groups are collections of two or more Groups are collections of two or more people who work with one another people who work with one another regularly to achieve one or more common regularly to achieve one or more common goals.goals.

Purpose of Groups in Purpose of Groups in OrganizationsOrganizations

Meeting organizational needsMeeting organizational needs

Meeting individual needsMeeting individual needs

Benefiting organizations and individuals Benefiting organizations and individuals

Key Concerns for Key Concerns for Managing GroupsManaging Groups

Advantages of groupsAdvantages of groups

Disadvantages of groupsDisadvantages of groups

Formal GroupsFormal Groups

Permanent formal work groupsPermanent formal work groups

Temporary work groupsTemporary work groups

Informal GroupsInformal Groups

Friendship groupsFriendship groups

Interest groupsInterest groups

Groups and Groups and Task PerformanceTask Performance

Synergy The whole is different than the Synergy The whole is different than the sum of its parts.sum of its parts.Groups can make 2+2=5 or 2+2=3Groups can make 2+2=5 or 2+2=3

Positive Synergy – “Two heads are Positive Synergy – “Two heads are better than one.better than one.””

The creation of whole greater than sum of The creation of whole greater than sum of its parts.its parts.Groups accomplish more than the total of Groups accomplish more than the total of their members’ individual capabilities.their members’ individual capabilities.Occurs when:Occurs when:– A diverse set of skills is required.A diverse set of skills is required.– Division of labor and sharing of information Division of labor and sharing of information

are required.are required.– Creativity and innovation are required.Creativity and innovation are required.

Negative Synergy – “Too many cooks Negative Synergy – “Too many cooks spoil the broth.”spoil the broth.”

The creation of whole less than sum of its parts.The creation of whole less than sum of its parts.Social loafing (Ringelmann effect): The tendency of group Social loafing (Ringelmann effect): The tendency of group members to do less that they are capable of as individuals.members to do less that they are capable of as individuals.Ringlemann’s experiments – compared the results of Ringlemann’s experiments – compared the results of individual and group performance on a rope-pulling task.individual and group performance on a rope-pulling task.– Groups of 3 people – 2.5 times the solo rate.Groups of 3 people – 2.5 times the solo rate.– Groups of 8 people – less than 4 times the solo rate.Groups of 8 people – less than 4 times the solo rate.– Average productivity dropped as more people joinedAverage productivity dropped as more people joined..– Replications of Ringelmann’s experiments – People tend not to work Replications of Ringelmann’s experiments – People tend not to work

hard as in groups as they would individually. hard as in groups as they would individually.

Why?Why?The relationship between an individual’s input and the The relationship between an individual’s input and the group’s output is unclear. In such situations individuals are group’s output is unclear. In such situations individuals are tempted become “free riders”.tempted become “free riders”.Belief of inequity – individuals reduce their efforts to Belief of inequity – individuals reduce their efforts to reestablish equity.reestablish equity.

Characteristics of Characteristics of Group EffectivenessGroup Effectiveness

Effective groups are groups that achieve Effective groups are groups that achieve high levels of both task performance and high levels of both task performance and human resource maintenance.human resource maintenance.

Foundations of Foundations of Group EffectivenessGroup Effectiveness

The better the group inputs, the better the The better the group inputs, the better the chance of group effectiveness.chance of group effectiveness.

Organizational SettingOrganizational Setting

Goals, reward systems and technologiesGoals, reward systems and technologies

Cultures and structuresCultures and structures

General Membership General Membership CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Membership homogeneity/heterogeneityMembership homogeneity/heterogeneity

Interpersonal compatibilitiesInterpersonal compatibilities

Group sizeGroup size

Stages of Group DevelopmentStages of Group Development

FormingForming

StormingStorming

NormingNorming

PerformingPerforming

Adjourning Adjourning

The Forming StageThe Forming Stage

The first stage of group development, in The first stage of group development, in which the primary concern is the initial which the primary concern is the initial entry of members to the group.entry of members to the group.

The Storming StageThe Storming Stage

The second stage of group development The second stage of group development which is marked by a period of high which is marked by a period of high emotion and tension among group emotion and tension among group members.members.

The Norming StageThe Norming Stage

The third stage of group development, at The third stage of group development, at which the group begins to come together which the group begins to come together as a coordinated unit. as a coordinated unit.

The Performing StageThe Performing Stage

The fourth stage of group development The fourth stage of group development which sees the emergence of a mature, which sees the emergence of a mature, organized and well-functioning group.organized and well-functioning group.

The Adjourning StageThe Adjourning Stage

The last stage, in which members of the The last stage, in which members of the group disband when the job is done.group disband when the job is done.

GroupthinkGroupthink

The tendency of members in highly The tendency of members in highly cohesive groups to lose their critical, cohesive groups to lose their critical, evaluative capabilities.evaluative capabilities.

Symptoms of GroupthinkSymptoms of Groupthink

Illusions of group invulnerabilityIllusions of group invulnerability

Rationalizing unpleasant dataRationalizing unpleasant data

Belief in inherent group moralityBelief in inherent group morality

Negative stereotyping of outsidersNegative stereotyping of outsiders

Symptoms of GroupthinkSymptoms of Groupthink

Applying pressure to deviantsApplying pressure to deviants

Self-censorship of membersSelf-censorship of members

Illusions of unanimityIllusions of unanimity

Mind guardingMind guarding

Definition: A role is a set of expectations associated with a Definition: A role is a set of expectations associated with a position.position.

What is expected of the members and what they can expect What is expected of the members and what they can expect from others.from others.

Difficulties in defining and managing roles cause problems in Difficulties in defining and managing roles cause problems in groups:groups:

Role ambiguity: The members are uncertain about their roles.Role ambiguity: The members are uncertain about their roles. Role overload/underload: Too much/little is expected from Role overload/underload: Too much/little is expected from

members.members. Role conflict: Member is unable to comply with his/her role.Role conflict: Member is unable to comply with his/her role.

Conflicting expectations from a supervisorConflicting expectations from a supervisor Conflicting expectations from different people.Conflicting expectations from different people. One’s values and needs conflict with role expectations.One’s values and needs conflict with role expectations. Expectations of two or more roles conflict.Expectations of two or more roles conflict.

RolesRoles

NormsNormsNorms are acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by Norms are acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by

members of a group.members of a group. All groups have norms.All groups have norms. Typical group norms:Typical group norms: Norms that regulate social interaction, resource allocation, Norms that regulate social interaction, resource allocation,

punctuality, dressing, so on.punctuality, dressing, so on. Performance norms: Specify acceptable production behavior. Performance norms: Specify acceptable production behavior.

How hard should group members work?How hard should group members work? What is the acceptable level of output?What is the acceptable level of output? How should the work be done?How should the work be done? Can be significantly different than management Can be significantly different than management

expectations.expectations. Managerial Implication: Help groups adopt positive norms that Managerial Implication: Help groups adopt positive norms that

support organizational goals.support organizational goals.

NormsNorms

Characteristics of Norms:Characteristics of Norms: Developed only for things that have Developed only for things that have

significance for the group.significance for the group. Known by all group members.Known by all group members. Accepted by group members.Accepted by group members. Enforced by group members. Deviations Enforced by group members. Deviations

lead to punishments.lead to punishments. Influence the behavior of group members. Influence the behavior of group members.

i.e. members conform to group norms.i.e. members conform to group norms.

Conformity to NormsConformity to Norms

Asch studies:Asch studies: Conclusion: Groups can place strong pressures Conclusion: Groups can place strong pressures

on individual members to change their attitudes on individual members to change their attitudes and behaviors to conform to group standards.and behaviors to conform to group standards.

Conformity: Why do employees conform to Conformity: Why do employees conform to group norms?group norms?

Desire for acceptanceDesire for acceptance Personal characteristicsPersonal characteristics Cohesiveness of the groupCohesiveness of the group

Team CohesivenessTeam Cohesiveness

The degree to which members are attracted to The degree to which members are attracted to and motivated to remain a part of a team.and motivated to remain a part of a team.

Determinants of Cohesiveness;Determinants of Cohesiveness;– Time spent together and physical proximityTime spent together and physical proximity– Group size Group size – HomogeneityHomogeneity– Charismatic leaderCharismatic leader– Standards for being a memberStandards for being a member– Previous successesPrevious successes– External threatsExternal threats

Is cohesiveness related to productivity?Is cohesiveness related to productivity?

Generally, highly cohesive groups display the following Generally, highly cohesive groups display the following qualities:qualities:– Members have positive relationshipsMembers have positive relationships– Members more energeticMembers more energetic– Members participate moreMembers participate more– Members are more involved with the success/failure of the Members are more involved with the success/failure of the

groupgroup– Such groups have low turnover, higher satisfaction and loyalty.Such groups have low turnover, higher satisfaction and loyalty.– Members’ level of conformity to group norms is higher.Members’ level of conformity to group norms is higher.

Whether or not cohesiveness leads to productivity Whether or not cohesiveness leads to productivity depends on the prevailing performance norms in the depends on the prevailing performance norms in the group.group.

Influencing Team PerformanceInfluencing Team Performance

Influencing Team CohesivenessInfluencing Team Cohesiveness

Chapters 9 & 10Chapters 9 & 10

Power & LeadershipPower & Leadership

What is Leadership?What is Leadership?

A special case of interpersonal influence A special case of interpersonal influence that gets an individual or group to do what that gets an individual or group to do what the leader wants done.the leader wants done.

Trait TheoryTrait Theory

The earliest approach to the study of The earliest approach to the study of leadershipleadership

Identified traits that differentiated the ‘great Identified traits that differentiated the ‘great person’ from the massesperson’ from the masses

Behavioral TheoriesBehavioral Theories

The Michigan studiesThe Michigan studies

The Ohio State studiesThe Ohio State studies

The Leadership GridThe Leadership Grid

The Leadership GridThe Leadership Grid

The Leadership Grid. (Reproduced by permission. From Leadership Dilemmas — Grid Solutions, 1995. Gulf Publishing

Company, Houston, Texas, 800 231 6275. All rights reserved.)

Situational Contingency Situational Contingency TheoriesTheories

Situational control is the extent to which Situational control is the extent to which leaders can determine what their group is leaders can determine what their group is going to do and what the outcomes of their going to do and what the outcomes of their actions will be.actions will be.

Fiedler’s Contingency TheoryFiedler’s Contingency Theory

Predictions from Fiedler’s Predictions from Fiedler’s TheoryTheory

Fiedler’s Cognitive Resource Fiedler’s Cognitive Resource TheoryTheory

Use of directive or nondirective behaviour Use of directive or nondirective behaviour depends on situational contingencies.depends on situational contingencies.

Fiedler’s TheoryFiedler’s Theory

EvaluationEvaluation

Application Application

Path-goal TheoryPath-goal Theory

Directive leadershipDirective leadership

Supportive leadershipSupportive leadership

Achievement-oriented leadershipAchievement-oriented leadership

Participative leadershipParticipative leadership

Path-goal RelationshipsPath-goal Relationships

Source: Adapted from Richard N. Osborn, James G. Hunt and Lawrence R. Jauch, Organizational Theory: An Integrated Approach (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1980), p. 464. Reprinted with permission.

Path-goal TheoryPath-goal Theory


ApplicationApplication

Situational LeadershipSituational Leadership

Focus is on the readiness of followers.Focus is on the readiness of followers.

Readiness: the extent to which people Readiness: the extent to which people have the ability and willingness to have the ability and willingness to accomplish tasks.accomplish tasks.

Situational LeadershipSituational Leadership


Application Application

Substitutes for LeadershipSubstitutes for Leadership

Organization, individual or task-situational Organization, individual or task-situational variables that substitute for leadershipvariables that substitute for leadership

Charismatic LeadershipCharismatic Leadership

Charismatic leaders are those leaders Charismatic leaders are those leaders who, by force of their personal abilities, who, by force of their personal abilities, are capable of having a profound and are capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on followers.extraordinary effect on followers.

Transformational LeadershipTransformational Leadership

A leadership style by which the followers’ A leadership style by which the followers’ goals are broadened and elevated, and goals are broadened and elevated, and confidence is gained to go beyond confidence is gained to go beyond expectations.expectations.

Transactional LeadershipTransactional Leadership

A leadership style by which the leader A leadership style by which the leader exerts influence during daily leader-exerts influence during daily leader-subordinate exchanges without much subordinate exchanges without much emotion.emotion.

Transformational vs. Transformational vs. Transactional LeadershipTransactional Leadership

Transformational LeadershipTransformational Leadership

Individual considerationIndividual consideration

Intellectual stimulationIntellectual stimulation

Inspirational motivationInspirational motivation

Idealised influenceIdealised influence

Developing Charismatic SkillsDeveloping Charismatic Skills

Sensitivity to charismaSensitivity to charisma

VisioningVisioning

CommunicationCommunication

Impression managementImpression management

Empowering Empowering

Leadership and PowerLeadership and Power

Power: The ability to get someone else Power: The ability to get someone else to do something you want done.to do something you want done.Two sources of Power:Two sources of Power:

Position Power: based in the manager’s Position Power: based in the manager’s position of authority.position of authority.

Personal Power: based in the personal Personal Power: based in the personal qualities of managerqualities of manager

Managerial Power = Position Power + Managerial Power = Position Power + Personal Power.Personal Power.

Sources of Position PowerSources of Position PowerStems from the official position of the manager in the Stems from the official position of the manager in the chain of command.chain of command.

Anyone holding a managerial position has this power.Anyone holding a managerial position has this power. Reward Power - influence through rewards.Reward Power - influence through rewards.

Offer something of value.Offer something of value.

Coercive Power - influence through punishment.Coercive Power - influence through punishment.Verbal reprimands, pay penalties, termination, etc.Verbal reprimands, pay penalties, termination, etc.

Legitimate Power - influence through authority.Legitimate Power - influence through authority.Managers have the legal right to exercise control over persons Managers have the legal right to exercise control over persons

in subordinate positions.in subordinate positions.

Sources of Personal PowerSources of Personal Power

Stems from the unique personal qualities of the Stems from the unique personal qualities of the individual manager.individual manager.

Expert Power - influence through special expertise Expert Power - influence through special expertise and/or valuable information.and/or valuable information.Acquire relevant skills, competencies.Acquire relevant skills, competencies.Gain a central position in relevant information networks.Gain a central position in relevant information networks.

Referent Power - influence through charisma and Referent Power - influence through charisma and interpersonal attractiveness.interpersonal attractiveness.Develop and maintain good interpersonal relationsDevelop and maintain good interpersonal relations

organizational behaviour, 2008 edition french, rayner, rees, &rumbles, john wiley & sons,...

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