Frdric Chopin

Chopin redirects here. For other uses, see Chopin (dis-ambiguation).Frdric Franois Chopin (/opn/; French pro-

Photograph of Chopin by Bisson, c. 1849

nunciation: [fe.de.ik o.p]; 22 February or 1 March1810 17 October 1849), born Fryderyk FranciszekChopin,[n 1] was a Polish composer and virtuoso pianistof the Romantic era, who wrote primarily for the solo pi-ano. He gained and has maintained renown worldwide asone of the leading musicians of his era, whose poetic ge-nius was based on a professional technique that was with-out equal in his generation.[1] Chopin was born in whatwas then the Duchy of Warsaw, and grew up in Warsaw,which after 1815 became part of Congress Poland. Achild prodigy, he completed his musical education andcomposed many of his works in Warsaw before leavingPoland, aged 20, less than a month before the outbreakof the November 1830 Uprising.At the age of 21 he settled in Paris. Thereafter, duringthe last 18 years of his life, he gave only some 30 publicperformances, preferring the more intimate atmosphereof the salon. He supported himself by selling his compo-

sitions and teaching piano, for which he was in high de-mand. Chopin formed a friendship with Franz Liszt andwas admired by many of his musical contemporaries, in-cluding Robert Schumann. In 1835 he obtained Frenchcitizenship. After a failed engagement to a Polish girl,from 1837 to 1847 he maintained an often troubled re-lationship with the French writer George Sand. A briefand unhappy visit to Majorca with Sand in 183839 wasone of his most productive periods of composition. Inhis last years, he was nancially supported by his ad-mirer Jane Stirling, who also arranged for him to visitScotland in 1848. Through most of his life, Chopin suf-fered from poor health. He died in Paris in 1849, proba-bly of tuberculosis.All of Chopins compositions include the piano. Mostare for solo piano, although he also wrote two piano con-certos, a few chamber pieces, and some songs to Polishlyrics. His keyboard style is highly individual and of-ten technically demanding; his own performances werenoted for their nuance and sensitivity. Chopin inventedthe concept of instrumental ballade. His major pianoworks also include sonatas, mazurkas, waltzes, nocturnes,polonaises, tudes, impromptus, scherzos, and preludes,some published only after his death. Many contain ele-ments of both Polish folk music and of the classical tradi-tion of J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert, the music of allof whom he admired. His innovations in style, musicalform, and harmony, and his association of music withnationalism, were inuential throughout and after the lateRomantic period.Both in his native Poland and beyond, Chopins music,his status as one of musics earliest superstars, his asso-ciation (if only indirect) with political insurrection, hislove life and his early death have made him, in the pub-lic consciousness, a leading symbol of the Romantic era.His works remain popular, and he has been the subjectof numerous lms and biographies of varying degrees ofhistorical accuracy.

1 Life

1.1 ChildhoodFryderyk Chopin was born in elazowa Wola,[2] 46 kilo-metres (29 miles) west of Warsaw, in what was then theDuchy of Warsaw, a Polish state established by Napoleon.The parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22February 1810, and cites his given names in the Latin

1

2 1 LIFE

Chopins father, Nicolas Chopin, by Mieroszewski, 1829

form Fridericus Franciscus[2] (in Polish, he was FryderykFranciszek).[3] However, the composer and his familyused the birthdate 1 March,[n 2][2] which is now generallyaccepted as the correct date.[5]

Fryderyks father, Nicolas Chopin, was a Frenchmanfrom Lorraine who had emigrated to Poland in 1787at the age of sixteen.[6] Nicolas tutored children ofthe Polish aristocracy, and in 1806 married JustynaKrzyanowska, a poor relation of the Skarbeks, one ofthe families for whom he worked.[7] Fryderyk was bap-tized on Easter Sunday, 23 April 1810, in the samechurch where his parents had married, in Brochw.[2] Hiseighteen-year-old godfather, for whom he was named,was Fryderyk Skarbek, a pupil of Nicolas Chopin.[2] Fry-deryk was the couples second child and only son; he hadan elder sister, Ludwika (180755), and two younger sis-ters, Izabela (181181) and Emilia (181227).[8] Nicolaswas devoted to his adopted homeland, and insisted on theuse of the Polish language in the household.[2]

In October 1810, six months after Fryderyks birth, thefamily moved to Warsaw, where his father acquired a postteaching French at the Warsaw Lyceum, then housed inthe Saxon Palace. Fryderyk lived with his family in thePalace grounds. The father played the ute and violin;[9]the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys inthe boarding house that the Chopins kept.[10] Chopin wasof slight build, and even in early childhood was prone toillnesses.[11]

Chopins elazowa Wola birthplace

Fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from hismother, but his rst professional music tutor, from 1816to 1821, was the Czech pianist Wojciech ywny.[12] Hiselder sister Ludwika also took lessons from ywny, andoccasionally played duets with her brother.[13] It quicklybecame apparent that he was a child prodigy. By the ageof seven Fryderyk had begun giving public concerts, andin 1817 he composed two polonaises, in G minor and B-at major.[14] His next work, a polonaise in A-at majorof 1821, dedicated to ywny, is his earliest surviving mu-sical manuscript.[12]

In 1817 the Saxon Palace was requisitioned by WarsawsRussian governor for military use, and the WarsawLyceum was reestablished in the Kazimierz Palace(today the rectorate of Warsaw University). Fryderykand his family moved to a building, which still survives,adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace. During this period,Fryderyk was sometimes invited to the Belweder Palaceas playmate to the son of the ruler of Russian Poland,Grand Duke Constantine; he played the piano for theDuke and composed a march for him. Julian UrsynNiemcewicz, in his dramatic eclogue, "Nasze Przebiegi"(Our Discourses, 1818), attested to little Chopinspopularity.[15]

1.2 Education

From September 1823 to 1826 Chopin attended theWarsaw Lyceum, where he took organ lessons from theCzech musician Wilhelm Wrfel during his rst year. Inthe autumn of 1826 he began a three-year course un-der the Silesian composer Jzef Elsner at the WarsawConservatory, studying music theory, gured bass andcomposition.[16][n 3] Throughout this period he continuedto compose and to give recitals in concerts and salons inWarsaw. He was engaged by the inventors of a mechan-ical organ, the eolomelodicon, and on this instrumentin May 1825 he performed his own improvisation andpart of a concerto by Moscheles. The success of this

1.3 Travel and domestic success 3

Jzef Elsner after 1853

concert led to an invitation to give a similar recital onthe instrument before Tsar Alexander I, who was visitingWarsaw; the Tsar presented him with a diamond ring.At a subsequent eolomelodicon concert on 10 June 1825,Chopin performed his Rondo Op. 1. This was the rst ofhis works to be commercially published and earned himhis rst mention in the foreign press, when the LeipzigAllgemeine Musikalische Zeitung praised his wealth ofmusical ideas.[17]

During 182428 Chopin spent his vacations away fromWarsaw, at a number of locales.[n 4] In 1824 and 1825,at Szafarnia, he was a guest of Dominik Dziewanowski,the father of a schoolmate. Here for the rst time he en-countered Polish rural folk music.[19] His letters homefrom Szafarnia (to which he gave the title The Szafar-nia Courier), written in a very modern and lively Pol-ish, amused his family with their spoong of the War-saw newspapers and demonstrated the youngsters literarygift.[20]

In 1827, soon after the death of Chopins youngest sisterEmilia, the family moved from the Warsaw Universitybuilding, adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace, to lodgingsjust across the street from the university, in the southannex of the Krasiski Palace on Krakowskie Przed-miecie,[n 5] where Chopin lived until he left Warsaw in1830.[n 6] Here his parents continued running their board-ing house for male students; the Chopin Family Parlour(Salonik Chopinw) became a museum in the 20th cen-tury. In 1829 the artist Ambroy Mieroszewski executeda set of portraits of Chopin family members, includingthe rst known portrait of the composer.[n 7]

Four boarders at his parents apartments became Chopins

intimates: Tytus Woyciechowski, Jan Biaobocki, JanMatuszyski and Julian Fontana; the latter two would be-come part of his Paris milieu. He was friendly with mem-bers of Warsaws young artistic and intellectual world,including Fontana, Jzef Bohdan Zaleski and StefanWitwicki.[23] He was also attracted to the singing studentKonstancja Gadkowska. In letters to Woyciechowski, heindicated which of his works, and even which of theirpassages, were inuenced by his fascination with her; hisletter of 15 May 1830 revealed that the slow movement(adagio) of his Piano Concerto No. 1 (in E minor) wassecretly dedicated to her It should be like dreaming inbeautiful springtime by moonlight.[24] His nal Con-servatory report (July 1829) read Chopin F., third yearstudent, exceptional talent, musical genius.[16]

1.3 Travel and domestic success

Chopin plays for the Radziwis, 1829 (painting by Henryk Siemi-radzki, 1887)

In September 1828 Chopin, while still a student, visitedBerlin with a family friend, zoologist Feliks Jarocki, en-joying operas directed by Gaspare Spontini and attend-ing concerts by Carl Friedrich Zelter, Felix Mendelssohnand other celebrities. On an 1829 return trip to Berlin,he was a guest of Prince Antoni Radziwi, governor ofthe Grand Duchy of Posenhimself an accomplishedcomposer and aspiring cellist. For the prince and his pi-anist daughter Wanda, he composed his Introduction andPolonaise brillante in C major for cello and piano, Op.3.[25]

Back in Warsaw that year, Chopin heard Niccol Pa-ganini play, and composed a set of variations, Souvenir dePaganini. It may have been this experience which encour-aged him to commence writing his rst tudes, (182932), exploring the capacities of his own instrument.[26]On 11 August, three weeks after completing his stud-ies at the Warsaw Conservatory, he made his debut inVienna. He gave two piano concerts and received manyfavourable reviewsin addition to some commenting (inChopins own words) that he was too delicate for thoseaccustomed to the piano-bashing of local artists. Inone of these concerts, he premiered his Variations onL ci darem la mano, Op. 2 (variations on an aria from

4 1 LIFE

Mozart's operaDonGiovanni) for piano and orchestra.[27]He returned to Warsaw in September 1829,[28] where hepremiered his Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor, Op. 21on 17 March 1830.[16]

Chopins successes as a composer and performer openedthe door to western Europe for him, and on 2 November1830, he set out, in the words of Zdzisaw Jachimecki,into the wide world, with no very clearly dened aim,forever.[29] With Woyciechowski, he headed for Aus-tria, intending to go on to Italy. Later that month, inWarsaw, the November 1830 Uprising broke out, andWoyciechowski returned to Poland to enlist. Chopin,now alone in Vienna, was nostalgic for his homeland,and wrote to a friend, I curse the moment of mydeparture.[30] When in September 1831 he learned,while travelling from Vienna to Paris, that the uprisinghad been crushed, he expressed his anguish in the pagesof his private journal: O God! ... You are there, andyet you do not take vengeance!"[31] Jachimecki ascribesto these events the composers maturing into an inspirednational bard who intuited the past, present and future ofhis native Poland.[29]

1.4 Paris

Chopin at 25, by his ance Maria Wodziska, 1835

Chopin arrived in Paris in late September 1831; he wouldnever return to Poland,[32] thus becoming one of manyexpatriates of the Polish Great Emigration. In France heused the French versions of his given names, and afterreceiving French citizenship in 1835, he travelled on a

French passport.[33] However, Chopin remained close tohis fellow Poles in exile as friends and condants and henever felt fully comfortable speaking French. Chopinsbiographer Adam Zamoyski writes that he never consid-ered himself to be French, despite his fathers French ori-gins, and always saw himself as a Pole.[34]

In Paris, Chopin encountered artists and other distin-guished gures, and found many opportunities to exer-cise his talents and achieve celebrity. During his years inParis he was to become acquainted with, among manyothers, Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt, Ferdinand Hiller,Heinrich Heine, Eugne Delacroix, and Alfred de Vi-gny.[35] Chopin was also acquainted with the poet AdamMickiewicz, principal of the Polish Literary Society,some of whose verses he set as songs.[36]

Two Polish friends in Paris were also to play importantroles in Chopins life there. His fellow student at the War-saw Conservatory, Julian Fontana, had originally tried un-successfully to establish himself in England; Albert Grzy-maa, who in Paris became a wealthy nancier and soci-ety gure, often acted as Chopins adviser and gradu-ally began to ll the role of elder brother in [his] life.[37]Fontana was to become, in the words of Michaowski andSamson, Chopins general factotum and copyist.[38]

At the end of 1831, Chopin received the rst majorendorsement from an outstanding contemporary whenRobert Schumann, reviewing the Op. 2 Variations inthe Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (his rst publishedarticle on music), declared: Hats o, gentlemen! Agenius.[39] On 26 February 1832 Chopin gave a debutParis concert at the Salle Pleyel which drew universal ad-miration. The critic Franois-Joseph Ftis wrote in theRevue et gazette musicale: Here is a young man who ...taking no model, has found, if not a complete renewalof piano music, ... an abundance of original ideas of akind to be found nowhere else ...[40] After this concert,Chopin realized that his essentially intimate keyboardtechnique was not optimal for large concert spaces. Laterthat year he was introduced to the wealthy Rothschildbanking family, whose patronage also opened doors forhim to other private salons (social gatherings of the aris-tocracy and artistic and literary elite).[41] By the end of1832 Chopin had established himself among the Parisianmusical elite, and had earned the respect of his peers suchas Hiller, Liszt, and Berlioz. He no longer depended -nancially upon his father, and in the winter of 1832 hebegan earning a handsome income from publishing hisworks and teaching piano to auent students from allover Europe.[42] This freed him from the strains of publicconcert-giving, which he disliked.[41]

Chopin seldom performed publicly in Paris. In later yearshe generally gave a single annual concert at the SallePleyel, a venue that seated three hundred. He playedmore frequently at salons, but preferred playing at hisown Paris apartment for small groups of friends. Themusicologist Arthur Hedley has observed that As a pi-

1.5 Franz Liszt 5

Maria Wodziska, self-portrait

anist Chopin was unique in acquiring a reputation ofthe highest order on the basis of a minimum of publicappearancesfew more than thirty in the course of hislifetime.[43] The list of musicians who took part in someof his concerts provides an indication of the richness ofParisian artistic life during this period. Examples includea concert on 23 March 1833, in which Chopin, Lisztand Hiller performed (on pianos) a concerto by J.S. Bachfor three keyboards; and, on 3 March 1838, a concertin which Chopin, his pupil Adolphe Gutmann, Charles-Valentin Alkan, and Alkans teacher Joseph Zimmer-mann performed Alkans arrangement, for eight hands,of two movements from Beethoven's 7th symphony.[44]Chopin was also involved in the composition of LisztsHexameron; he wrote the sixth (and nal) variation onBellini's theme. Chopins music soon found successwith publishers, and in 1833 he contracted with MauriceSchlesinger, who arranged for it to be published not onlyin France but, through his family connections, also inGermany and England.[45]

In the spring of 1834, Chopin attended the Lower Rhen-ish Music Festival in Aix-la-Chapelle with Hiller, andit was there that Chopin met Felix Mendelssohn. Af-ter the festival, the three visited Dsseldorf, whereMendelssohn had been appointed musical director. Theyspent what Mendelssohn described as a very agreeableday, playing and discussing music at his piano, and metFriedrich Wilhelm Schadow, director of the Academyof Art, and some of his eminent pupils such as Lessing,Bendemann, Hildebrandt and Sohn.[46] In 1835 Chopinwent to Carlsbad, where he spent time with his parents; itwas the last time he would see them. On his way back to

Paris, he met old friends from Warsaw, the Wodziskis.He had made the acquaintance of their daughter Mariain Poland ve years earlier, when she was eleven. Thismeeting prompted him to stay for two weeks in Dres-den, when he had previously intended to return to Parisvia Leipzig.[47] The sixteen-year-old girls portrait of thecomposer is considered, along with Delacroixs, as amongChopins best likenesses.[48] In October he nally reachedLeipzig, where he met Schumann, Clara Wieck and Fe-lix Mendelssohn, who organised for him a performanceof his own oratorio St. Paul, and who considered hima perfect musician.[49] In July 1836 Chopin travelled toMarienbad and Dresden to be with the Wodziski family,and in September he proposed to Maria, whose motherCountess Wodziska approved in principle. Chopin wenton to Leipzig, where he presented Schumann with his Gminor Ballade.[50] At the end of 1836 he sent Maria analbum in which his sister Ludwika had inscribed sevenof his songs, and his 1835 Nocturne in C-sharp minor,Op. 27, No. 1.[51] The anodyne thanks he received fromMaria proved to be the last letter he was to have fromher.[52]

1.5 Franz Liszt

Franz Liszt in 1838, engraving by Josef Kriehuber

Although it is not known exactly when Chopin rst metLiszt after arriving in Paris, on 12 December 1831he mentioned in a letter to his friend Woyciechowski

6 1 LIFE

that I have met Rossini, Cherubini, Baillot, etc.alsoKalkbrenner. You would not believe how curious I wasabout Herz, Liszt, Hiller, etc.[53] Liszt was in attendanceat Chopins Parisian debut on 26 February 1832 at theSalle Pleyel, which led him to remark: The most vig-orous applause seemed not to suce to our enthusiasmin the presence of this talented musician, who revealed anew phase of poetic sentiment combined with such happyinnovation in the form of his art.[54]

The two became friends, and for many years lived in closeproximity in Paris, Chopin at 38 Rue de la Chausse-d'Antin, and Liszt at the Htel de France on the RueLatte, a few blocks away.[55] They performed togetheron seven occasions between 1833 and 1841. The rst, on2 April 1833, was at a benet concert organized by Hec-tor Berlioz for his bankrupt Shakespearean actress wifeHarriet Smithson, during which they played George On-slow's Sonata in F minor for piano duet.[54] Later jointappearances included a benet concert for the Benevo-lent Association of Polish Ladies in Paris.[54] Their lastappearance together in public was for a charity concertconducted for the Beethoven Memorial in Bonn, held atthe Salle Pleyel and the Paris Conservatory on 25 and 26April 1841.[54]

Although the two displayed great respect and admirationfor each other, their friendship was uneasy and had somequalities of a love-hate relationship. Harold C. Schonbergbelieves that Chopin displayed a tinge of jealousy andspite towards Liszts virtuosity on the piano,[55] and oth-ers have also argued that he had become enchanted withLiszts theatricality, showmanship and success.[56] Lisztwas the dedicatee of Chopins Op. 10 tudes, and hisperformance of them prompted the composer to write toHiller, I should like to rob him of the way he plays mystudies.[57] However, Chopin expressed annoyance in1843 when Liszt performed one of his nocturnes with theaddition of numerous intricate embellishments, at whichChopin remarked that he should play the music as writtenor not play it at all, forcing an apology. Most biographersof Chopin state that after this the two had little to do witheach other, although in his letters dated as late as 1848he still referred to him as my friend Liszt.[55] Somecommentators point to events in the two mens romanticlives which led to a rift between them; there are claimsthat Liszt had displayed jealousy of his mistress Maried'Agoult's obsession with Chopin, while others believethat Chopin had become concerned about Liszts grow-ing relationship with George Sand.[54]

1.6 George SandIn 1836, at a party hosted by Marie d'Agoult, Chopin metthe French author George Sand (born [Amantine] Au-rore [Lucile] Dupin).[55] Short (under ve feet, or 152cm), dark, big-eyed and a cigar smoker,[58] she initiallyrepelled Chopin, who remarked, What an unattractiveperson la Sand is. Is she really a woman?"[59] However,

Chopin at 28, from Delacroix's joint portrait of Chopin and Sand

by early 1837 Maria Wodziskas mother had made itclear to Chopin in correspondence that a marriage withher daughter was unlikely to proceed.[60] It is thoughtthat she was inuenced by his poor health and possiblyalso by rumours about his associations with women suchas d'Agoult and Sand.[61] Chopin nally placed the let-ters from Maria and her mother in a package on whichhe wrote, in Polish, My tragedy.[62] Sand, in a letterto Grzymaa of June 1838, admitted strong feelings forthe composer and debated whether to abandon a cur-rent aair in order to begin a relationship with Chopin;she asked Grzymaa to assess Chopins relationship withMaria Wodziska, without realising that the aair, atleast from Marias side, was over.[63]

In June 1837 Chopin visited London incognito in thecompany of the piano manufacturer Camille Pleyel wherehe played at a musical soire at the house of English pianomaker James Broadwood.[64] On his return to Paris, hisassociation with Sand began in earnest, and by the end ofJune 1838 they had become lovers.[65] Sand, who was sixyears older than the composer, and who had had a seriesof lovers, wrote at this time: I must say I was confusedand amazed at the eect this little creature had on me ...I have still not recovered from my astonishment, and ifI were a proud person I should be feeling humiliated athaving been carried away ...[66] The two spent a miser-able winter on Majorca (8 November 1838 to 13 February1839), where, together with Sands two children, they hadjourneyed in the hope of improving the health of Chopinand that of Sands 15-year-old son Maurice, and also toescape the threats of Sands former lover Flicien Malle-

1.7 Decline 7

lle.[67] After discovering that the couple were not mar-ried, the deeply traditional catholic people of Majorca be-came inhospitable,[68] making accommodation dicultto nd. This compelled the group to take lodgings in aformer Carthusian monastery in Valldemossa, which gavelittle shelter from the cold winter weather.[65]

On 3 December, Chopin complained about his bad healthand the incompetence of the doctors in Majorca: Threedoctors have visited me ... The rst said I was dead; thesecond said I was dying; and the third said I was aboutto die.[69] He also had problems having his Pleyel pianosent to him. It nally arrived from Paris in December.Chopin wrote to Pleyel in January 1839: I am sendingyou my Preludes [(Op. 28)]. I nished them on your littlepiano, which arrived in the best possible condition in spiteof the sea, the bad weather and the Palma customs.[65]Chopin was also able to undertake work on his BalladeNo. 2, Op. 38; two Polonaises, Op. 40; and the ScherzoNo. 3, Op. 39.[70]

Although this period had been productive, the badweather had such a detrimental eect on Chopins healththat Sand determined to leave the island. To avoid fur-ther customs duties, Sand sold the piano to a local Frenchcouple, the Canuts.[71][n 8] The group traveled rst toBarcelona, then to Marseilles, where they stayed for afew months while Chopin convalesced.[73] In May 1839they headed for the summer to Sands estate at Nohant,where they spent most summers until 1846. In autumnthey returned to Paris, where Chopins apartment at 5rue Tronchet was close to Sands rented accommoda-tion at the rue Pigalle. He frequently visited Sand inthe evenings, but both retained some independence.[74] In1842 he and Sand moved to the Square d'Orlans, livingin adjacent buildings.[75]

At the funeral of the tenor Adolphe Nourrit in Parisin 1839, Chopin made a rare appearance at the organ,playing a transcription of Franz Schubert's lied Die Ge-stirne.[76] On 26 July 1840 Chopin and Sand were presentat the dress rehearsal of Berliozs Grande symphoniefunbre et triomphale, composed to commemorate thetenth anniversary of the July Revolution. Chopin was re-portedly unimpressed with the composition.[77]

During the summers at Nohant, particularly in the years183943, Chopin found quiet, productive days duringwhich he composed many works, including his Polonaisein A-at major, Op. 53. Among the visitors to No-hant were Delacroix and the mezzo-soprano Pauline Viar-dot, whom Chopin had advised on piano technique andcomposition.[78] Delacroix gives an account of staying atNohant in a letter of 7 June 1842:

The hosts could not be more pleasant in en-tertaining me. When we are not all togetherat dinner, lunch, playing billiards, or walking,each of us stays in his room, reading or loung-ing around on a couch. Sometimes, through thewindow which opens on the garden, a gust of

music wafts up from Chopin at work. All thismingles with the songs of nightingales and thefragrance of roses.[79]

1.7 DeclineMain article: Chopins diseaseFrom 1842 onwards, Chopin showed signs of serious ill-

George Sand sewing, from Delacroixs joint portrait of Chopinand Sand

ness. After a solo recital in Paris on 21 February 1842, hewrote to Grzymaa I have to lie in bed all day long, mymouth and tonsils are aching so much.[80] He was forcedby illness to decline a written invitation from Alkan toparticipate in a repeat performance of the BeethovenSeventh Symphony arrangement at Erards on 1 March1843.[81] Late in 1844, Charles Hall visited Chopin andfound him hardly able to move, bent like a half-openedpenknife and evidently in great pain, although his spir-its returned when he started to play the piano for hisvisitor.[82] Chopins health continued to deteriorate, par-ticularly from this time onwards. Modern research sug-gests that apart from any other illnesses, he may also havesuered from temporal lobe epilepsy.[83]

Chopins relations with Sand were soured in 1846 byproblems involving her daughter Solange and Solangesanc, the young fortune-hunting sculptor AugusteClsinger.[84] The composer frequently took Solangesside in quarrels with her mother; he also faced jealousyfrom Sands son Maurice.[85] Chopin was utterly indier-ent to Sands radical political pursuits, while Sand lookedon his society friends with disdain.[86] As the composers

8 1 LIFE

illness progressed, Sand had become less of a lover andmore of a nurse to Chopin, whom she called her thirdchild. In letters to third parties, she vented her im-patience, referring to him as a child, a little angel,a suerer and a beloved little corpse.[87] In 1847Sand published her novel Lucrezia Floriani, whose maincharactersa rich actress and a prince in weak healthcould be interpreted as Sand and Chopin; the story wasuncomplimentary to Chopin, who could not have missedthe allusions as he helped Sand correct the printers gal-leys. In 1847 he did not visit Nohant, and he quietly endedtheir ten-year relationship following an angry correspon-dence which, in Sands words, made a strange conclusionto nine years of exclusive friendship.[84] The two wouldnever meet again.[88]

Chopins output as a composer throughout this perioddeclined in quantity year by year. Whereas in 1841 hehad written a dozen works, only six were written in 1842and six shorter pieces in 1843. In 1844 he wrote onlythe Op. 58 sonata. 1845 saw the completion of threemazurkas (Op. 59). Although these works were morerened than many of his earlier compositions, Zamoyskiopines that his powers of concentration were failing andhis inspiration was beset by anguish, both emotional andintellectual.[89]

1.8 Tour of England and Scotland

Chopins public popularity as a virtuoso began to wane,as did the number of his pupils, and this, together withthe political strife and instability of the time, caused himto struggle nancially.[88] In February 1848, with the cel-list Auguste Franchomme, he gave his last Paris concert,which included three movements of the Cello Sonata Op.65.In April, during the Revolution of 1848 in Paris, heleft for London, where he performed at several concertsand at numerous receptions in great houses.[87] This tourwas suggested to him by his Scottish pupil Jane Stirlingand her elder sister. Stirling also made all the logisti-cal arrangements and provided much of the necessaryfunding.[90]

In London Chopin took lodgings at Dover Street, wherethe rm of Broadwood provided him with a grand piano.At his rst engagement, on 15 May at Staord House,the audience included Queen Victoria and Prince Albert.The Prince, who was himself a talented musician, movedclose to the keyboard to view Chopins technique. Broad-wood also arranged concerts for him; among those attend-ing were Thackeray and the singer Jenny Lind. Chopinwas also sought after for piano lessons, for which hecharged the high fee of one guinea (1.05 in presentBritish currency) per hour, and for private recitals forwhich the fee was 20 guineas. At a concert on 7 July heshared the platform with Viardot, who sang arrangementsof some of his mazurkas to Spanish texts.[91]

Jane Stirling, by Devria, c. 1830

In late summer he was invited by Jane Stirling tovisit Scotland, where he stayed at Calder House nearEdinburgh and at Johnstone Castle in Renfrewshire, bothowned by members of Stirlings family.[92] She clearlyhad a notion of going beyond mere friendship, andChopin was obliged to make it clear to her that this couldnot be so. He wrote at this time to Grzymaa My Scot-tish ladies are kind, but such bores, and responding toa rumour about his involvement, answered that he wascloser to the grave than the nuptial bed.[93] He gave apublic concert in Glasgow on 27 September,[94] and an-other in Edinburgh, at the Hopetoun Rooms on QueenStreet (now Erskine House) on 4 October.[95] In late Oc-tober 1848, while staying at 10 Warriston Crescent in Ed-inburgh with the Polish physician Adam yszczyski, hewrote out his last will and testament"a kind of disposi-tion to be made of my stu in the future, if I should dropdead somewhere, he wrote to Grzymaa.[87]

Chopin made his last public appearance on a concert plat-form at Londons Guildhall on 16 November 1848, when,in a nal patriotic gesture, he played for the benet ofPolish refugees. He was at this time clearly seriously ill,weighing less than 99 pounds (45 kg), and his doctorswere aware that his sickness was at a terminal stage.[96]

At the end of November, Chopin returned to Paris. Hepassed the winter in unremitting illness, but gave oc-casional lessons and was visited by friends, includingDelacroix and Franchomme. Occasionally he played,or accompanied the singing of Delna Potocka, for hisfriends. During the summer of 1849, his friends found

9him an apartment in Chaillot, out of the centre of the city,for which the rent was secretly subsidised by an admirer,Princess Obresko. Here in June 1849 he was visited byJenny Lind.[97]

1.9 Death and funeral

Chopin on His Deathbed, by Teol Kwiatkowski, 1849, com-missioned by Jane Stirling. Chopin is in the presence of (fromleft) Aleksander Jeowicki, Chopins sister Ludwika, PrincessMarcelina Czartoryska, Wojciech Grzymaa, Kwiatkowski.

With his health further deteriorating, Chopin desired tohave a family member with him. In June 1849 his sisterLudwika came to Paris with her husband and daughter,and in September, supported by a loan from Jane Stirling,he took an apartment at Place Vendme 12.[98] After 15October, when his condition took a marked turn for theworse, only a handful of his closest friends remained withhim, although Viardot remarked sardonically that all thegrand Parisian ladies considered it de rigueur to faint inhis room.[96]

Some of his friends provided music at his request; amongthem, Potocka sang and Franchomme played the cello.Chopin requested that his body be opened after death(for fear of being buried alive) and his heart returnedto Warsaw. He also bequeathed his unnished noteson a piano tuition method, Projet de mthode, to Alkanfor completion.[99] On 17 October, after midnight, thephysician leaned over him and asked whether he wassuering greatly. No longer, he replied. He died afew minutes before two o'clock in the morning. Thosepresent at the deathbed appear to have included his sisterLudwika, Princess Marcelina Czartoryska, Sands daugh-ter Solange, and Thomas Albrecht. Later that morning,Solanges husband Clsinger made Chopins death maskand a cast of his left hand.[100]

Chopins disease and the cause of his death havesince been a matter of discussion. His death certi-cate gave the cause as tuberculosis, and his physician,Jean Cruveilhier, was then the leading French author-ity on this disease.[101] Other possibilities have been ad-

vanced including cystic brosis,[102] cirrhosis and alpha1-antitrypsin deciency.[103] However, the attribution oftuberculosis as principal cause of death has not beendisproved.[104] Permission for DNA testing, which couldput the matter to rest, has been denied by the Polishgovernment.[105]

Chopins death mask, by Clsinger (photos: Jack Gib-bons)

The funeral, held at the Church of the Madeleine in Paris,was delayed almost two weeks, until 30 October.[106] En-trance was restricted to ticket holders[107] as many peoplewere expected to attend.[106] Over 3,000 people arrivedfrom as far as London, Berlin and Vienna without invita-tions and were excluded.[108]

Mozarts Requiem was sung at the funeral;[107] the soloistswere the soprano Jeanne-Anais Castellan, the mezzo-soprano Pauline Viardot, the tenor Alexis Dupont, andthe bass Luigi Lablache; Chopins Preludes No. 4 in Eminor and No. 6 in B minor were also played. The or-ganist at the funeral was Louis Lefbure-Wly.[109] Thefuneral procession to Pre Lachaise Cemetery, whichincluded Chopins sister Ludwika, was led by the agedPrince Adam Czartoryski. The pallbearers includedDelacroix, Franchomme, and Camille Pleyel.[110] At thegraveside, the Funeral March from Chopins Piano SonataNo. 2 was played, in Reber's instrumentation.[111]

Chopins tombstone, featuring the muse of music,Euterpe, weeping over a broken lyre, was designed andsculpted by Clsinger. The expenses of the funeral andmonument, amounting to 5,000 francs, were coveredby Jane Stirling, who also paid for the return of thecomposers sister Ludwika to Warsaw.[110] Ludwika tookChopins heart, preserved in alcohol, back to Poland in anurn in 1850.[112][n 9] She also took a collection of two hun-dred letters from Sand to Chopin; after 1851 these werereturned to Sand, who seems to have destroyed them.[112]

2 MusicSee also: List of compositions by Frdric Chopin bygenre, List of compositions by Frdric Chopin by opus

10 2 MUSIC

number, Ballades (Chopin), tudes (Chopin), Mazurkas(Chopin), Nocturnes (Chopin), Polonaises (Chopin),Preludes (Chopin), Waltzes (Chopin) and Miscellaneouscompositions (Chopin)

2.1 Overview

Autographed musical quotation from the Polonaise Op. 53,signed by Chopin on 25 May 1845

Over 230 works of Chopin survive; some compositionsfrom early childhood have been lost. All his known worksinvolve the piano, and only a few range beyond solo pi-ano music, as either piano concertos, songs or chambermusic.[115]

Chopin was educated in the tradition of Beethoven,Haydn, Mozart and Clementi; he used Clementis pianomethod with his own students. He was also inuenced byHummel's development of virtuoso, yet Mozartian, pianotechnique. He cited Bach and Mozart as the two mostimportant composers in shaping his musical outlook.[116]Chopins early works are in the style of the brilliant key-board pieces of his era as exemplied by the works of Ig-naz Moscheles, Friedrich Kalkbrenner, and others. Lessdirect in the earlier period are the inuences of Polish folkmusic and of Italian opera. Much of what became his typ-ical style of ornamentation (for example, his oriture) istaken from singing. His melodic lines were increasinglyreminiscent of the modes and features of the music of hisnative country, such as drones.[117]

Chopin took the new salon genre of the nocturne, in-vented by the Irish composer John Field, to a deeper levelof sophistication. He was the rst to write ballades[118]and scherzi as individual concert pieces. He essentiallyestablished a new genre with his own set of free-standingpreludes (Op. 28, published 1839). He exploited thepoetic potential of the concept of the concert tude, al-ready being developed in the 1820s and 1830s by Liszt,Clementi and Moscheles, in his two sets of studies (Op.10 published in 1833, Op. 25 in 1837).[119]

Chopin also endowed popular dance forms with a greaterrange of melody and expression. Chopins mazurkas,while originating in the traditional Polish dance (the

mazurek), diered from the traditional variety in thatthey were written for the concert hall rather than thedance hall; it was Chopin who put the mazurka onthe European musical map.[120] The series of sevenpolonaises published in his lifetime (another nine werepublished posthumously), beginning with the Op. 26pair (published 1836), set a new standard for music inthe form.[121] His waltzes were also written specicallyfor the salon recital rather than the ballroom and arefrequently at rather faster tempos than their dance-oorequivalents.[122]

2.2 Titles, opus numbers and editions

Some of Chopins well-known pieces have acquired de-scriptive titles, such as the Revolutionary tude (Op. 10,No. 12), and the Minute Waltz (Op. 64, No. 1). How-ever, with the exception of his Funeral March, the com-poser never named an instrumental work beyond genreand number, leaving all potential extramusical associa-tions to the listener; the names by which many of hispieces are known were invented by others.[43][123] Thereis no evidence to suggest that theRevolutionarytude waswritten with the failed Polish uprising against Russia inmind; it merely appeared at that time.[124] The FuneralMarch, the third movement of his Sonata No. 2 (Op. 35),the one case where he did give a title, was written beforethe rest of the sonata, but no specic event or death isknown to have inspired it.[125]

The last opus number that Chopin himself used was 65,allocated to the Cello Sonata in G minor. He expresseda deathbed wish that all his unpublished manuscripts bedestroyed. At the request of the composers mother andsisters, however, his musical executor Julian Fontana se-lected 23 unpublished piano pieces and grouped theminto eight further opus numbers (Opp. 6673), publishedin 1855.[126] In 1857, 17 Polish songs that Chopin wroteat various stages of his life were collected and publishedas Op. 74, though their order within the opus did not re-ect the order of composition.[127]

Works published since 1857 have received alternative cat-alogue designations instead of opus numbers. The presentstandard musicological reference for Chopins works isthe Kobylaska Catalogue (usually represented by the ini-tials 'KK'), named for its compiler, the Polish musicolo-gist Krystyna Kobylaska.[128]

Chopins original publishers included MauriceSchlesinger and Camille Pleyel.[129] His works soonbegan to appear in popular 19th-century pianoanthologies.[130] The rst collected edition was byBreitkopf & Hrtel (18781902).[131] Among modernscholarly editions of Chopins works are the versionunder the name of Paderewski published between 1937and 1966 and the more recent Polish National Edition,edited by Jan Ekier, both of which contain detailedexplanations and discussions regarding choices and

2.3 Form and harmony 11

sources.[132][133]

2.3 Form and harmony

Chopins last (Pleyel) piano, on which he composed in 184849.Fryderyk Chopin Museum, Warsaw

Improvisation stands at the centre of Chopins creativeprocesses. However, this does not imply impulsive ram-bling: Nicholas Temperley writes that improvisation isdesigned for an audience, and its starting-point is that au-diences expectations, which include the current conven-tions of musical form.[134] The works for piano and or-chestra, including the two concertos, are held by Tem-perley to be merely vehicles for brilliant piano playing... formally longwinded and extremely conservative.[135]After the piano concertos (which are both early, dat-ing from 1830), Chopin made no attempts at large-scalemulti-movement forms, save for his late sonatas for pi-ano and for cello; instead he achieved near-perfection inpieces of simple general design but subtle and complexcell-structure.[136] Rosen suggests that an important as-pect of Chopins individuality is his exible handling ofthe four-bar phrase as a structural unit.[137]

J. Barrie Jones suggests that amongst the works thatChopin intended for concert use, the four balladesand four scherzos stand supreme, and adds that theBarcarolle Op. 60 stands apart as an example of Chopinsrich harmonic palette coupled with an Italianate warmthof melody.[138] Temperley opines that these works,which contain immense variety of mood, thematic mate-rial and structural detail, are based on an extended de-parture and return form; the more the middle sectionis extended, and the further it departs in key, mood andtheme, from the opening idea, the more important anddramatic is the reprise when it at last comes.[139]

Chopins mazurkas and waltzes are all in straightforwardternary or episodic form, sometimes with a coda.[140] Themazurkas often show more folk features than many of hisother works, sometimes including modal scales and har-monies and the use of drone basses. However, some alsoshow unusual sophistication, for example Op. 63 No. 3,which includes a canon at one beats distance, a great rar-ity in music.[141]

Chopins polonaises show a marked advance on thoseof his Polish predecessors in the form (who includedhis teachers Zywny and Elsner). As with the traditionalpolonaise, Chopins works are in triple time and typicallydisplay a martial rhythm in their melodies, accompani-ments and cadences. Unlike most of their precursors,they also require a formidable playing technique.[142]

The 21 nocturnes are more structured, and of greateremotional depth, than those of Field (whom Chopin metin 1833). Many of the Chopin nocturnes have middle sec-tions marked by agitated expression (and often makingvery dicult demands on the performer) which height-ens their dramatic character.[143]

Chopins tudes are largely in straightforward ternaryform.[144] He used them to teach his own technique of pi-ano playing[41]for instance playing double thirds (Op.25, No. 6), playing in octaves (Op. 25, No. 10), andplaying repeated notes (Op. 10, No. 7).[145]

The preludes, many of which are very brief (some con-sisting of simple statements and developments of a singletheme or gure), were described by Schumann as the be-ginnings of studies.[146] Inspired by J.S. Bachs TheWell-Tempered Clavier, Chopins preludes move up the circleof fths (rather than Bachs chromatic scale sequence) tocreate a prelude in each major and minor tonality.[147]The preludes were perhaps not intended to be played as agroup, and may even have been used by him and later pi-anists as generic preludes to others of his pieces, or evento music by other composers, as Kenneth Hamilton sug-gests: he has noted a recording by Ferruccio Busoni of1922, in which the Prelude Op. 28 No. 7 is followed bythe tude Op. 10 No. 5.[148]

The two mature piano sonatas (No. 2, Op. 35, writtenin 1839 and No. 3, Op. 58, written in 1844) are infour movements. In Op. 35, Chopin was able to com-bine within a formal large musical structure many ele-ments of his virtuosic piano technique"a kind of di-alogue between the public pianism of the brilliant styleand the German sonata principle.[149] The last move-ment, a brief (75-bar) perpetuum mobile in which thehands play in unmodied octave unison throughout, wasfound shocking and unmusical by contemporaries, in-cluding Schumann.[150] The Op. 58 sonata is closer to theGerman tradition, including many passages of complexcounterpoint, worthy of Brahms" according to the mu-sic historians Kornel Michaowski and Jim Samson.[149]

Chopins harmonic innovations may have arisen partlyfrom his keyboard improvisation technique. Temperleysays that in his works novel harmonic eects frequentlyresult from the combination of ordinary appoggiaturas orpassing notes with melodic gures of accompaniment,and cadences are delayed by the use of chords outside thehome key (neapolitan sixths and diminished sevenths),or by sudden shifts to remote keys. Chord progressionssometimes anticipate the shifting tonality of later com-posers such as Claude Debussy, as does Chopins use of

12 2 MUSIC

modal harmony.[151]

2.4 Technique and performance style

Extract from Chopin Nocturne Op. 62 no. 1 (1846, composersmanuscript)

The same passage (1881 Schirmer edition). The examples showtypical use by Chopin of trills, grace notes and detailed pedallingand tempo instructions.

In 1841, Lon Escudier wrote of a recital given by Chopinthat year, One may say that Chopin is the creator of aschool of piano and a school of composition. In truth,nothing equals the lightness, the sweetness with which thecomposer preludes on the piano; moreover nothing maybe compared to his works full of originality, distinctionand grace.[152] Chopin refused to conform to a standardmethod of playing and believed that there was no set tech-nique for playing well. His style was based extensively onhis use of very independent nger technique. In his Projetde mthode he wrote: Everything is a matter of know-ing good ngering ... we need no less to use the rest ofthe hand, the wrist, the forearm and the upper arm.[153]He further stated: One needs only to study a certain po-sition of the hand in relation to the keys to obtain withease the most beautiful quality of sound, to know howto play short notes and long notes, and [to attain] unlim-ited dexterity.[154] The consequences of this approachto technique in Chopins music include the frequent useof the entire range of the keyboard, passages in doubleoctaves and other chord groupings, swiftly repeated notes,the use of grace notes, and the use of contrasting rhythms(four against three, for example) between the hands.[155]

Jonathan Bellman writes that modern concert perfor-mance styleset in the "conservatory" tradition oflate 19th- and 20th-century music schools, and suit-able for large auditoria or recordingsmilitates againstwhat is known of Chopins more intimate performancetechnique.[156] The composer himself said to a pupil thatconcerts are never real music, you have to give up theidea of hearing in them all the most beautiful things ofart.[157] Contemporary accounts indicate that in perfor-mance, Chopin avoided rigid procedures sometimes in-

correctly attributed to him, such as always crescendoto a high note, but that he was concerned with ex-pressive phrasing, rhythmic consistency and sensitivecolouring.[158] Berlioz wrote in 1853 that Chopin hascreated a kind of chromatic embroidery ... whose eectis so strange and piquant as to be impossible to describe ...virtually nobody but Chopin himself can play this musicand give it this unusual turn.[159] Hiller wrote that Whatin the hands of others was elegant embellishment, in hishands became a colourful wreath of owers.[160]

Chopins music is frequently played with rubato, thepractice in performance of disregarding strict time, 'rob-bing' some note-values for expressive eect.[161] Thereare diering opinions as to how much, and what type, ofrubato is appropriate for his works. Charles Rosen com-ments that most of the written-out indications of rubatoin Chopin are to be found in his mazurkas ... It is proba-ble that Chopin used the older form of rubato so impor-tant to Mozart ... [where] the melody note in the righthand is delayed until after the note in the bass ... An al-lied form of this rubato is the arpeggiation of the chordsthereby delaying the melody note; according to Chopinspupil, Karol Mikuli, Chopin was rmly opposed to thispractice.[162]

Friederike Mller, a pupil of Chopin, wrote: "[His]playing was always noble and beautiful; his tones sang,whether in full forte or softest piano. He took innitepains to teach his pupils this legato, cantabile style ofplaying. His most severe criticism was Heor shedoes not know how to join two notes together. He alsodemanded the strictest adherence to rhythm. He hatedall lingering and dragging, misplaced rubatos, as well asexaggerated ritardandos ... and it is precisely in this re-spect that people make such terrible errors in playing hisworks.[163]

2.5 Polish heritage

With his mazurkas and polonaises, Chopin has been cred-ited with introducing to music a new sense of nationalism.Schumann, in his 1836 review of the piano concertos,highlighted the composers strong feelings for his nativePoland, writing that Now that the Poles are in deepmourning [after the failure of the November 1830 rising],their appeal to us artists is even stronger ... [I]f the mightyautocrat in the north [i.e. Alexander I of Russia] couldknow that in Chopins works, in the simple strains of hismazurkas, there lurks a dangerous enemy, he would placea ban on his music. Chopins works are cannon buried inowers!"[165] The biography of Chopin published in 1863under the name of Franz Liszt (but probably written byCarolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein)[166] claims that Chopinmust be ranked rst among the rst musicians ... in-dividualizing in themselves the poetic sense of an entirenation.[167]

Some modern commentators have argued against exag-

2.6 Reception and inuence 13

gerating Chopins primacy as a nationalist or patrioticcomposer. George Golos refers to earlier nationalistcomposers in Central Europe, including Polands MichaKleofas Ogiski and Franciszek Lessel, who utilisedpolonaise and mazurka forms.[168] Barbara Milewski sug-gests that Chopins experience of Polish music camemore from urbanised Warsaw versions than from folkmusic, and that attempts (by Jachimecki and others) todemonstrate genuine folk music in his works are withoutbasis.[169] Richard Taruskin impugns Schumanns attitudetoward Chopins works as patronizing [170] and commentsthat Chopin felt his Polish patriotism deeply and sin-cerely but consciously modelled his works on the tradi-tion of Bach, Beethoven, Schubert and Field.[171]

A reconciliation of these views is suggested by WilliamAtwood: Undoubtedly [Chopins] use of traditional mu-sical forms like the polonaise and mazurka roused nation-alistic sentiments and a sense of cohesiveness amongstthose Poles scattered across Europe and the New World ...While some sought solace in [them], others found thema source of strength in their continuing struggle for free-dom. Although Chopins music undoubtedly came to himintuitively rather than through any conscious patriotic de-sign, it served all the same to symbolize the will of thePolish people ...[172]

2.6 Reception and inuence

See also: List of memorials to Frdric ChopinJones comments that Chopins unique position as a com-poser, despite the fact that virtually everything he wrotewas for the piano, has rarely been questioned.[144] Healso notes that Chopin was fortunate to arrive in Parisin 1831"the artistic environment, the publishers whowere willing to print his music, the wealthy and aristo-cratic who paid what Chopin asked for their lessonsand these factors, as well as his musical genius, also fu-elled his contemporary and later reputation.[122] While hisillness and his love-aairs conform to some of the stereo-types of romanticism, the rarity of his public recitals (asopposed to performances at fashionable Paris soires) ledArthur Hutchings to suggest that his lack of Byronicamboyance [and] his aristocratic reclusiveness makehim exceptional among his romantic contemporaries,such as Liszt and Henri Herz.[136]

Chopins qualities as a pianist and composer were recog-nized by many of his fellow musicians. Schumann nameda piece for him in his suite Carnaval, and Chopin laterdedicated his Ballade No. 2 in F major to Schumann. El-ements of Chopins music can be traced in many of Lisztslater works.[57] Liszt later transcribed for piano six ofChopins Polish songs. A less fraught friendship was withAlkan, with whom he discussed elements of folk music,and who was deeply aected by Chopins death.[173]

Two of Chopins long-standing pupils, Karol Mikuli(18211897) and Georges Mathias, were themselves pi-

Funerary monument on a pillar in Holy Cross Church, Warsaw,enclosing Chopins heart

ano teachers and passed on details of his playing to theirown students, some of whom (such as Raoul Koczal-ski) were to make recordings of his music. Other pi-anists and composers inuenced by Chopins style in-clude Louis Moreau Gottschalk, douard Wol (18161880) and Pierre Zimmermann.[174] Debussy dedicatedhis own 1915 piano tudes to the memory of Chopin;he frequently played Chopins music during his stud-ies at the Paris Conservatoire, and undertook the edit-ing of Chopins piano music for the publisher JacquesDurand.[175]

Polish composers of the following generation includedvirtuosi such as Moritz Moszkowski, but, in the opinionof J. Barrie Jones, his one worthy successor among hiscompatriots was Karol Szymanowski (18821937).[176]Edvard Grieg, Antonn Dvok, Isaac Albniz, PyotrIlyich Tchaikovsky and Sergei Rachmanino, amongothers, are regarded by critics as having been inu-enced by Chopins use of national modes and idioms.[177]Alexander Scriabin was devoted to the music of Chopin,and his early published works include nineteen mazurkas,as well as numerous tudes and preludes; his teacherNikolai Zverev drilled him in Chopins works to improvehis virtuosity as a performer.[178] In the 20th century,composers who paid homage to (or in some cases par-odied) the music of Chopin included George Crumb,Bohuslav Martin, Darius Milhaud, Igor Stravinsky[179]and Heitor Villa-Lobos.[180]

Chopins music was used in the 1909 ballet Chopiniana,

14 4 IN LITERATURE, STAGE, FILM AND TELEVISION

Chopin statue, azienki Park, Warsaw

choreographed by Michel Fokine and orchestrated byAlexander Glazunov. Sergei Diaghilev commissionedadditional orchestrationsfrom Stravinsky, AnatolyLyadov, Sergei Taneyev and Nikolai Tcherepninforlater productions, which used the title Les Sylphides.[181]

Chopins music remains very popular and is regularly per-formed, recorded and broadcast worldwide. The worldsoldest monographic music competition, the InternationalChopin Piano Competition, founded in 1927, is held ev-ery ve years in Warsaw.[182] The Fryderyk Chopin In-stitute of Poland lists on its website over eighty societiesworld-wide devoted to the composer and his music.[183]The Institute site also lists nearly 1,500 performances ofChopin works on YouTube as of January 2014.[184]

3 RecordingsThe British Library notes that Chopins works havebeen recorded by all the great pianists of the recordingera. The earliest recording was an 1895 performanceby Paul Pabst of the Nocturne in E major Op. 62 No.2. The British Library site makes available a numberof historic recordings, including some by Alfred Cor-tot, Ignaz Friedman, Vladimir Horowitz, Benno Moi-seiwitsch, Paderewski, Arthur Rubinstein, Xaver Schar-wenka and many others.[185]

Numerous recordings of Chopins works are available.On the occasion of the composers bicentenary, thecritics of The New York Times recommended perfor-mances by the following contemporary pianists (amongmany others):[186] Martha Argerich, Vladimir Ashke-nazy, Emanuel Ax, Evgeny Kissin, Murray Perahia,Maurizio Pollini and Krystian Zimerman. The WarsawChopin Society organizes the Grand prix du disque de

F. Chopin for notable Chopin recordings, held every veyears.[187]

4 In literature, stage, lm and tele-vision

Chopins grave at Pre-Lachaise cemetery, Paris

Chopin has gured extensively in Polish literature, bothin serious critical studies of his life and music andin ctional treatments. The earliest manifestation wasprobably an 1830 sonnet on Chopin by Leon Ulrich.French writers on Chopin (apart from Sand) have in-cluded Marcel Proust and Andr Gide; and he has alsofeatured in works of Gottfried Benn and Boris Paster-nak.[188] There are numerous biographies of Chopin inEnglish (see bibliography for some of these).Possibly the rst venture into ctional treatments ofChopins life was a fanciful operatic version of some of itsevents. Chopin was written by Giacomo Orece and pro-duced in Milan in 1901. All the music is derived fromthat of Chopin.[189]

Chopins life and his relations with George Sand havebeen ctionalized in numerous lms. The 1945 biograph-ical lm A Song to Remember earned Cornel Wilde anAcademy Award nomination as Best Actor for his por-trayal of the composer. Other lm treatments have in-cluded: La valse de l'adieu (France, 1928) by HenryRoussel, with Pierre Blanchar as Chopin; Impromptu(1991), starring Hugh Grant as Chopin; La note bleue(1991); and Chopin: Desire for Love (2002).[190]

15

Chopins life was covered in a BBC TV documentaryChopin The Women Behind The Music (2010),[191] andin a 2010 documentary realised by Angelo Bozzolini andRoberto Prosseda for Italian television.[192]

5 ReferencesNotes

[1] In Polish, pronounced [pn], with alternative, phoneticspelling Szopen.

[2] According to his letter of 16 January 1833 to the chair-man of the Socit historique et littraire polonaise (Pol-ish Literary Society) in Paris, he was born 1 March1810 at the village of elazowa Wola in the Province ofMazowsze.[4]

[3] The Conservatory was aliated with the University ofWarsaw; hence Chopin is counted among the universitysalumni.

[4] At Szafarnia (in 1824 perhaps his rst solo travel awayfrom home and in 1825), Duszniki (1826), Pomerania(1827) and Sanniki (1828).[18]

[5] The Krasiski Palace is now the Warsaw Academy of FineArts.

[6] An 183739 resident here, the artist-poet Cyprian Nor-wid, would later write a poem, Chopins Piano, aboutthe instruments defenestration by Russian troops duringthe January 1863 Uprising.[21]

[7] The originals perished in World War II. Only photographssurvive.[22]

[8] Two neighbouring apartments at the Valldemossamonastery, each long hosting a Chopin museum, havebeen claimed to be the retreat of Chopin and Sand,and to hold Chopins Pleyel piano. In 2011 a Spanishcourt on Majorca, partly by ruling out a piano that hadbeen built after Chopins visit thereprobably after hisdeathdecided which was the correct apartment.[72]

[9] In 1879 the heart was sealed within a pillar of the HolyCross Church, behind a tablet carved by Leonard Mar-coni.[113] During the German invasion of Warsaw in WorldWar II, the heart was removed for safekeeping and held inthe quarters of the German commander, Erich von demBach-Zelewski. It was later returned to the church author-ities but it was not yet considered safe to return it to its for-mer resting place. It was taken to the town of Milanwek,where the casket was opened and the heart was able to beobserved (its large size was noted). It was stored in St.Hedwigs Church there. On 17 October 1945, the 96thanniversary of Chopins death, it was returned to its placein Holy Cross Church.[114]

Citations

[1] Rosen (1995), p. 284.

[2] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 45 (locs. 115130).

[3] Hedley (1980), p. 292.

[4] Chopin (1962), p. 116.

[5] Rose Cholmondeley, The Mystery of Chopins Birth-day, Chopin Society UK website, accessed 21 December2013.

[6] Zamoyski (2010), p. 3 (loc. 100).

[7] Michaowski and Samson (n.d), 1, para. 1.

[8] Zamoyski (2010) p. 7 (loc. 158).

[9] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 56 (locs. 130144).

[10] Szulc (1998), pp. 4142.

[11] Zamoyski (2010), 6 (loc. 144).

[12] Michaowski and Samson (n.d), 1, para. 3.

[13] Samson (1996), p. 8.

[14] The Complete Keyboard Works, Chopin Project web-site, accessed 21 December 2013.

[15] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 1112 (locs. 231248).

[16] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.), 1, para. 5.

[17] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 212 (locs. 365387).

[18] Szklener (2010), p. 8.

[19] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.), 1 para. 2.

[20] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 1920 (locs. 334352).

[21] Jakubowski (1979), pp. 51415.

[22] See Kuhnke (2010).

[23] Zamoyski (2010), p. 43 (loc. 696).

[24] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 5052 (locs. 801838).

[25] Zamoyski (2010), p. 45 (loc. 731).

[26] Zamoyski (2010), p. 35 (loc. 569).

[27] Zamoyski (2010) , pp. 3739 (locs. 599-632).

[28] Zamoyski (2010), p. 43 (loc. 689).

[29] Jachimecki (1937), p. 422.

[30] Michaowski and Samson (n.d), 2, para. 1.

[31] Michaowski and Samson (n.d), 2, para. 3. The journalis now in the National Library of Poland.

[32] Michaowski and Samson (n.d), 1, para. 6.

[33] A French passport used by Chopin is shown at EmmanuelLangavant, Passeport franais de Chopin, 'Chopin - musi-cien franais website, accessed 13 August 2014.

[34] Zamoyski (2010), p. 128 (loc. 2027).

[35] Zamoyski (2010), p. 106 (loc. 1678).

16 5 REFERENCES

[36] Zamoyski (2010), p. 137 (loc. 2164).

[37] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 106107 (locs. 16781696).

[38] Michaowski and Samson (n.d), 3, para. 2.

[39] Schumann (1988), pp. 1517.

[40] cited in Zamoyski (2010), p. 88 (loc. 1384).

[41] Hedley (2005), p. 263.

[42] Michaowski and Samson (n.d), 2, paras. 45.

[43] Hedley (2005), p. 264.

[44] Conway (2012), p. 226 and n. 9.

[45] Michaowski and Samson (n.d), 2, para. 5. ForSchlesingers international network see Conway (2012),pp. 1857 and pp.2389.

[46] Niecks (1980), p. 313.

[47] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 1189 (locs. 18611878).

[48] Szulc (1998), p. 137.

[49] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 11920 (locs. 18781896).

[50] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 1267 (locs. 19832001).

[51] Jachimecki (1937), p. 423.

[52] Chopin (1962), p. 144.

[53] Hall-Swadley (2011), p. 31.

[54] Hall-Swadley (2011), p. 32.

[55] Schonberg (1987), p. 151.

[56] Hall-Swadley (2011), p. 33.

[57] Walker (1988), p. 184.

[58] Schonberg (1987), p. 152.

[59] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.) 3, para. 3.

[60] Chopin (1962), p. 141.

[61] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 1378 (locs. 21692186).

[62] Zamoyski (2010), p. 147 (loc. 2318).

[63] Chopin (1962), pp. 151161.

[64] Zauski (1992), p. 226.

[65] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.) 3, para. 4.

[66] Cited in Zamoyski (2010), p. 154 (loc. 2417).

[67] Zamoyski (2010), p. 159 (loc. 2514).

[68] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 161162 (locs. 25442560).

[69] cited in Zamoyski (2010), p. 162 (loc. 2560).

[70] Zamoyski (2010), p. 168 (loc. 2646).

[71] Zamoyski (2010), p. 168 (loc. 2654).

[72] Fiona Govan, Row over Chopins Majorcan residencesolved by piano, Daily Telegraph 1 February 2011, ac-cessed 31 August 2013.

[73] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.) 3, para. 5.

[74] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.) 4, para. 1.

[75] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.) 4, para. 4.

[76] Rottermund (2008), p. 82.

[77] Goldberg (2004), p. 8.

[78] Zamoyski (2010), p. 197 (loc. 3100).

[79] Cited in Atwood (1999), p. 315.

[80] Zamoyski (2010) p. 212 (loc. 3331).

[81] Eddie (2013), p. 8.

[82] Zamoyski (2010), p. 227 (loc. 3571).

[83] Sara Reardon, Chopins hallucinations may have beencaused by epilepsy, The Washington Post, 31 January2011, accessed 10 January 2014.

[84] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.), 5, para. 2.

[85] Samson (1996), p. 194.

[86] Chen (2009), p. 32.

[87] Jachimecki, p. 424.

[88] Chen (2009), p. 34.

[89] Zamoyski (2010), p. 233 (loc. 3668).

[90] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.), 5, para. 3.

[91] Zauski (1992), pp. 2279.

[92] Zauski, Iwo and Pamela (2 June 2009). Chopins Scot-tish autumn Frederick Chopin. Contemporary Review.Retrieved 4 January 2014.

[93] Zamoyski (2010), p. 279 (loc. 4385). Letter of 30 Octo-ber 1848.

[94] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 2768 (locs. 43404357).

[95] Turnbull (1989), p. 53.

[96] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.), 5, para. 4.

[97] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 2836 (locs. 44464487).

[98] Zamoyski (2010) p. 288 (loc. 4512).

[99] Zamoyski (2010), 2913 (locs. 45664591).

[100] Zamoyski (2010), p. 293 (locs. 45914601).

[101] Zamoyski (2010), p. 286 (loc. 4479).

[102] Majka et al. (2003), p. 77.

[103] Kuzemko (1994), p. 771. See also Kubba and Young(1998), passim.

[104] Young et al. (2014), p. 529.

17

[105] Robin McKie, Row over plan to DNA test Chopinsheart. The Guardian, 27 July 2008. Retrieved 3 Novem-ber 2014

[106] Zamoyski (2010), pp. 2934 (locs. 46014616).

[107] Zamoyski (2010), p. 1 (loc. 70).

[108] Niecks (1902), loc. 11118.

[109] Funeral of Frdric Chopin, in Revue et Gazette Musi-cale, 4 November 1847, printed in translation in Atwood(1999), pp. 41011.

[110] Barcz (2010), p. 16.

[111] Funeral of Frdric Chopin, in Revue et Gazette Musi-cale, 4 November 1847, printed in translation in Atwood(1999), pp. 41213.

[112] Samson (1996), p. 193.

[113] Holy Cross Church (Koci w. Krzya) on Inyour-pocket.com website, accessed 7 December 2013.

[114] Alex Ross, Chopins Heart. The NewYorker, 5 February2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014

[115] Hedley (1980), p. 298.

[116] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.), 6 para 7.

[117] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.). 6, paras 14.

[118] Scholes (1938), Ballade.

[119] Ferguson (1980), pp. 3045.

[120] Jones (1998b), p. 177.

[121] Szulc (1998), p. 115.

[122] Jones (1998a), p. 162.

[123] Kennedy (1980), p. 130, Chopin, Fryderyk.

[124] Hedley and Brown (1980), p. 294.

[125] Kallberg (2001), pp. 48.

[126] Chopins Works Complete list. Piano Society. Re-trieved 14 February 2010.

[127] Frdric Franois Chopin 17 Polish Songs, Op.74.Classical Archives. Retrieved 14 February 2010.

[128] What does the KK Mean?", The Chopin Project Web-site, accessed 21 December 2013.

[129] Atwood (1999), pp. 1667.

[130] de Val (1998), p. 127.

[131] de Val (1998), p. 129.

[132] Temperley (1980), p. 306.

[133] Jan Ekier, "Foundation for the National Edition of theWorks of Fryderyk Chopin" on the website of the Fry-deryk Chopin Institute, (accessed 4 August 2014).

[134] Temperley (1980), p. 298.

[135] Temperley (1980), p. 305.

[136] Hutchings (1968), p. 137.

[137] Rosen (1995), pp. 262278.

[138] Jones (1998a), pp. 1612.

[139] Temperley (1980), p. 304.

[140] Jones (1998b), p. 177; Temperley (1980), p. 304.

[141] Jones (1998b), pp. 1779.

[142] Reiss (1980), p. 51.

[143] Brown (1980), p. 258.

[144] Jones (1998a), p. 160.

[145] Jones (1998a), pp. 160161.

[146] Jones (1998a), p. 161.

[147] Rosen (1995), p. 83.

[148] Hamilton (2008), pp. 1012.

[149] Michaowski and Samson (n.d.), 9 para. 2.

[150] Rosen (1995), pp. 2947.

[151] Temperley (1980), pp. 3023.

[152] Samson (1994), p. 136.

[153] Cited in Eigeldinger (1988), p. 18.

[154] Cited in Eigeldinger (1988), p. 23.

[155] Eigeldinger (1988), pp. 1820.

[156] Bellman (2000), pp. 14950.

[157] Cited in Bellman (2000), p. 150; the pupil was Emilie vonGretsch.

[158] Bellman (2000), pp. 1534.

[159] Cited in Eigeldinger (1988), p. 272.

[160] Cited in Bellman (2000), p. 154.

[161] Latham (n.d.).

[162] Rosen (1995), p. 413.

[163] Mller-Streicher (1949).

[164] Cited from Szymanowskis 1923 essay, FryderykChopin, in Downes (2001), p. 63 and n. 58.

[165] Schumann (1988), p. 114.

[166] Cooke (1966), pp. 85661.

[167] Liszt (1880), loc. 1503.

[168] Golos (1960), pp. 43942.

[169] Milewski (1999), pp. 11321.

[170] Taruskin (2010), pp. 34445.

18 5 REFERENCES

[171] Taruskin (2010), p. 346; see also Rosen (1995), pp. 36163.

[172] Atwood (1999), p. 57.

[173] Conway (2012), pp. 22930.

[174] Bellman (2000), pp. 15051.

[175] Wheeldon (2009), pp. 55, 62.

[176] Jones (1998b), p. 180.

[177] Temperley (1980), p. 307.

[178] Bowers (1996), p. 134.

[179] Mariola Wojtkiewicz, tr. Jerzy Ossowski, The Impactof Chopins Music on the Work of 19th and 20th Cen-tury Composers, in chopin.pl website, accessed 4 Jan-uary 2014.

[180] Hommage Chopin on IMSLP website, accessed 27 Oc-tober 2014.

[181] Taruskin (1996), pp. 5467.

[182] About Competition, International Chopin Competitionwebsite, accessed 12 January 2014.

[183] Institutions related to Chopin Associations, FryderykChopin Institute website, accessed 5 January 2014.

[184] Chopin on YouTube, Fryderyk Chopin Institute web-site, accessed 5 January 2014.

[185] Chopin, British Library website, accessed 22 December2013. Recordings accessible free online throughout theEuropean Union.

[186] Anthony Tommasini et al., 1 Composer, 2 Centuries,Many Picks, The New York Times, 27 May 2010, ac-cessed 28 December 2013.

[187] Grand Prix du Disque Frdric Chopin website, accessed2 January 2014.

[188] Andrzej Hejmej, tr. Philip Stoeckle, Chopin and his mu-sic in literature, in chopin.pl website, accessed 4 January2014.

[189] Ashbrooke (n.d.); Lanza (n.d.).

[190] Iwona Sowiska, tr. Philip Stoeckle, Chopin goes to themovies, in chopin.pl website, accessed 4 January 2014.The site gives details of numerous other lms featuringChopin.

[191] Chopin The Women Behind The Music, BBC Four doc-umentary (15 October 2010), accessed 25 August 2013.

[192] Film poster (in Italian), media.wix website, accessed 25August 2013.

Bibliography

Ashbrooke, William (n.d). "Chopin", in The NewGrove Dictionary of Opera online, accessed 4 Au-gust 2014. (subscription required).

Atwood, William G. (1999). The Parisian Worldsof Frdric Chopin. New Haven and London: YaleUniversity Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07773-5.

Barcz, Maria (14 August 2010). Etiuda paryska[Paris tude]. Gwiazda Polarna (in Polish) 101(17). pp. 1516.

Bellman, Jonathan (2000). Chopin and His Imi-tators: Notated Emulations of the True Style ofPerformance, in 19th-Century Music, vol. 24, no.2 (Autumn, 2000), pp. 149160.

Bowers, Faubion (1996). Scriabin: A Biography.Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-28897-8.

Brown, Maurice (1980). Nocturne, in The NewGrove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stan-ley Sadie (20 vols.). London: Macmillan Publishers.ISBN 0-333-23111-2. Vol.13, pp. 2589.

Chen, Shu-fen Viola (2009). A Performers Analysisof the Four Ballades by Frederic Chopin. ProQuest.ISBN 978-1-109-13042-3.

Chopin, Fryderyk (1962). Selected Correspondenceof Fryderyk Chopin, coll. B. Sydow, tr. Arthur Hed-ley. London: Heinemann.

Conway, David (2012). Jewry in Music: Entry tothe Profession from the Enlightenment to RichardWagner. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-1-107-01538-8

Cooke, Charles (1966). Chopin and Liszt with aGhostly Twist in Notes, Second Series, vol. 22, no.2 (Winter, 1965 Winter, 1966), pp. 85561

De Val, Dorothy, and Cyril Ehrlich. Repertoryand Canon, in David Rowland (ed.), The Cam-bridge Companion to the Piano, 176191. Cam-bridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47986-8.

Downes, Stephen (2001). Eros and PanEuro-peanism, in Harry White and Michael Murphy(eds.), Musical Constructions of Nationalism: Essayson the History and Ideology of European MusicalCulture 18001945, Cork: Cork University Press,pp. 5171. ISBN 1-85918-322-0.

Eddie, Dr William (28 January 2013). CharlesValentin Alkan: His Life and His Music. AshgatePublishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4094-9364-8.

Eigeldinger, Jean-Jacques (1988). Chopin: Pianistand Teacher: As Seen by his Pupils. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36709-7.

Ferguson, Howard (1980). Study, in Stanley Sadie(ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Mu-sicians, London: Macmillan, vol. 18, pp. 3045.

19

Golos, George S. (1960). Some Slavic Predeces-sors of Chopin in The Musical Quarterly vol. 46no. 4, pp. 43747.

Goldberg, Halina (2004). The Age of Chopin: In-terdisciplinary Inquiries. Indiana University Press.ISBN 0-253-21628-1.

Hall-Swadley, Janita R. (15 July 2011). The Col-lected Writings of Franz Liszt: F. Chopin. ScarecrowPress. ISBN 978-1-4616-6409-3.

Hamilton, Kenneth (2008). After the Golden Age:Romantic Pianism and Modern Performance. Ox-ford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517826-5

Hedley, Arthur et al. (2005). Chopin, Frdric(Franois), Encyclopdia Britannica, 15th ed., vol.3, pp. 26364.

Hedley, Arthur and Maurice Brown (1980).Chopin, Fryderyk Franciszek [Frdric Franois]",sections 16 in S. Sadie (ed.)The New Grove Dictio-nary of Music and Musicians, London: Macmillan,vol. 4, pp. 2928.

Hutchings, A. G. B. (1968). The Romantic Era, inAlec Robertson and Denis Stevens (eds.), The Pel-ican History of Music 3: Classical and Romantic,Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, pp. 99139.

Jachimecki, Zdzisaw (1937). Chopin, FryderykFranciszek. Polski sownik biograczny (in Polish)3. Krakw: Polska Akademia Umiejtnoci. pp.42026.

Jakubowski, Jan Zygmunt, ed. (1979). Literaturapolska od redniowiecza to pozytywizmu [Polish Lit-erature from the Middle Ages to Positivism] (in Pol-ish). Warsaw: Pastwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.ISBN 83-01-00201-8.

Jones, J. Barrie (1998a). Piano music for concerthall and salon c. 18301900, in David Rowland(ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Piano, pp.151175. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 978-0-521-47986-8.

Jones, J. Barrie (1998b). Nationalism, in DavidRowland (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to the Pi-ano, pp. 176191. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-sity Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47986-8.

Kallberg, Jerey (2001). Chopins March,Chopins Death, in 19th-Century Music, Vol. 25,No. 1 (Summer 2001), pp. 326.

Kennedy, Michael (1980). The Concise Oxford Dic-tionary of Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN 9780193113201

Kubba, Adam and Madeleine Young (1998). TheLong Suering of Frederic Chopin, in Chest, vol.113 (1998), pp. 2106. accessed 16 August 2014.

Kuhnke, Monika (2010). Oryginalne kopie, czylihistoria portretw rodziny Chopinw, in CenneBezcenne Utracone, no. 62 (2010 no. 1), pp. 812.In Polish. (English summary). Article and summaryaccessed 28 December 2013.

Kuzemko J.A. (1994). Chopins Illnesses inJournal of the Royal Society of Medicine volume 87(December 1994) pp. 769772, accessed 16 August2014.

Lanza, Andrea (n.d.). "Orece, Giacomo" inOxfordCompanion to Music, Oxford Music Online, accessed8 August 2014. (subscription required).

Latham, Alison (n.d.). "Rubato" in Oxford Com-panion to Music, Oxford Music Online (subscriptionrequired), accessed 15 July 2014.

Liszt, Franz, tr. M. W. Cook (1880). Life of Chopin(4th edition). E-text in Kindle version at ProjectGutenberg accessed 27 December 2013.

Majka, Lucyna, Joanna Gozdzik and Micha Witt(2003). Cystic brosis a probable cause ofFrdric Chopins suering and death in Journalof Applied Genetics, vol 44(1), pp. 7784, accessed16 August 2014.

Michaowski, Kornel, and Jim Samson (n.d.),"Chopin, Fryderyk Franciszek", Grove Music On-line (accessed 25 July 2013). (subscription re-quired)

Milewski, Barbara (1999). Chopins Mazurkas andthe Myth of the Folk, in 19th-Century Music, vol.23, no. 2 (Autumn 1999), pp. 11335.

Mller-Streicher, Friederike (1949). Aus demTagebuch einer Wiener Chopin-Schlerin (18391841, 18441845)" in Chopin Almanach, Potsdam,pp. 13442. In German.

Niecks, Frederick (1902). Frederick Chopin as aMan and Musician, 3rd edition. E-text in Kindleversion at Project Gutenberg accessed 4 January2014.

Reiss, Jozef and Maurice Brown (1980). Polon-aise, in The New Grove Dictionary of Music andMusicians, ed. Stanley Sadie (20 vols.). Lon-don: Macmillan Publishers. ISBN 0-333-23111-2.Vol.15, pp. 4952.

Rosen, Charles (1995). The Romantic Generation.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN978-0-674-77933-4.

20 6 EXTERNAL LINKS

Rottermund, Krzysztof (2008). Chopin and Hesse:New Facts about Their Artistic Acquaintance, inAmerican Organist Magazine, vol. 42, issue 3, p. 82.

Samson, Jim (8 December 1994). The CambridgeCompanion to Chopin. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versity Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47752-9.

Samson, Jim (1996). Chopin. Oxford: Oxford Uni-versity Press. ISBN 978-0-19-816703-7

Scholes, Percy (1938). The Oxford Companion toMusic. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Schonberg, Harold C. (1987). Great Pianists. NewYork: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-63837-5.

Schumann, Robert (1988), tr. and ed. Henry Pleas-ants. Schumann onMusic: A Selection from theWrit-ings. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-25748-8.

Szklener, Artur (2010). Fryckowe lato: czyliwakacyjne muzykowanie Chopina [Fritzs Sum-mers: Chopins Musical Vacations]. MagazynChopin: Miesicznik Narodowego Instytutu Fry-deryka Chopina (in Polish) (4): 89.

Szulc, Tad (1998). Chopin in Paris: the Life andTimes of the Romantic Composer. New York: Scrib-ner. ISBN 0-684-82458-2.

Taruskin, Richard (1996). Stravinsky and the Rus-sian Traditions. Oxford: Oxford University Press,ISBN 0-19-816250-2.

Taruskin, Richard (2010). Music in the NineteenthCentury. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-538483-3.

Temperley, Nicholas (1980). Chopin, FryderykFranciszek [Frdric Franois]", sections 17 in S.Sadie (ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Music andMusicians, vol. 4. London: Macmillan, pp. 298307.

Turnbull, Michael T. R. B. (1989). Monuments andStatues of Edinburgh. Edinburgh: Chambers. ISBN0-550-20050-9.

Wheeldon, Marianne (2009). Debussys Late Style.Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-35239-2.

Young, Pablo et al. (2014) Federico Chopin(18101849) y su enfermedad, Revista mdica deChile, vol. 142, no.4, pp. 529535. In Spanish(summary in English). Accessed 16 August 2014.

Zauski, Iwo and Pamela (1992). Chopin in Lon-don, in The Musical Times, vol. 133, no. 1791(May 1992), pp. 226230.

Zamoyski, Adam (2010). Chopin: Prince of the Ro-mantics. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-00-735182-4 (e-book edition).

6 External links Works by or about Frdric Chopin in libraries

(WorldCat catalog)

Chopin material in the BBC Radio 3 archives Unrequited Love Chopin and Schumann at

Culture.pl

Chopin: dierent shades of genius at Culture.pl Breaking Down Chopins 24 Preludes at Culture.pl Biography on ocial site of Fryderyk Chopin Insti-

tute

Chopin With A Polish Touch, audio report byNational Public Radio

Music scores

Free scores by Frdric Chopin at the InternationalMusic Score Library Project

Chopin scores from Mutopia Project ChopinMusic, detailed biography, list of quotes, and

study guides for Chopins compositions, also includ-ing scores and MIDI les of Chopins works

Chopin Early Editions, a collection of over 400 rstand early printed editions of musical compositionsby Frdric Chopin published before 1881

Chopins First Editions Online features an interfacethat allows three navigable scores to be open simul-taneously in frames to facilitate comparison.

21

7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses7.1 Text

Frdric Chopin Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric%20Chopin?oldid=636748863 Contributors: MagnusManske, Mav, Tarquin, Danny, Fcueto, Deb, William Avery, Ben-Zin, Merphant, Imran, Ichelhof, Camembert, Bdesham, Infrogma-tion, Kjartan, Kwertii, Gabbe, Mohagon, Arpingstone, Paul A, Ahoerstemeier, Baylink, Snoyes, DropDeadGorgias, Sir Paul, AugPi, Rl,Rob Hooft, Mxn, Adam Conover, Quickbeam, Nohat, Stismail, Pladask, Tenyaku, WhisperToMe, DJ Clayworth, Tpbradbury, Mun-ford, Dinopup, RaymondYee, Morn, Quoth, Raul654, Francs2000, Lumos3, Huangdi, PuzzletChung, Bearcat, Gentgeen, Robbot, Pig-sonthewing, Fredrik, Donner, Pibwl, Geogre, SGBowden, Sunray, Sheridan, JackofOz, Mushroom, Mandel, Dina, Stirling Newberry,Giftlite, Levork, Shleep, Nunh-huh, BenFrantzDale, Schopenhauer, Ausir, Curps, Alison, Robert Southworth, DO'Neil, JimD, Ravn, Gil-gamesh, Kpalion, Silvermask, Alan Chang, Matthead, Adam McMaster, SWAdair, Wmahan, Leonard Vertighel, Chowbok, Confuzion,Alexf, Mike R, SarekOfVulcan, Quadell, Antandrus, The Singing Badger, MistToys, Piotrus, Chiu frederick, Lesgles, Chuuumus, Jossi,Emax, Karol Langner, Oneiros, Hgfernan, Ruzulo, Cihan, Yi, Marcus2, Ukexpat, Avihu, Schwartz und Weiss, Bojin, Grstain, D6, R,Freakofnurture, EugeneZelenko, Marlowe, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, FranksValli, Pak21, HeikoEvermann, EliasAlu-card, Francis Schonken, Roo72, Arthur Holland, Bender235, Janderk, Eestevez, Brian0918, CanisRufus, Vzb83, Kwamikagami, MarkR Johnson, Jashiin, Chriscf, Jpgordon, Adornix, Bobo192, Defrosted, BrokenSegue, Cmdrjameson, Vegalabs, Arcadian, Rajah, Bleh fu,Darwinek, Gamaliel87, Shorne, Methegreat, Jumbuck, Schissel, Ifny, Jorey, Alansohn, CyberSkull, Philip Cross, Raymond, Logolo-gist, !melquiades, Mailer diablo, Redfarmer, Malo, Ksnow, Sketchee, Nkour, Dirac1933, Sciurin, Poseidon^3, Deadworm222, GeneNygaard, Anjelen, Nightstallion, T.Vandekeere, Adrian.benko, Dismas, Angr, Woohookitty, AlkanSite, FeanorStar7, TigerShark, Poc-cilScript, Miaow Miaow, Bratsche, WadeSimMiser, MONGO, Fred J, CS42, Bbatsell, GregorB, Noetica, , Xecutioner, Abd,Urbanguy1, Allen3, Jbarta, Ravpapa, King of Hearts (old account 2), Al1432, Graham87, WBardwin, Magister Mathematicae, Buxte-hude, Crzrussian, Ash211, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Missmarple, Joel D. Reid, Toki, Loudenvier, Maeglin Lmion, MZMcBride, SpNeo,Crazynas, HappyCamper, Merrilee, Yug, M A Mason, Sango123, Microtonal, FlaBot, Daderot, RobertG, Doc glasgow, Who, Nivix,RexNL, Witkacy, Chobot, Raymond Cruise, Jaraalbe, DVdm, Volunteer Marek, Hall Monitor, E Pluribus Anthony, Ben Tibbetts, TheRambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, Phil Wardle, Tomkeene, Anglius, Splash, SpuriousQ, CanadianCaesar, Hydrargyrum, NateDan,Muchosucko, Erkekjetter, NawlinWiki, Stephen Burnett, Pianoman199, Wiki alf, Iani, Kisch, Aeusoes1, Grafen, Drivec, Gerhard51,Jbourj, Paul.h, Tony1, Zwobot, Breeze450, Aaron Schulz, Nikkesopo, Gadget850, Sandman1142, Tim C, Botteville, Black Falcon, Speed-oight, FF2010, Womble, Rolf-Peter Wille, Open2universe, J. Van Meter, Silverhorse, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Sarefo, Sean Whitton,Petri Krohn, Notepadzone, Jamielee07, JoanneB, Curpsbot-unicodify, Kungfuadam, GrinBot, Stumps, DVD R W, Krtki, AndrewW-Taylor, Silar, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Lestrade, Zazaban, Hogtree, Herostratus, Tarret, KnowledgeOfSelf, WACGuy, McGeddon,Pavlovi, Roel, Pgk, Jacek Kendysz, Davewild, Piccadilly, Underwater, Onebravemonkey, Srnec, Antidote, Commander Keane bot,Gilliam, Portillo, Seann, Kevinq2000, Titopao, Hmains, Skizzik, Orges, Cowman109, Mirokado, Chris the speller, Keegan, TDS, PersianPoet Gal, Kleinzach, Norum, Mattythewhite, Timneu22, SchftyThree, Stevage, RayAYang, Sajbmz, DHN-bot, William Allen Simpson,Firetrap9254, Gracenotes, Cocainekongpow, Dr. Dan, Springeragh, Openthedoor754, Lynchical, Violiszt, Zsinj, Lykhin, Can't sleep,clown will eat me, Ravindrarao, Tamfang, DRahier, Tajoman, Glloq, Nixeagle, Wamfan, Rrburke, Tommyjb, Pax85, Tenka Muteki,Chopin Master, Makemi, Asphyxia666, Kntrabssi, Golfman, RolandR, Dreadstar, Babil59, Bws2002, THD3, RyGuy17, Aristaios, Smerus,Lute88, Tim riley, Curly Turkey, Pilotguy, Ceoil, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Lambiam, OliverTwist, Mr Death, Ser Amantio di Nicolao,Modus Vivendi, Axem Titanium, Syrius, Mathiasrex, Samantha of Cardyke, Cloakdeath, Gobonobo, NewTestLeper79, Guat6, ThePi-anoGuy, Michael Bednarek, Gonioul, Merchbow, Mary Read, Bjankuloski06en, Michael miceli, JohnWittle, Hex90, MarkSutton, WotGo-Plunk, Rainwarrior, Beetstra, Mr Stephen, InTheFlesh?, Waggers, E-Kartoel, Ferrum, Ryulong, Serlin, Phaeton23, Violncello, Masem,Hu12, Feldmahler, Siebrand, Iridescent, Dekaels, Htplus, J Di, R, Igoldste, Blehfu, Jerry-va, Tranluonganh, Fredericchopin, ImageRe-pairer, Adambiswanger1, Anna reg, Anger22, Dlohcierekim, Anticky, JForget, SuperTank17, CmdrObot, Rorshacma, Jayunderscorezero,Maester mensch, Kowalmistrz, Drinibot, Charvex, Thuen, Lazulilasher, Sir Lothar, Moreschi, Iokseng, Davnor, Jimktrains, Lookingfor-group, Alton, Channtal, Rudjek, Cydebot, Danrok, Peripitus, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Poeticbent, Galassi, Cantras, Mike Christie, MC10,Interrex, GrowMaster, MKil, UncleBubba, Gogo Dodo, Corpx, Wikipediarules2221, Krator, DavidRF, Walter Humala, Chrislk02, Ase-nine, Omicronpersei8, Storeye, FrancoGG, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Daniel Newman, TonyTheTiger, RobotEater, Mojo Hand,Headbomb, Marek69, Peter gk, Tapir Terric, NorwegianBlue, Folantin, K. Lastochka, Musical lottie, PJtP, Dr. Friendly, John Link,Miller17CU94, Pcbene, Northumbrian, Escarbot, Mentisto, KrakatoaKatie, Lividore, Gossamers, Konman72, Luna Santin, Chubbles,Seaphoto, Pmerrill, Dr. Blofeld, Jim whitson, Pro crast in a tor, Cinnamon42, Tjmayerinsf, Mackan79, TexMurphy, Bakabaka, Modernist,Malcolm, TRBlom, Myanw, Igorrr, Gkhan, Michaelsayers, JAnDbot, Deective, Harryzilber, MER-C, Dsp13, Instinct, Janejellyroll,Petronas, Reign of Toads, Hut 8.5, F64too, L33tmaster, NSR77, Smith Jones, PhilKnight, PBasquin, Rothorpe, Severo, .anacondabot,Steve Bob, Magioladitis, Jimmy@plb, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Drsocc, Apollyon48, Buttermilksloth, JamesBWatson, Teh Azner, JimDouglas, Brusegadi, Sfu, 2.7182V, Rob McAlear, Cgingold, Ilikenokia, Craigsapp, Hacksh, Novickas, DerHexer, JaGa, Mokgamen,Purslane, Davercox, Wi-king, Falcor84, LDV, Zophy6, Suessmayr, CommonsDelinker, Lichengyuan, AlexiusHoratius, Nono64, Deagro,Wcpao, Tgeairn, Paranomia, J.delanoy, Sasajid, DrSturm, Uncle Dick, Mike.lifeguard, Agadant, Mrssow, Alegreen, Reedy Bot, Icsea-turtles, Leopold Davidovich, Smeira, Dahliarose, Cgilbert76, Troutsneeze, Physcopath09, M-le-mot-dit, Neopoiesis, NewEnglandYankee,Mudaliar, Kansas Bear, Sugarbat, Pawel dziadek, Xgretsch, DehGri, KylieTastic, Juliowolfgang, Jamesontai, Stymphal, MShefa, Vanisheduser 39948282, Daniel422, Hypnoplasty, Yosmil, Shikyo3, Scewing, O Violinista, Idioma-bot, Malik Shabazz, McNoddy, VolkovBot,ABF, Aciram, Thisisborin9, Mrh30, Young Kreisler, AlnoktaBOT, Sjones23, Gatokid, Dougie monty, Cairnhow, Philip Trueman,TXiKiBoT, Dawidbernard, Waldo the terrible, AbbyKelleyite, Maximillion Pegasus, Malinaccier, Altruism, Devilxhlywood, Ignatius li-bre, Technopat, Mathwhiz 29, HarryAla, Qxz, Anna Lincoln, Clarince63, Elphion, Max Kaertner, Bentley4, Wiegenlied, Mannafredo,DesmondW, Maxim, Fishhook, M0RD00R, Bashereyre, Squaretex, Brainmuncher, Synthebot, Joseph A. Spadaro, Df747jet, Toronto-nian1, Orestek, Jason Leach, Falcon8765, Tomaxer, Softlavender, Honator, Sautiller, The Devils Advocate, AlleborgoBot, CenturionZ1, Funeral, Struway, Demize, NHRHS2010, EmxBot, Amkdeath, Jacek.uk, Winston Franklin, D. Recorder, Bartlet222, The Random Ed-itor, Cosprings, Frania Wisniewska, Romuald Wrblewski, SieBot, Ferstel, Waldhorn, Nubiatech, Logicmodel, Nihil novi, Jeanpuypalat,BambooMonkeyTofu, Claus Ableiter, Siebau01, DerekXX78, Lucasbfrbot, Peter cohen, TR, Bentogoa, Drhoehl, Pvbr, Arbor to SJ, Mon-egasque, Zugraga, Guildwarsplayar, Faradayplank, Rfortner, BenoniBot, Cfg7, AMbot, Nancy, La Parka Your Car, Maelgwnbot, Stfg,Adam Cuerden, Scottyoak2, Schlier22, Wuhwuzdat, Reverzentative, Mr. Stradivarius, Sarahwhitney, Adrienzo, Superbeecat, Denisarona,Sitush, Ngreen2001, Shimmshaw, Steerpike343, PaulaMS, ShajiA, Anthropocentrism, Keinstein, Ltrone, Elassint, ClueBot, Un1234l, Go-rillaWarfare, PipepBot, Mashedpotatowithsomegravy, Aaron8895, Kotniski, Foxj, Camaysar, All Hallows Wraith, Muddyb Blast Producer,Xav71176, Gaara78091, Dean Wormer, Jan1nad, Kneperle, Wysprgr2005, Arakunem, Maryrosedouglasuk, Drmies, Der Golem, Jacurek,Cyanothus, Bellum et Pax, Boing! said Zebedee, Huelg