Western Civilization IHIS-101

UNIT 1 – Origins of Western Civilizations (Prehistory to 1700 BCE)

Stone Age Background “Pre-History” started roughly 3-4 million years ago Early man and archeological evidence

Tool-making hominids appear about 2 million years ago Paleolithic Period (c. 2.5 million years ago - 8,000

BCE) Heidelberg Man (600,000-400,000 years ago)

Deliberately buried their dead Neanderthal Man (30,000-200,000 years ago)

Possibility of abstract thought Upper Paleolithic Age (c. 40,000 -11,000BCE)

Homo sapiens sapiens Finely crafted tools Cave paintings at Lascaux

Paleolithic Cave Painting at Lascaux

Upper Paleolithic Age Period of the “Ice Age”

Temperatures in the Mediterranean averaged around 60˚F in the summer and 30˚F in the winter

There was a jump in human advancement Sophisticated figurative artwork Evidence of religious beliefs More effective tools like fish hooks, sewing

needles, and arrowheads Humans lived in hunter-gatherer societies

Small bands of people, constantly moving in search of food

Paleolithic or “Old Stone Age” Characteristics of hunter-gatherer societies:

They lacked material wealth There were no societal hierarchies All were hunters and gatherers Internal struggles would lead to fragmentation There was a lack of specialization

By the end of the Ice Age, the larger game herds left the Near East region The warmer, wetter conditions were ideal for wild

grains to grow

Neolithic or “New Stone Age” Neolithic Period (11,000 to 4,000 BCE)

Intense social and technological development Development of managed food production

(agriculture) Included the domestication of plants and animals Gradual process with revolutionary consequences In the west, it started in the Fertile Crescent Surplus food and storage

This lead to an increase in population Also lead to development of animal domestication

Neolithic or “New Stone Age” Beginning of permanent and semi-permanent

settlements This led to the rise of villages and small cities This helped to stabilize society

There was the rapid intensification of trade Exchange of commodities and new ideas Increase in wealth

Social stratification Rise of a new class of social elites

There was also the rise of specialization Included the rise of priestly class

Neolithic cutlery and foodstuffs found in Switzerland

Civilization Civilization:

A complex culture in which large numbers of human beings share a number of common elements

Emerged between 6,500 to 3,000 BCE Historians disagree as to why it came about

Developed independently in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China

“Challenge and Response” theory Challenges forced human beings to make the necessary

efforts that led to the rise of civilization This could be due to material forces surpluses such as food Or it could be due to non-material forces such as religion

Civilization Characteristics of civilization:

Development of agricultural skills Rise of specialization A division of labor Urban revolution New political structures including government

bureaucracies and militaries Distinct religious structures Advanced technical skills were developed,

including the use of bronze tools Complex economies, including long-distance trade New social structures based on economic power Development of writing

Civilization in Mesopotamia Located in the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys

Desert region River flood enriches the soil near the rivers Flooding was very unpredictable Development of irrigation systems

Governments were theocracies Priests and priestesses had great power Temples owned much of the city land and livestock Over time, they had to share their power with kings The kings received their power from the gods and

they were seen as agents of the gods

Civilization in Mesopotamia Economy was primarily agricultural

Industry and commerce rose in importance as well Foreign trade was primarily a royal monopoly

Traded such goods as wool, barley, wheat, copper, tin, aromatic woods, fruit trees

Mesopotamian society was broken into three classes Nobles

This included royal and priestly officials and their families Commoners (free citizens)

90% of population were farmers Slaves

The richest people tended to own the most and talented slaves

The Sumerians

Sumerians (c. 6000 to 2500 BCE) The Sumerians inhabited southern Mesopotamia Ubaid Period (5900-4300 BCE)

Sophisticated irrigation systems Intense temple-building Development of a religious structure

Included the rise of a priestly class Priests were responsible for managing economic resources

Uruk Period (4300-2900 BCE) The first city-states start to develop Temple building more prominent and elaborate Writing also developed during this period

Sumerian clay ball with tokens

Development of Writing “Token and ball” system

Objects would be represented with clay tokens Would then be used in a transaction This was later replaced with writing on clay tablets

Pictographs Earliest writing systems Symbols that resembled the physical object they

represented Evolved into representing ideas as well as objects Eventually represented a particular phonetic

sound

Development of Writing Cuneiform (c. 3100 BCE)

Abstract writing Used a durable reed stylus Cuneus – Wedge shaped impression in clay

Symbols became more and more abstract Used for every possible consonant-vowel

combination It was difficult to master and took years to learn “Houses of the Tablet”

Evolution of writing

Cuneiform tablet c. 2300 BCE

Early Dynastic Period (2900-2350 BCE) Period of constant warfare between the city-states

Cities grew in size from 10,000 to over 50,000 people This made competition for resources more intense

Rise of war leaders (lugals) Held the status of king Acted as both secular and religious figures

They led the armies of their gods into battle It was important to them to remain in their god’s favor

Replaced the priests as the leaders of the communities Because of constant warfare, no one lugal

became dominant

Statue of a man worshiping Early Dynastic

Period (c.2750-2600BCE)

Sumerian Religion Religion played a major role in the Sumerian city-

states Sumerian pantheon included around 1,500 gods Each city felt that their city was the property of one

particular god or goddess Therefore, they sought to glorify by exalting their own city

The physical environment had a major impact on how the Sumerians viewed the world Massive floods, heavy downpours, oppressive humidity,

and scorching winds Suffered from the famines that resulted from these

disasters According to Sumerian myth, humans were created to do

the manual labor the gods were unwilling to do themselves

Sumerian Religion They were afraid of being punished by the gods if

they did not worship and praise them enough They sought to appease—or not be punished by—the

gods Performed rituals and sacrifices “Land of No Return”

Development of divination They wanted to discover what the gods were going to

do Believed the gods would give some sort of sign or

omen Rituals and prayers were developed to influence

the gods and ward off demons However, the only people who knew these rituals and

prayers were the priests

Sumerian Technology and Trade They learned how to smelt tin and copper into

bronze which ushered in the Bronze Age (c. 3000 BCE)

They used the wheel for transport Oldest known wheel in Mesopotamia dated to c. 3,500

BCE Were used for two-wheel chariots and four-wheel carts

Development of math system Based on 60, using combinations of 6 and 10 for

practical solutions Used multiplication and division and created tables for

the computation of interest Geometry was used for building domes and arches

Sumerian Technology and Trade The Sumerians developed astronomy

They charted the chief constellations Development of a lunar calendar

Had 354 days based on a 12 month lunar year An extra month was added to bring it into sync with

the solar year They also developed a complex trade system

They traded for raw materials that they did not possess

They built trade routes throughout the Mesopotamian region

Expanded to the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean

Akkadian Empire c. 2300 BCE

Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE) Akkadians

From Mesopotamia but north of Sumer They had been influenced by the Sumerians

Shared similar cultures but each retained their own language

Sumerians considered the Akkadians to be “outsiders” and barbarians

Sargon (c. 2334-2279 BCE) The leader of the Akkadians According to legend, as a baby a gardener found

him floating down a river in a basket

Bust believed to be of Sargon of Akkad

Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE) Sargon was best known for being the first

person to unify the Sumerian city-states He did this by conquering them and adding them

to his own empire He established a new dynastic empire

Included Mesopotamia to the Mediterranean Placed fellow Akkadians in power as governors of

the cities Exploited the already developed trade routes to

strengthen the base of his empire His economic influence stretched as far away as

Ethiopia and India

Akkadian Empire (2350-2160 BCE) Naram-Sin (2255 – 2219 BCE)

He continued the expansion of the empire He was a promoter of culture and a patron of the arts He also claimed to be “the god of Agade” (Akkad)

He was followed by a group of three weak successors who were unable to preserve the empire

The reasons why the Akkadians were successful: Shared almost everything with the Sumerians except

language Respected the Sumerian religion and gods Were able to create a unified government where the

Sumerians were unable to

Naram-Sin’s victory stele (Louvre)

Third Dynasty of Ur (c. 2100-1900 BCE) Ur-Nammu of Ur (2047-2030 BCE)

Modeled his kingship on Sargon and Naram-Sin Pursued military conquests and centralizing the

government Code of Ur-Nammu

Earliest legal code Required the payment of fines for most crimes

Shulgi (2029-1982 BCE) He continued the successful empire Built the Great Ziggurat of Ur

Ibbi-Sin (1963-1940 BCE) He was too weak to rule This marked the decline of the Ur dynasty

Reconstructed façade for the Great Ziggurat of Ur

Third Dynasty of Ur (2100-2000 BCE) Sumerian Renaissance

The Ur dynasty brought about a renaissance in culture However, this did not have a lasting effect on the

region Other groups would have more of an influence in the

region over the next 1,500 years The Epic of Gilgamesh (c. 2000 BCE)

Earliest known piece of literature It was based on a series of poems written Gilgamesh was the legendary king of Uruk (c. 2700

BCE) Tales about military conquest and heroism Gilgamesh v. Enkidu – city v. wilderness Pessimistic toward natural environment

Old Babylonian Empire

Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE) Babylon was a small city-state in central

Mesopotamia It was controlled by the Amorites Location between rivers gave it great economic

and military significance Also between two powerful Amorite cities

Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE) He was the sixth king of Babylon One of the first rulers to conquer through

diplomacy rather than sheer force Part of his strategy was through diplomacy and

writing

Hammurabi (1792-1750

BCE)

Old Babylonian Empire (c. 1900-1595 BCE) Hammurabi organized all of Babylonia under

Marduk Marduk was the god of Babylon Still respected the other gods but Marduk was the

dominant god of the empire Used Marduk’s supremacy over the other gods as

his justification to rule Code of Hammurabi

A collection of laws used throughout his empire Contained 282 laws which regulated people’s

relationships throughout Mesopotamia Based on actual rulings handed down by

Hammurabi

The Code of Hammurabi

The Code of Hammurabi The Code was probably never intended to be

a code of laws in the modern sense Was used as propaganda to publicize the king’s

devotion to justice It reveals a society with strict justice

Lists three classes: the elite, the masses, and slaves

Penalties were severe but they were adjusted based on the social class of the parties involved

Reflected issues and responsibilities the government had to deal with This included slavery, land tenure, commerce,

consumer protection, and marriage

The Code of Hammurabi Punishments for crimes varied according to one’s

social class Crimes against the upper class were punished more

severely Crimes against the lower class were punished more

leniently Old Babylonian Society

Upper class nobles controlled large estates and wealth Below the nobles, an enormous class of legally free

individuals “Dependents” of the palace or temple Laborers, artisans, small merchants, farmers and officials

At the bottom were the slaves In general, the slaves were treated harshly Slaves acquired through trade or captured in war

Development of Civilization in Egypt The Nile River was of central importance to

Egyptian civilization Annual flooding of the Nile created miles of fertile

land for growing crops Egyptian civilization developed along very

different lines than Mesopotamia Annual flooding of the Nile was predictable Land around the Nile did not require extensive

irrigation State intervention was not necessary for food

production so the villages remained small and rural

Development of Civilization in Egypt Nile River valley was protected by natural barriers

Desert to the east and west Rapids (cataracts) to the south Gave a sense of isolation and security Still had access to the Mediterranean to the north so

they were not any trade barriers for Egyptians The Nile became the unifying factor for Egypt

The fastest way to travel throughout the land Made transportation and communication much easier

Because of the stability and reliability of the Nile, the Egyptians had a sense of security and changelessness

Figurine of a woman from predynastic Egyptc.3500-3400BCE

Predynastic Egypt (10,000 – 3100 BCE) The period prior to the emergence of the pharaohs Agriculture did not emerge until 5,000 BCE

The Nile valley region was able to supply an abundance of food for long periods of time

Increased population The first cities appeared in Upper Egypt around 3,200

BCE, all near the Nile Sophisticated fortifications Elaborate temples Attracted industry and travelers

High degrees of social specialization Rivalry developed between Upper and Lower Egypt

Narmer Palette c. 3100 BCE

Organization of Egyptian History Manetho (c. 3rd century BCE)

Set the basic framework for Egyptian history In his Aegyptiaca, he divided the rulers by dynasties

Today, Egyptian history is divided into three major periods Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms These were periods were each marked with:

Long-term stability with strong monarchical authority and competent administrations

Construction of temples and pyramids Freedom from invasion Intellectual and cultural activities

Between the periods are Intermediate Periods Characterized by political chaos, rivalries, and

invasions

Archaic Period (3100–c. 2686 BCE) By c. 3100 BCE, Upper and Lower Egypt were

unified by King Narmer Started the first dynasty

Archaic Period is characterized by: Administrative capital at Memphis (Lower Egypt) First dynastic rulers came into being Pharaohs were considered divine, not just received

divine favor Earliest rulers were seen as the earthly manifestation of

Horus, the falcon god Development of hieroglyphics

These were “priest-carvings” or “sacred writings” developed during the first two dynasties

They were pictographs that had a sacred value

Archaic Period (3100–c. 2686 BCE) Hieroglyphics were only used by the royal family

and the priest class A more simple, faster, cursive script (Hieratic Script )

was used for everyday business of government and commerce

First writings were carved in stone Later the Egyptians made paper out of papyrus reed The first uses of papyrus came during the First

Dynasty The ability to translate hieroglyphics came about

with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone in 1799 It contained three different forms of writing:

hieroglyphs, demotic, and classical Greek

The Rosetta Stone

Close up of the hieroglyphics

Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) Includes the 3rd through 6th Dynasties Unable to reconstruct an accurate history of this

period So few documents exist to piece together a complete

history Pharaohs were viewed as gods and were absolute

rulers However, the pharaoh was required to follow the Ma’at

This was a general concept of morality, law, and justice Pharaohs were divine instruments that were to

maintain order and harmony Subjects were to obey the king to help keep the

“cosmic order”

Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) Pharaohs had a well-developed bureaucracy to

help them run the empire During this period, pharaohs were involved more in

religious matters than political ones A vizier was in charge of administration

This included justice, public works, police, etc. The pharaohs also appointed provincial

governors They were known as nomarchs

Tended to be family members of the pharaoh Pharaoh had to keep tight reins on them to keep

them from establishing a power base in their provinces (nomes)

Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) An age of prosperity and splendor

This is illustrated by the building of the great pyramids

The pyramids were built as part of a “city of the dead” It included a large pyramid for the pharaoh

Smaller pyramids for his family Contained all the articles a person would need for

the after-life Included furniture, weapons, and food

The original pyramids began as mastabas These were rectangular structures with flat roofs

that served as tombs

An Egyptian Mastaba

Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) Why did the Egyptians build such elaborate

tombs? The Egyptians believed that people had two

bodies: a physical one and a spiritual one (ka) By preserving the body through mummification, the

ka could return to it The tomb was furnished with goods from everyday life

to help the ka resume its life after death Mummification was a process of slowly drying out

and preserving a body to prevent it from rotting The Egyptians first used mummification c. 3000 BCE It was not perfected until the New Kingdom

Old Kingdom (c. 2686-2160 BCE) Process of mummification:

First the intestines, stomach, lungs, and liver would be removed and placed in a special jar (canopic jars)

The heart would remain inside the body because that was needed for the “weighing of the heart”

The brain was then removed through the nose with a special tool

Salt would be placed on the body to absorb moisture The body would then be filled with spices and

wrapped in layers of resin-soaked linen The whole process from start to finish would

take approximately 70 days Mummification of pharaohs and their queens usually

took the longest

The Step Pyramid

Step Pyramid The Step Pyramid was built during the 3rd

Dynasty during the reign of King Djoser (c. 2630 BCE) It was designed by Imhotep, a priest of Heliopolis He probably designed it by building one mastaba

on top of another The first “real” pyramid was built during the

4th Dynasty (c. 2600 BCE) Each side was filled in to make a flat sloped

surface Built during the reign of King Snefru He went on to build a total of three pyramids

Great Pyramid at Giza

Great Pyramid at Giza This was built c. 2540 BC by King Snefru’s son,

King Khufu Contains three pyramids

Covers a total of 13 acres Great Pyramid is 756 feet on each side of its base and

stands 481 feet high Its four sides are almost precisely oriented to each of the

four points of the compass Recent research suggests that small groups of

skilled workers were used in the construction In the case of the Great Pyramid, between 20,000 to

30,000 people were used and it took approximately 20 years to build

Number of workers were reduced during the growing season

What the Great Pyramid would have looked like

Ancient Egyptian Society Four social classes:

Pharaoh or god-king Upper Class

Nobles and priests Middle Class

Merchants, artisans, and craftspeople Peasants

Largest percentage of the population They worked the king’s lands, and building projects,

paid taxes in the forms of crops, and provided military service

Slaves Typically captives of foreign wars but they did have

legal rights, including the right to own personal property

Osiris and Isis

Egyptian Religion Egyptian religion was polytheistic

They had over 150 gods in their pantheon Henotheistic – Worshipped mainly one god but

recognize many others One of the most important deities was Osiris

Egyptians believed that Osiris was the one who brought civilization to Egypt

According to the myth, Osiris was killed by his brother Seth, who then cut his body into 14 pieces and threw those into the Nile

Isis, his wife, found the pieces and restored him to life

Egyptian Religion Because of this, Osiris became a symbol of

resurrection and the judge of the dead in Egyptian religion When a person was died, he was mummified and

given the name “Osiris” so he could be reborn Celebrations were held each year for the flooding

of the Nile to symbolize Isis gathering Osiris’ parts and the start of new life

The Egyptians did not have a negative view of the afterlife like the Mesopotamians had They saw death as a necessary step to the

afterlife They believed the afterlife was to be better than

their current lives

Egyptian Religion The Egyptians a positive viewpoint not only of the

afterlife, but their current lives as well They believed they lived in a stable, paradise-like

universe, governed by the Ma’at They were connected to their gods through their

pharaoh Elaborate rituals took place when a death occurred

This included embalming and mummification as well as burying items with the deceased

A “Book of the Dead” was also buried with the corpse It contained information that the deceased would need

to know for the afterlife This included spells, incantations, and preparations for

the ultimate test: the “weighing of the heart”

Egyptian Religion “Weighing of the Heart”

When a person died, he met with Osiris and other deities to weigh his heart against a feather

The feather itself represented the Ma’at The heart would be weighed by Anubis, the god of

the dead and mummification If it was balanced, the deceased could move on If the heart was too heavy, Ammut (Devourer of

the Dead) was there to eat the deceased

Weighing of the heart from the Book of the Dead

Old Kingdom Science and Technology Astronomy was based on the sun Their solar calendar was more accurate than

the Mesopotamians lunar one It was later adopted by Julius Caesar

Developed irrigation and water control systems

Did not develop the wheel until much later This was because of the number of workers

available so there was no need for it There was no written legal code

Whatever the pharaoh proclaimed was law

End of the Old Kingdom Several problems led to the end of the Old Kingdom

Period of the 5th and 6th Dynasties During this time, nomarchs grew in power

Part of this was due to their positions becoming hereditary The nomes became more independent and the central

authority of the pharaoh weakened People’s loyalty switch from the pharaohs to the nomarchs

Egypt also was plagued with famines at this time Low Nile flooding led to crop failures and economic decline People blamed the pharaoh for disrupting the Ma’at

End of the Old Kingdom Because of all of these problems, the

priesthood of Ra at Nekhen “demoted” the pharaohs They were transformed from being an incarnation

of Horus and Ra to the lowly position of being the son of a god

This was done in order to wrest power away from weaker pharaohs

The nomarchs then used the situation to seize control Many saw them and priests as the only ones who

could guarantee stability and order

First Intermediate Period (2160-2055 BC) Included the 7th through 11th Dynasties During this period, a unified country no longer

existed Divided into Upper and Lower Egypt Rival dynasties were created with new centers of

power Thebes in Upper Egypt Henen-nesut in Lower Egypt

It was not until 2055 BC that Egypt was reunified King Mentuhotep, King of Thebes (Upper Egypt),

defeated the rulers of Lower Egypt and then declared that he was ruler of all Egypt

His reign marks the beginning of the Middle Kingdom

Stele of Amenemhat I (c. 1938 BCE)

Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE) The Middle Kingdom period contained the

11th through 13th dynasties The 12th Dynasty (1991-1802 BCE) was the

dominant dynasty during this period This was considered the “golden age” for

Egypt During this time, nomes were restructured

They were given permanent boundaries and the position of nomarch was officially made hereditary

On the other hand, the nomarchs were required to know what their duties were and perform them accordingly

Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE) This was also a period of expansionism

Egyptian forces conquered parts of Nubia to the south and built fortresses to protect its new borders

They started expeditions into Palestine and Syria Pharaohs began embracing the idea of a co-

regency It was first set up by Amenemhet I (1991-1962 BCE) He made his son as a co-ruler to prepare him for his

future position This was designed to prevent any succession

problems or inept rulers He was killed by the royal bodyguards in 1962 BCE

Middle Kingdom (c. 2050-c. 1650 BCE) Egypt became more cynical during this period

There was a change in the perception of the pharaoh The pharaohs were no longer seen as inaccessible god-

kings who were higher than the people Having ma’at was not enough Pharaoh had to protect his people, he was seen as a

“shepherd” to protect his “flock” Pharaohs no longer trusted those around them

After the assassination of Amenemhat, even the pharaohs became cynical

They began writing letters to their successors warning them of the constant threats and not to expect any loyalty from the people