Welcome to AP World History

You signed up for AP World History next year through the course choice sheet.

AP (Advanced Placement) is a program that prepares high school students to be

successful in college and provides them with an opportunity to earn college credit

through examination.

Since the AP Exam is an exam for college credit, the work in the class will be at

college level even though you are a high school sophomore. This means that there is

much more work than in a regular high school class and that work will be more difficult.

Just like in college, there is a considerable amount of reading and writing

required. You will have homework every night and a quiz over that homework

every day. If you are ready for this challenge then I will see your Essay #1 before the start of

the next school year and will see you the first day of school.

If, however, you feel you aren't up to this challenge or you can't commit to this

workload then you need to see your counselor before the end of this school year and get

changed to a regular World History class. 95 students started APWH last fall, only 58

have made it to the end- the other 37 dropped during the year due to failing grades.

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You are required to write a comparison essay (Essay #1- Ancient

Civilizations) over the summer and turn it in (by email or by hand) two

weeks before the first day of school. If you have any questions about the essay you are to write, ask Mr Cyr

(in room 238) or online at tcyr@houstonisd.org

Refer to the other items included in this envelope for information about

this essay. All the information is also online at www.houstonisd.org/milby.

Click on Teachers then on Cyr then on AP WH Summer Essay.

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For this class, you are required to buy the following items before the start of school

and show up the first day of school with all these items:

• 2" binder (it can be any color, but it must have a clear plastic sleeve on the front

and on the back where you can slide in a sheet of paper)

• 8 dividers

• blank paper

• blue or black ink pens

Essay #1 (Ancient Civilizations)

In an essay, answer the following question.

Compare the government, the society, and the culture of the following

two ancient civilizations- Mesopotamia & Egypt.

1. You essay must meet the following requirements:

a. Your essay must be typed.

b. You must use 1" margins. Change them to 1" from the standard MS Word 1 1/4" margins

c. You must use Times New Roman 12 point font.

d. You must double space. However, don't put any additional space between paragraphs.

e. You must have a cover page (Title & Student Name will suffice).

2. Use the provided Guide to Writing the Summer Essay to help you write the essay.

3. Use only the provided Essay #1 Textbook in writing the essay. Since you are to use no other sources,

no bibliography is needed. Don't plagiarize (copy word for word). Don't download an essay from the

internet. Previous students who have done that received a 0.

4. Your essay will be graded using the Essay #1 (Ancient Civilizations) Rubric. Check your work

against the rubric to make sure you have done everything that is required.

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The essay is due on or by Monday, 11 Aug 2014.

This is two weeks before the start of school

You can either email the essay as an attachment to tcyr@houstonisd.org or come by

Jones High School that day and drop off the essay with Ms Vidock in the principal's

office. The summer essay can be emailed before that date (in fact, if you know you won't

have access to the internet you must email it earlier).

If you email it to me, I will reply confirming that I have your essay and that I can open

and read it. If I don't send this confirmation, I didn't get your email. If I tell you I can't

open or read your attached essay- I will allow you to drop off the essay on Tuesday, 12

Aug 14. Other than for that reason, late essays will not be accepted.

This essay will be graded by the time you return at school. There will be no re-dos. Late or missing

essays will receive a grade of 0. The essay is approximately 15% of your 1st Six Weeks grade.

Failure to do the summer essay will result in your being put on a growth plan and will mean you will fail the 1st Six Weeks. If you aren't going to do the work, why are you taking the class?

If you have any questions about this essay over the summer or you want someone to

check your work, you can contact the AP World History teacher- Mr Cyr-

at tcyr@houstonisd.org anytime over the summer.

Name ________________________

Essay #1 (Ancient Civs) Rubric

Question: Compare the government, the society, and the culture of the following two ancient

civilizations- Mesopotamia & Egypt.

1) Has acceptable thesis 1 point

Thesis must be explicit. The thesis identify both a specific similarity and

a specific difference between the two civilizations. The similarity and difference

can be either in government, society, and/or culture.

2) Addresses all parts of the question, though not necessarily evenly or thoroughly 2 points

Addresses most parts of the question 1 point

Two points requires that students address both a similarity and a difference

and address all three areas of comparison- government, society, and culture

One point requires that students address either a similarity or a difference

and address all three areas- government, society, and culture

3) Substantiates thesis with appropriate historical evidence 2 points

Partially substantiates thesis with appropriate historical evidence 1 point

Two points: Minimum of EIGHT accurate and relevant examples

One point: Minimum of FOUR accurate and relevant examples

4) Makes at least one direct, relevant comparison between both civilizations 1 point

{must be a different comparison from the ones used to for #2}

5) Analyzes at least one reason for the similarity or difference identified 1 point

in a direct comparison (explain why it occurs)

A student must earn 7 points in the above basic core before earning points 0-2 points

in the expanded core below

- The essay has a clear, analytical, and comprehensive thesis

- The essay thoroughly addresses all parts of the question

- The essay provides more than 6 examples of historical evidence to substantiate thesis

- The student demonstrates the ability to relate comparisons to larger global context

- The essay makes several direct comparisons consistently between or among societies

- The essay consistently analyzes the causes and effects of relevant similarities and differences

The number of points earned on the essay will equate to the following numeric grade:

9 = 100, 8 = 95, 7 = 90, 6 = 85, 5 = 80, 4 = 75, 3 = 70, 2 = 60, 1 = 50, 0 = 0

Guide to Writing the Summer Essay

I. The AP Exam The AP (Advanced Placement) exam for World History consists of two parts- answering 70

multiple choice questions in 55 minutes and writing 3 essays (a Document Based Question essay, a

Change & Continuity Over Time essay, and a Comparison essay) in 2 hours and 10 minutes. Each part is

50% of the overall score.

The comparison question asks what is the same and what is different between

two regions or civilizations in one of the five major themes. Comparison questions always

require an analysis of the reasons for the identified similarities and differences.

II. An Essay Successful essays are a group of paragraphs that work together to make an argument. An essay

contains an introductory paragraph (which contains the thesis statement), supporting paragraphs (that

develop the thesis), and a concluding paragraph.

The thesis statement is a major part of a successful essay. Sometimes a thesis is part of a longer

introductory paragraph, and at other times a thesis may stand alone. If you have time to prepare a good

introduction, or something creative comes to mind, use it. Your introduction may also include

definitions/explanations of key terms in the question.

An effective thesis answers the question that was asked. Sometimes the thesis will provide the organizational categories that will be used in the essay.

Depending on the question asked, the organizational categories may be either broad or narrow in

nature. In some cases, broad categories such as social, political, economic, or cultural (SPEC) may be

appropriate, while in other cases an essay may be organized around specific concepts, events, or regions.

Supporting paragraphs include the information necessary to support a thesis. These

paragraphs will vary in length, number, and complexity.

Each effective supporting paragraph contains a topic sentence that connects back to the thesis.

The topic sentence is followed by factual support/historical evidence (usually from three to five

supporting examples are needed to develop the topic)- logically organized evidence with commentary or

explanation that supports the thesis- and then analysis.

A conclusion should reinforce the significance of the evidence presented in the essay to the

question asked. It reinforces the thesis and answers the "so what?" However, for the purposes of

APWH, your conclusions will serve a different purpose.

1

III. Steps in Writing a Comparison Essay

Step 1. Analyze the Question (also called the prompt)

A. Carefully determine the task. What is it you are being asked to do?

In a comparison essay, you are being asked to "compare" or "compare and contrast."

What this means is that you are always directed to find both similarities and differences

between the two things to be compared.

B. What are the boundaries of the task? dates, places, persons, ideas, etc

For this essay, you are limit yourself to comparing Mesopotamia (Sumerians

thru Babylonians from 3500 to 900 BCE) with Egypt (Old thru New Kingdoms

from 3100 to 1085 BCE)

C. Identify and define any key terms in the question

For this essay, the key terms are government, society, and culture

Step 2. Get Organized

A. In a timed setting, jot down what you know about the topic.

For this essay, you need to read the textbook (information about Mesopotamia is

in the left column, Egypt in the right column). Identify information about each

civilization's government, society, and culture. Look at page 5 (Categories of

Comparison). Then compare the information on Mesopotamia with that on

Egypt- looking for similarities and differences between them.

B. Take the time to organize your thoughts.

In a timed setting, most students just want to jump in and start writing. But use 5 minutes to

organize/outline your answer. Use a list, a graphic organizer/thinking map, or chart.

C. What are you using for organizational categories/categories of comparison?

For this essay, your organizational categories/categories of comparison are

government/politics, society and culture

Step 3. Write a Thesis

A. The thesis will be in your introductory paragraph. Your thesis must answer the question.

Therefore, the thesis must state at least one similarity and at least one difference between the

two civilizations being compared.

For this essay's thesis, you just need to identify one specific similarity- it can be

in government, society, or culture- that Mesopotamia and Egypt have and one

specific difference- it can be in government, society, or culture- between

Mesopotamia and Egypt

B. Use three sentences to write your thesis

1. First sentence- restate the entire question- reuse their words

2. Second sentence- state a specific similarity

3. Third sentence- state a specific difference

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C. Avoid the following comparisons in both your thesis and body paragraphs

Don’t say “Mesopotamia and Egypt are similar because they were both ancient civilizations.”

Really? Too obvious since that is the title of the essay.

Don't say "Mesopotamia and the Egypt are similar politically, but different culturally."

That is too vague. It is not specific enough. You have just stated categories of comparisons

Don’t say “Mesopotamia and Egypt are similar because they are both in the Middle East.”

Geography is never a relevant category for historical comparison.

Don’t say “Egypt had pyramids and Mesopotamia didn’t.”

Just refuting or rebutting something is a non-comparison.

Don’t say “Mesopotamia invented the wheel, while Egypt invented mummification”

What do they have to do with each other? This is a non-direct comparison.

D. Two examples of better comparisons are

"Mexico and the U.S. are similar politically because they are both democracies (rule by the

people). But they are different culturally because Mexico has a Latin culture (Spanish and

Catholic), while the U.S. has a Anglo culture (English and Protestant)."

"Buddhism and Christianity are similar because they both require their followers to be

good. However, Buddhism and Christianity are different because Buddhists believe they

have multiple lives, while Christians believe they have only one life."

E. Define any terms as necessary.

Step 4. Write the first Body or Supporting Paragraph

A. Make sure the reader can tell where your paragraphs begin and end by indenting the first

sentence of each new paragraph.

B. Begin with a topic sentence!!! The topic sentence must be connected to the thesis (it is

usually a restatement of part of your thesis). In a comparison essay, the topic sentence is

either a similarity or a difference that answers the question.

C. Your following sentences must support for your topic sentence with appropriate historical

evidence. Use historical facts to back up the argument you're making. For example,

The cities of Houston and Dallas are similar in providing sporting events and

entertainment for their residents (this is the topic sentence). Both Houston and Dallas have

professional football teams (Texans & Cowboys). Both Houston and Dallas have

professional baseball teams (Astros & Rangers). Both Houston and Dallas have professional

basketball teams (Rockets & Mavericks). Both Houston and Dallas have professional soccer

teams (Dynamo & FC Dallas) (these are the supporting sentences/historical evidence

backing up the topic sentence).

D. Finally, explain why they two things being compared are similar and/or why they are

different.

The reason why both Houston and Dallas provide sporting events and entertainment is that

these events attract business and bring in money, contributing to the economic prosperity of

the city (this is the analysis)

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Step 5. Write the second Body or Supporting Paragraph

Step 6. Write the third Body or Supporting Paragraph

A. Write one body paragraph for each category of comparison (major idea or specific arguments

you wish to make). The number of body paragraphs you have will depend on the question.

For this essay, you will have three (3) body paragraphs- one addressing

government/politics, another talking about society (class & gender), and a third

dealing with culture (religion & the arts)

B. Do the same thing in these body paragraphs that you did in the first body paragraph.

Step 7. Write a Conclusion

A. Write a concluding paragraph. In the conclusion, you should rewrite the thesis. Don't copy

it word for word from the introduction. But now that you have written the entire essay, you

should be able to improve on the thesis you wrote previously.

Step 8. Re-read Essay

A. Read back over your essay. Did you answer the question you were asked? Do you have

sufficient supports? Does it make sense as written? Make corrections as necessary.

IV. General Tips for Essay Writing

1. Use the vocabulary of world history, but do not overdo it or use words with definitions you are not

sure of. Define your terms as you use them.

2. The most common words in a comparison essay are:

Similar/similarly/similarity, both, likewise, alike, in the same way, as well as

Differ/different/difference, unlike, but, yet, however, in contrast, on the other hand, on the contrary

3. Write simply (KISS- keep it simple, student). Be concise- avoid the use of several words when one

word will do. Stay on point. Above all, be clear- be clear- be clear!!!

4. Write neatly and clearly. If your cursive is difficult to read, print. Although, this essay must be typed

5. DON”T USE "I." Do not include your opinions, thoughts, and feelings. Don’t judge them- what

they did wasn’t good or bad- it just was.

6. AVOID PRONOUNS- particularly it, they, them, their/theirs, this, these, that, & those. Do not

use those pronouns as I am not able to tell who or what you are talking about.

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Categories of Comparison

SOCIETY

This category includes issues pertaining to people in groups, including: the family and social

class. It also examines issues that tend to divide societies such as: race, gender, religion, social class,

ethnicity and nationality, laws, literacy, and education.

• What was the social structure- what were the social classes?

• What was the basis of the social structure- why were those classes on top? and why were those

classes on the bottom?

• Was there any mobility between classes (could you move up or down in social class)?

• What were the roles and powers of each social class?

• How were different groups (women, children, foreigners, slaves) treated in the society?

• What was the function of the family? What were the roles and powers of family members?

POLITICS / GOVERNMENT

This category includes government issues; the kinds of rulers; those ruled; the legal and judicial

system and the process of making laws; how power is gained, maintained, & lost.

• What type of government did they have (rule by one, a few, or the many)?

• Who had power? How did the leaders get power? How did the leaders keep their power?

• How much power did leaders have? How much power did others (individuals or groups) have?

• How did leaders exercise power? Who helped leaders exercise power (nature of bureaucracy)?

• How were leaders changed?

• What were the ideological foundations of government?

• What was the relationship between the government and the society, economy, and/or culture?

CULTURE

This category includes religious, moral, and ethical issues answering the basic questions: What

makes the good person, the good life, the good society? (and what is the bad). This category includes

thinkers, ideas, and the teaching and learning of these ideas. This category deals with the expression of

a community's belief system or beliefs, values, and culture in general.

• What were the dominant religious and philosophical systems?

• What was the role of religion and religious figures? How did religion impact daily life?

• What was the relationship between the religious system and those in power?

• How did the culture support social and gender hierarchies?

• How interested or tolerant were people of foreign cultures, ideas, and religions?

• What did people in this society value?

• What were the dominant artistic and literary styles?

ECONOMICS

This category includes economic issues; the impact of scarce natural, human, capital, and

technological resources and the decisions made regarding their use; trade (local, national, international);

types of economic systems.

• What kind of economic system did they have?

• What type of labor system (slavery, serfdom, wage labor, etc)?

• What was the role, level, and impact of internal and external trade? What was the role of

merchants in the economy?

• What was the role of agriculture? What was the role of manufacturing or crafts?

• What was the level of technology? Tools and/or Inventions?

• What were the gender divisions in the economy?

5

AP World History

2014 - 2015

Essay #1

(Ancient Civilizations)

Textbook

Mesopotamia

left column

Egypt

right column

Mesopotamian Geography

An arc of land curves from the Persian

Gulf to the eastern Mediterranean coast. The

land within this crescent-shaped area is so well

suited to farming that it is known as the Fertile

Crescent. Because this land had rich soil and

abundant crops, it was able to sustain an early

civilization.

Six thousand years ago, the waters of

two rivers provided the lifeblood that allowed

the formation of farming settlements. These

grew into villages and then cities. This pattern

would also occur along other river systems in

northern Africa, India, and China, as the world's

first civilizations developed.

The first known civilization in the Fertile

Crescent was Mesopotamia. The ancient

Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris

and Euphrates Rivers as Mesopotamia, the land

"between the rivers."

Mesopotamia was a region with little

rain, but its soil had been enriched over the

years by layers of silt-material deposited by the

two rivers. In late spring, the Tigris and

Euphrates often overflowed their banks and

deposited their fertile silt. This flooding,

however, depended on the melting of snows in

the upland mountains where the rivers began.

Unlike the Nile flood, the flooding of the Tigris

and Euphrates cannot be easily predicted. The

size of the flood also varies. Not surprisingly,

the early people of the valley viewed nature and

the gods as harsh and unpredictable.

Around 3500 BCE, the people called the

Sumerians arrived on the scene. Good soil was

the advantage that attracted these settlers to the

flat, swampy land of Sumer. There were,

however, three disadvantages to their new

environment. First, the flooding of the rivers

was unpredictable. Little or no rain fell, and the

land became almost a desert. Second, with no

natural barriers for protection, the Sumerians

were almost defenseless. Third, the natural

resources of Sumer were extremely limited.

Over a long period of time, the people of

Sumer created solutions to deal with these

problems. To provide water, they dug irrigation

ditches that carried river water to their fields and

allowed them to produce a surplus of crops. For

defense, they built city walls with mud bricks.

Finally, Sumerians traded for the products they

lacked.

Egyptian Geography

Today desert covers large areas of

Egypt. Even so, for the last 5,000 years one

physical feature has dominated the region: the

Nile River. Without this important river, the

land could not have supported the great

civilization that appeared in Egypt. "Egypt,"

said the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, "is

wholly the gift of the Nile."

The Nile is a unique river, beginning in

the heart of Africa and coursing northward for

more than 4,000 miles. It is the longest river in

the world. Before it empties into the

Mediterranean, the Nile splits into two major

branches. This split forms a triangular territory,

the delta. The Nile Delta is called Lower Egypt;

the land to the south, is called Upper Egypt.

Egypt's important cities developed at the tip of

the delta.

To the ancient Egyptians, the most

important feature of the river was its yearly

flooding- the "miracle" of the Nile. The river

left a deposit of mud that created an area of rich

soil several miles wide on both sides of the

river. The Egyptians called this fertile land,

which was dark in color, the "Black Land."

Beyond these narrow strips of fertile fields lay

the deserts, the "Red Land."

As in Mesopotamia, yearly flooding

brought the water and rich soil that allowed

settlements to grow. This cycle repeated itself

year after year- flood, plant, harvest; flood,

plant, harvest. The abundance brought by the

Nile was so great that the Egyptians worshiped

it as a god who gave life and seldom turned

against them. Egyptian farmers were much

more fortunate than the villagers of

Mesopotamia. Compared to the unpredictable

Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the Nile was as

regular as clockwork. The surpluses of food

that the Egyptian farmers grew in the fertile Nile

Valley made Egypt prosperous.

In ancient times, the Nile was the fastest

way to travel through the land, making both

transportation and communication easier. Boats

on the Nile can either travel upstream with the

wind or row downstream with the current. The

river served as a trade route. Egyptian

merchants traveled up and down the Nile in

sailboats and barges, exchanging the products of

Africa, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean

world.

These activities required organization,

cooperation, and leadership. It took many

people working together, for example, for the

Sumerians to construct their large irrigation

systems. Leaders were needed to plan the

projects and supervise the digging. These

projects also created a need for laws to settle

disputes over how land and water would be

distributed. These leaders and laws were the

beginning of organized government.

As with the Nile Valley, the Fertile

Crescent was surrounded by dry lands and

mountains. They were not as barren as those

around Egypt, however. Thus unlike Egypt, this

area was not geographically isolated. Tribes of

wandering herders lived off the grasses. They

often invaded the valley, conquered it, and

established empires. Over time, these invaders

grew weak and new waves of invaders

conquered them.

This pattern makes the history of the

Fertile Crescent a story of repeated migration

and conquest. As a result, the region became a

crossroads where people and ideas met and

mingled. Each new group that arrived made its

own contributions to the turbulent history of the

region.

Unlike Mesopotamia, which was subject

to constant invasion, Egypt was blessed by

natural barriers that gave it protection from

invasion and a sense of security. These barriers

included the deserts to the west and east; the

Red Sea to the east; the cataracts (rapids) on the

southern part of the Nile, which made defense

relatively easy; and the Mediterranean Sea to

the north. For much of its early history, Egypt

was spared the constant warfare that plagued the

Fertile Crescent.

The regularity of the Nile floods and the

relative isolation of the Egyptians created a

feeling of security and changelessness. To the

ancient Egyptians, when the Nile flooded each

year, "the fields laugh and people's faces light

up." Unlike people in Mesopotamia, Egyptians

faced life with a spirit of confidence in the

stability of things. Ancient Egyptian

civilization was marked by a remarkable degree

of continuity over thousands of years.

Mesopotamian History

Sumer. By 3000 BCE, the Sumerians

had established a number of independent cities

in southern Mesopotamia, including Eridu, Ur,

Kish and Uruk. As the cities expanded, they

came to have political and economic control

over the surrounding countryside. They formed

city-states, the basic units of Sumerian

civilization. A city-state included a town or city

and the surrounding land controlled by it.

Sumerian cities were surrounded by walls.

As the number of Sumerian city-states

grew and the city-states expanded, new conflicts

arose. From 3000 to 2000 BCE, the city-states

of Sumer were almost constantly at war with

one another for control of land and water.

Located on the flat land of Mesopotamia, the

Sumerian city-states were also open to invasion

by other groups.

The weakened city-states could no

longer ward off attacks from the peoples of the

surrounding deserts and hills. Although the

Sumerians never recovered from the attacks on

their cities, their civilization did not die.

Succeeding sets of rulers adapted the basic ideas

of Sumerian culture to meet their own needs.

Akkad. To the north of the Sumerian

city-states were the Akkadians. About 2300

BCE, Sargon, the ruler of neighboring Akkad,

invaded and conquered the city-states of Sumer

and set up the first empire in world history. An

empire is a large political unit or state, usually

under a single leader, that controls many

peoples, nations or territories. Empires are

often easy to create but difficult to maintain.

His astonishing achievement did not last long,

however. Soon after his death, other invaders

swept into the wide valley between the rivers,

tumbling his empire into ruin. The rise and fall

of empires is an important part of history.

Sargon's dynasty lasted only about 200

years, after which it declined due to internal

fighting, invasions, and a severe famine.

Attacks from neighboring hill peoples

eventually the Akkadian Empire to fall. Its end

by 2100 BCE brought a return to the system of

warring city-states.

Babylonia. Eventually, however, new

conquerors followed in the footsteps of Sargon

and imposed unity over the Fertile Crescent. In

about 2000 BCE, nomadic warriors known as

Amorites invaded Mesopotamia.

Egyptian History

Modern historians have divided

Egyptian history into three major periods,

known as the Old Kingdom (2700-2200 BCE),

the Middle Kingdom (2050-l800 BCE), and the

New Kingdom (1550-1100 BCE). These were

periods of long-term stability marked by strong

leadership, freedom from invasion, the building

of temples and pyramids, and considerable

intellectual and cultural activity. Between the

periods of stability were ages of political chaos

and invasion, known as the Intermediate periods

The history of Egypt begins around 3100

BCE, when Menes the king united Upper

(southern) and Lower (northern) Egypt into a

single kingdom. Just as the Nile served to unite

Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt physically,

Menes united the two areas politically. Menes

shrewdly established his capital, Memphis, near

the spot where Upper and Lower Egypt met, and

established the first Egyptian dynasty. A

dynasty is a family of rulers whose right to rule

is passed on within the family.

From the time of Menes until almost 300

BCE, some 30 dynasties ruled Egypt. Although

power passed from one dynasty, or ruling

family, to another, the land generally remained

united.

Old Kingdom. Little is known of

Egypt's first two dynasties, but records improve

with the Third Dynasty. The Third Dynasty

begins the period historians call the Old

Kingdom, which lasted from 2660 to 2180 BCE.

The Old Kingdom set the pattern for Egypt's

civilization. It was an age of prosperity and

splendor. Like the kings of the Sumerian city-

states, the monarchs of the Old Kingdom were

powerful rulers over a unified state.

Many important developments in science

and the arts took place during this time. For

example, Egyptians of the Old Kingdom built

the Great Sphinx and the largest pyramids.

These structures still stand as symbols of the

glory of Egyptian civilization.

Toward the end of the Old Kingdom, the

pharaohs grew weaker and the nobles grew

stronger. For more than 100 years after the end

of the Old Kingdom, civil wars divided Egypt as

rivals battled for control of the land. Historians

call this period of internal strife before a new

line of pharaohs came to power the First

Intermediate Period.

Within a short time, the Amorites overwhelmed

the Sumerians and established their capital at

Babylon, on the Euphrates River. In about 1792

BCE a strong ruler named Hammurabi came to

power in Babylon. He conquered most of the

Tigris-Euphrates Valley. More than just a great

military leader, Hammurabi was also an

outstanding political leader and lawmaker.

Hammurabi's most enduring legacy is the code

of laws he put together. This collection of about

282 laws contained some ideas that are still

found in law codes today.

The Babylonian Empire reached its peak

during the reign of Hammurabi, from 1792 to

1750 BCE. After his death, however, a series of

weak kings was unable to keep Hammurabi's

empire united. Two centuries after

Hammurabi's reign, the Babylonian Empire fell

to nomadic warriors.

Over the years, new groups dominated

the Fertile Crescent. Invasion and conquest

were prominent features in the history of the

ancient Middle East. Yet many ideas of the

early Sumerians would be adopted by the later

peoples, including the Assyrians, Phoenicians,

and Hebrews. The newcomers adapted

cuneiform to their own languages and helped

spread Sumerian learning across the Middle

East. Building on Sumerian knowledge of the

constellations and planets, later Mesopotamian

astronomers developed ways to predict eclipses

of the sun and moon. By means of the various

peoples who conquered the Middle East,

Sumerian knowledge passed on to the Greeks

and Romans. They, in turn, had a powerful

impact on the development of the western

world.

Middle Kingdom. Power struggles,

crop failures, and the cost of the pyramids

contributed to the collapse of the Old Kingdom.

This collapse was followed by a period of chaos

that lasted about 150 years. Finally, a new royal

dynasty gained control of all Egypt and began

the Middle Kingdom, a period of stability

lasting from about 2050 to 1652 BCE.

Egyptians later portrayed the Middle Kingdom

as a golden age- an age of stability & prosperity

As evidence of its newfound strength,

Egypt began a period of expansion. Egyptian

armies occupied part of Nubia, the gold-rich

land to the south. Traders also had greater

contacts with the peoples of the Middle East and

the Mediterranean island of Crete.

One feature of the Middle Kingdom was

a new concern of the pharaohs for the people.

In the Old Kingdom, the pharaoh had been seen

as a god-king far removed from his people.

Now he was portrayed as the shepherd of his

people and expected to build public works and

provide for the public welfare. Pharaohs of the

Middle Kingdom undertook a number of helpful

projects. The draining of swampland in the Nile

Delta provided thousands of acres of new

farmland. The digging of a canal to connect the

Nile to the Red Sea aided trade and

transportation.

During the Middle Kingdom, however,

nobles and priests again began to weaken the

power of the pharaoh. By 1780 BCE the Middle

Kingdom was becoming unstable. At this time

a people called the Hyksos, meaning

"foreigners," arrived in Egypt from Asia,

introducing new war tools such as the chariot

and the compound bow. In about 1650 BCE

much of Egypt fell under the rule of their horse-

drawn chariots, ushering in a Second

Intermediate Period.

For almost a hundred years, the Hyksos

ruled much of Egypt. The conquered Egyptians

learned a great deal, however, from their

conquerors. From the Hyksos, the Egyptians

learned to use bronze in the making of their

farming tools and their weapons. The Egyptians

also mastered many of the military skills of the

Hyksos, especially the use of horse-drawn war

chariots. Eventually, a new dynasty of pharaohs

used the new weapons to drive out the Hyksos

and reunite Egypt.

New Kingdom. The New Kingdom was

established and lasted approximately from 1567

to 1085 BCE. This reunification launched the

Egyptians along a new militaristic path. In

doing so, the New Kingdom pharaohs built an

empire, a form of government in which an

individual or a single people rules over many

other peoples and their territories. During the

period of the New Kingdom, Egypt became the

most powerful state in Southwest Asia.

Massive wealth boosted the power of the

New Kingdom pharaohs. For a time, the

pharaohs once again had absolute power. They

kept strict control over the government and

created a strong army. The Egyptian rulers

showed their wealth by building new temples.

The New Kingdom was not without

troubles, however. The pharaoh Amenhotep IV

believed in only one god- a belief called

monotheism. He introduced the worship of

Aton, god of the sun disk, as the sole god.

Amenhotep changed his own name to

Akhenaton ("It is well with Aton") and closed

the temples of other gods. In a society that had

always been tolerant of many gods, Akhenaton's

actions in destroying the old gods meant to

many the destruction of Egypt itself. Akhenaton

was not able to change his people's religious

beliefs. The pharaoh struggled with Egyptian

priests, who did not want to lose their power and

wealth. Akhenaton's changes were soon undone

after his death by the boy-pharaoh

Tutankhamen, who restored the old gods.

The upheavals associated with

Amenhotep's religious revolution led to a loss of

Egypt's empire. Under Ramses II, who reigned

from 1279 to 1213 BCE, the Egyptians went

back on the offensive. They regained control of

Palestine but were unable to reestablish the

borders of their earlier empire.

New invasions in the thirteenth century

BCE by the "Sea Peoples," as Egyptians called

them, drove the Egyptians back within their old

frontiers and ended the Egyptian empire. The

New Kingdom itself collapsed in 1085 BCE.

Decline & Fall. Eventually foreign

empires such as the Assyrians, the Nubians, and

the Persians attacked and conquered Egypt. By

the 300s BCE rule in Egypt by Egyptians came

to an end. Later, Greek and Roman armies

came from the north eager to add the fertile Nile

Valley to their growing empires.

Mesopotamian Government

The Sumerians stand out in history as

one of the first groups of people to form a

civilization. By 3000 BCE, the Sumerians had

built a number of cities. Although these cities

shared the same culture, they developed their

own governments, each with its own rulers.

Each city and the surrounding land it controlled

formed a city-state. A city-state functioned

much as an independent country does today.

Just as control of the Nile was vital to

Egypt, control of the Tigris and Euphrates was

key to developments in Mesopotamia. The

rivers frequently rose in terrifying floods that

washed away topsoil and destroyed mud-brick

villages. To survive and protect their farmland,

villages along the riverbanks had to work

together. Even during the dry season, the rivers

had to be controlled to channel water to the

fields. Temple priests or royal officials

provided the leadership that was necessary to

ensure cooperation. They organized villagers to

build dikes to hold back flood waters and

irrigation ditches to carry water to their fields.

Historians believe that in the early stages

of the city-states, priests and priestesses played

an important role in ruling. The farmers

believed that the success of their crops

depended upon the blessings of the gods, and

the priests acted as go-betweens with the gods.

The center of all Sumerian cities was the temple

often built atop a massive stepped tower called a

ziggurat. There the priests appealed to the gods

for the well-being of the city-state. From the

ziggurat the priests managed the irrigation

system. They also demanded a portion of every

farmer's crop as taxes.

The Sumerians believed that gods and

goddesses owned the cities. The people devoted

much of their wealth to building temples, as

well as elaborate houses for the priests and

priestesses who served the gods. The temples

and, related buildings served as the center of the

city physically, economically, and even

politically. Priests and priestesses, who

supervised the temples and their property, had a

great deal of power. In fact, the Sumerians

believed that the gods ruled the cities, making

the state a theocracy- a government by divine

authority. Eventually, however, ruling power

passed into the hands of worldly figures, or

kings.

Egyptian Government

According to legend, the king of Lower

Egypt wore a red crown, and the king of Upper

Egypt wore a tall white crown shaped like a

bowling pin. About 3100 BCE, a strong-willed

king of Upper Egypt named Menes united all of

Egypt. As a symbol of his united kingdom,

Menes created a double crown from the red and

white crowns. From then on, the Egyptian ruler

would be called "King of Upper and Lower

Egypt." The royal crown would be a double

crown, indicating the unity of all Egypt.

The role of the king was one striking

difference between Egypt and Mesopotamia. In

Mesopotamia, kings were considered to be

representatives of the gods. To the Egyptians,

kings were gods, almost as splendid and

powerful as the gods of the heavens. The

Egyptian god-kings came to be called pharaohs.

The word pharaoh originally meant "great

house" or "palace".

Egyptians believed the pharaoh was a

god. Kingship was a divine institution and

formed part of a universal cosmic order: "What

is the king of Upper and Lower Egypt? He is a

god by whose dealings one lives, the father and

mother of all men, alone by himself, without an

equal." In obeying their pharaoh, subjects

believed that they were helping to maintain a

stable world order. A breakdown in royal

power could only mean that people were

offending the gods and weakening that order.

The pharaoh stood at the center of

Egypt's religion as well as its government and

army. This type of government in which the

ruler is a divine figure is called a theocracy.

Egyptians believed that the pharaoh bore full

responsibility for the kingdom's well-being. It

was the pharaoh who caused the sun to rise, the

Nile to flood, and the crops to grow. It was the

pharaoh s duty to promote truth and justice.

Pharaohs held absolute, or unlimited, power.

They not only led the government, but also

served as judges, high priests, and generals of

the armies. The pharaoh owned all the land in

the kingdom.

Nevertheless, they had help in ruling. At

first, members of the pharaoh's family aided him

in running the country. During the Old

Kingdom, however, a government bureaucracy-

an administrative organization with officials and

regular procedures- developed.

In time of war, however, the priests did

not lead the city. Instead, the men of the city

chose a tough fighter who could command the

city's soldiers. At first, a commander’s power

ended as soon as the war was over. As wars

between cities became more and more frequent

as city-states competed for water and land.

Gradually, Sumerian priests and people gave

commanders permanent control of standing

armies.

In time, some military leaders became

full-time rulers- monarchs or kings. These

rulers usually passed their power on to their

sons, who eventually passed it on to their own

heirs. Such a series of rulers from a single

family is called a dynasty. Between 3000 and

2500 B.C., many Sumerian city-states came

under the rule of dynasties.

Sumerians viewed kingship as divine in

origin. Kings, they believed, derived their

power from the gods and were the agents of the

gods. Regardless of their origins, kings had

power. They led armies, supervised the

building of public works, and organized workers

for the irrigation projects on which

Mesopotamian farming depended. The army,

the government, and the priests and priestesses

all aided the kings in their rule. As befitted their

power, Sumerian kings, their wives, and their

children lived in large palaces.

In each city-state, the ruler was

responsible for maintaining the city walls and

the irrigation systems. He led its armies in war

and enforced the laws. As government grew

more complex, he employed scribes to carry out

functions such as collecting taxes and keeping

records. The ruler was seen as the chief servant

of the gods and led ceremonies designed to

please them.

Especially important was the office of vizier, the

"steward of the whole land." Under the vizier,

various departments looked after such matters as

tax collection, farming, and the all-important

irrigation system. Thousands of scribes carried

out the vizier's instructions.

In time, Egypt was divided into 42

provinces, which were run by governors

appointed by the pharaoh. Each governor was

responsible to the pharaoh and vizier.

Code of Hammurabi

About 1790 BCE, Hammurabi, king of

Babylon, brought much of Mesopotamia under

his control. He took steps to unite the

Babylonian empire. His most ambitious and

lasting contribution was his publication of a

remarkable set of laws known as the Code of

Hammurabi. Hammurabi's Code was the first

important attempt by a ruler to codify, or

arrange and set down in writing, all of the laws

that would govern a state.

Hammurabi recognized that a single,

uniform code would help to unify the diverse

groups within his empire. He therefore

collected existing rules, judgments, and laws

into the Code of Hammurabi. Hammurabi

wanted everyone in his empire to know the legal

principles his government would follow. He

had artisans carve nearly 300 laws on a stone

pillar for all to see.

The Code of Hammurabi concerned all

aspects of life in Babylon. Some laws dealt

with commerce and industry, while others

regulated wages, hours, working conditions, and

property rights. The code lists 282 specific laws

dealing with everything that affected the

community, including family relations, business

conduct, and crime. The laws tell us a great

deal about the Mesopotamians' beliefs and what

they valued. Since many were merchants and

traders, for example, many of the laws related to

property issues.

The Code of Hammurabi was based on a

system of strict justice. Punishment was harsh,

based as it was on the idea of "an eye for an eye,

a tooth for a tooth." By setting out specific

punishments for specific offenses, Hammurabi's

Code limited personal vengeance and

encouraged social order.

However, penalties varied according to

the social class of the victim. A crime against a

member of the upper class (a noble) by a

member of the lower class (a commoner) was

punished more severely than the same offense

against a member of the lower class.

Despite its severity, Hammurabi's Code

carried forward an important idea in

Mesopotamian civilization. It reinforced the

principle that government had a responsibility

for what occurred in society. Hammurabi's code

took seriously the duties of public officials.

Mesopotamian Society

Economy. Although the economy of the

Sumerian city-states was based chiefly on

farming, trade and industry became important as

well. Most Sumerians farmed. They grew

dates, grains, and vegetables, and raised

domestic animals. They also grew flax for linen

and wove woolen goods. Sumerian farmers

grew enough food to allow many people to work

as artisans and traders.

The peoples of Mesopotamia were well

known for their metalwork, but they also made

woolen textiles and pottery. The Sumerians

imported copper, tin, and timber in exchange for

dried fish, wool, barley, wheat, and metal goods.

Trade brought riches to Sumerian cities.

Traders sailed along the rivers or risked the

dangers of desert travel to carry goods to distant

regions. Traders traveled by land to the eastern

Mediterranean in the west and by sea to India in

the east. The invention of the wheel, around

3000 B.C., led to wheeled carts, which made the

transport of goods easier. Archaeologists have

found goods from as far away as Egypt and

India in the rubble of Sumerian cities.

Social Classes. Each Sumerian city-

state had a distinct social hierarchy, or system of

ranks. Sumerian city-states contained three

major social groups: the highest class included

the ruling family, leading officials, and high

priests. A small middle class was made up of

lesser priests and scribes. The middle class also

included merchants and artisans. Artisans who

practiced the same trade, such as weavers or

carpenters, lived and worked in the same street.

The vast majority of ordinary Sumerian

people worked with their hands in fields and

workshops. Some had their own land, but most

worked land belonging to the king or temples.

Commoners worked for palace and temple

estates and as farmers, merchants, fishers, and

craftspeople. Probably 90% or more of the

people were peasant farmers.

At the lowest level of Sumerian society

were the slaves. Most slaves were foreigners

who had been captured in war. Others were

Sumerians who had been sold into slavery as

children to pay the debts of their poor parents.

Slaves belonged to palace officials, who used

them mostly in building projects. Temple

officials most often used female slaves to weave

cloth and grind grain.

Egyptian Society

Social Classes. Like other early

civilizations, Egypt had its own class system.

Over a period of thousands of years, Egyptian

society maintained a simple structure. It was

organized like a pyramid, with the god-king at

the top. The pharaoh and his family were

surrounded by an upper class of wealthy

landowners, government officials, priests, and

army commanders. The priests and priestesses,

served the gods and goddesses, and the nobles

fought the pharaoh's wars. The members of this

ruling class ran the government and managed

their own landed estates, which provided much

of their wealth.

Below the upper class was a tiny middle

class of merchants, scribes, and artisans. They

provided for the needs of the rich and powerful.

Merchants carried on an active trade up and

down the Nile, as well as in town and village

markets. Some merchants also engaged in

international trade. Egyptian artisans made an

incredible variety of well-built, beautiful goods.

By far, the largest number of people in

Egypt simply worked the land. In theory, the

pharaoh owned all the land but granted portions

of it to the subjects. Large sections of land were

held by nobles and by the priests who

supervised the numerous temples. Most of the

lower classes were peasants who farmed the

land of these estates. Men and women spent

their days working the soil and repairing the

dikes. They paid taxes in the form of crops to

the pharaoh, nobles, and priests; lived in small

villages or towns; and provided military service

and labor to build palaces, temples, and tombs.

In the later periods of Egyptian history,

slavery became a widespread source of labor.

Slaves, usually captives from foreign wars,

served in the homes of the rich or toiled

endlessly in the gold mines of Upper Egypt.

Most Egyptians could never hope for

wealth or power. Egyptian social classes were

rigidly divided. However, Egyptians were not

locked into their social classes. Lower-and

middle-class Egyptians could gain higher status

through marriage or success in their jobs, but

they almost never entered the ranks of the upper

class. Even some slaves could hope to earn

their freedom as a reward for their loyal service.

During the New Kingdom, society grew more

fluid as trade and warfare increased.

Rich landowners also used slaves to farm their

lands. By working obediently day and night,

Sumerian slaves could hope to earn freedom.

Family. Fathers ruled their children as

well as their wives. Obedience was expected:

"If a son has struck his father, he shall cut off

his hand." If a son committed a serious enough

offense, his father could disinherit him. Parents

arranged marriages for their children.

Women. The role of women in

Sumerian society changed over time. In the

earliest Sumerian myths, a mother-goddess

reflected the honored role of mothers in farming

communities. As large city-states emerged with

warrior-leaders at their heads, male gods

replaced the mother-goddess.

On the whole, Sumerian women could

pursue most of the occupations of city life, from

merchant to farmer to artisan. They could hold

property in their own name. Women could also

join the lower ranks of the priesthood.

However, Sumer's written records mention few

female scribes.

Over time, as men gained more power

and wealth, women became more dependent on

men. Yet women continued to have legal rights.

Well-to-do women engaged in trade and owned

property. Babylonian women had some legal

and economic rights, including property rights.

Women could be merchants, traders, or even

scribes.

On the other hand, Hammurabi's code

makes it clear that women had far fewer

privileges and rights in marriage than did men.

A woman's place was definitely in the home. If

she failed to fulfill her duties, her husband had

legal grounds for divorce. In addition, if a wife

was not able to bear children or tried to leave

home to engage in business, her husband could

divorce her.

Society in ancient Mesopotamia was

patriarchal- that is, Mesopotamian society was

dominated by men.

In general, Babylonian civil law gave a

husband both legal authority over his wife and a

legal duty to support her. The code also gave a

father nearly unlimited authority over his

children. The Babylonians believed that an

orderly household was necessary for a stable

empire.

Trade offered new opportunities to the growing

merchant class. Foreign conquests brought

riches to Egypt, which in turn meant more

business for artisans- skilled craftsmen. To win

the highest positions, people had to be able to

read and write. Once a person had these skills,

many careers were open in the army, the royal

treasury, the priesthood, and the king's court.

Family. Ancient Egyptians had a very

positive attitude toward life. They married

young (girls at 12 and boys at 14) and

established homes and families. Monogamy

(marriage to one person) was the general rule,

although a husband was allowed to keep

additional wives if his first wife was childless.

Parents arranged marriages for their

children. Their chief concerns were family and

property. The chief purpose of marriage was to

produce children, especially sons. Daughters

were not ignored, however, and numerous tomb

paintings show the close and affectionate

relationship parents had with both sons and

daughters. Although marriages were arranged,

surviving love poems suggest that some

marriages included an element of romance.

Egyptian marriages could and did end in

divorce. It included compensation for the wife.

Women. The husband was master in the

house, but wives were respected. Wives were in

charge of the household and the education of the

children.

Egyptian women generally enjoyed a

higher status and greater independence than

women elsewhere in the ancient world. Under

Egyptian law, women enjoyed many legal

rights. They could inherit property, enter

business deals, buy and sell goods, go to court,

and obtain a divorce. Women's property and

inheritance stayed in their hands, even in

marriage. She could leave that property to her

daughter. In many ways, Egyptian women had

more freedom and power than women of other

cultures.

Although there were often clear

distinctions between the occupations of women

and men, women's work was not confined to the

home. They manufactured perfume and textiles,

managed farming estates, and served as doctors.

Despite their many rights and opportunities, few

women learned to read and write. Even if they

did, they were excluded from becoming scribes

or holding other government jobs.

Mesopotamian Religion

The Gods. The physical environment

strongly affected the way Mesopotamians

viewed the world. Ferocious floods, heavy

downpours, scorching winds, and oppressive

humidity were all part of the Mesopotamian

climate. These conditions, as well as famines,

convinced Mesopotamians that this world was

controlled by supernatural forces, which often

were not kind or reliable. In the presence of

nature, Mesopotamians could easily feel

helpless.

To the Mesopotamians, powerful

spiritual beings- gods and goddesses- permeated

all aspects of the universe. The Mesopotamians

identified almost three thousand gods and

goddesses. Mesopotamian religion was

polytheistic because of this belief in many gods.

These gods were thought to control every aspect

of life, especially the forces of nature.

Sumerians described their gods as doing many

of the same things humans do- falling in love,

having children, quarreling, and so on. Yet the

Sumerians also believed that their gods were

both immortal and all-powerful. Although the

gods favored truth and justice, they were also

responsible for violence and suffering.

The Sumerian gods were identified with

forces of nature and heavenly bodies, such as

the sun and the moon. Important gods included

An (lord of heaven), Enlil (god of air and

storms), and Enki (god of water and wisdom).

Sumerian gods and goddesses also guarded

individual cities. The city of Nippur, for

example, was overseen by the god Enlil, while

his son Nanna, god of the moon, guarded the

city of Ur. Lowest of all the gods were demons

known as Wicked Udugs, who caused disease,

misfortune, and every kind of human trouble.

Human beings were supposed to obey

and serve the gods. According to Sumerian

beliefs, human beings were created to do the

manual labor the gods were unwilling to do for

themselves. By their very nature, humans were

inferior to the gods and could never be sure

what the gods might do to help or hurt them. At

any moment, the mighty anger of the gods

might strike, sending a fire, a flood, or an enemy

to destroy a city.

To Sumerians, their highest duty was to

keep these divine beings happy and thereby

ensure the safety of their city-state.

Egyptian Religion

The Gods. Religion, too, provided a

sense of security and timelessness for the

Egyptians. Actually, they had no word for

religion. For them, religious ideas were an

inseparable part of the entire world order. Like

the Mesopotamians, the early Egyptians were

polytheistic, believing in many gods. In all,

Egyptians worshiped more than 2,000 gods and

goddesses. They had a remarkable number of

gods associated with heavenly bodies and

natural forces. Two groups, sun gods and land

gods, came to have special importance. Is that

surprising in view of the importance to Egypt's

well-being of the sun and the fertile land along

the banks of the Nile?

In the early days of Egyptian

civilization, many villages had their own local

god or gods. These gods often had an animal

symbol that people considered sacred. Sacred

animals included the cat, the bull, the crocodile,

and the scarab beetle. In time, some of these

gods came to be worshiped by people

throughout Egypt. They built huge temples to

honor the major deities. The sun, the source of

life, was of course worthy of worship.

The sun god took on different forms and

names, depending on his specific role. He was

worshiped as Atum or Amon in human form and

also as Re, who had a human body but the head

of a falcon. The Egyptian ruler took the title

Son of Re, because he was seen as an earthly

form of Re.

River and land gods included Osiris and

Isis. Osiris ruled Egypt until he was killed by

his jealous brother, Set. The wicked Set then

cut Osiris into pieces, which he tossed all over

Egypt. Osiris was saved by his faithful wife,

Isis. She reassembled her husband's body and

brought him back to life. Because Osiris could

no longer rule over the living, he became god of

the dead and judge of the souls seeking

admission to the afterlife. According to the

myth of Osiris and Isis, their son, Horus, later

took revenge on the wicked god Set, killing his

uncle.

Osiris took on an important role for the

Egyptians as a symbol of resurrection. By

identifying with Osiris, people could hope to

gain new life, just as Osiris had done.

Each city built a ziggurat, a pyramid-temple that

soared toward the heavens. At its top stood a

shrine to the chief god or goddess of that city.

To win the favor of the gods, the people prayed

and offered sacrifices of animals, grain, and

wine. They also celebrated holy days with

ceremonies and processions.

The Babylonians adopted many

Sumerian religious beliefs. The Babylonians

made sacrifices to their gods for favors like

good harvests or success in business. Like the

Sumerians, they believed in a shadowy life after

death. Their religious practices were directed

toward a successful life on Earth. Babylonians

also believed that their priests could foretell the

future. Therefore, Babylonian priests held great

power and wealth.

The Afterlife. Sumerians worked hard

to earn the gods' protection in this life. Yet they

expected little help from the gods after death.

The Sumerians believed that the souls of the

dead went to the "land of no return," a dismal,

gloomy place between the earth's crust and the

ancient sea. No joy awaited souls there.

Like the Egyptians, the Sumerians

believed in an afterlife. The Sumerians too

buried food and tools with their dead. However,

they saw the underworld as a grim place from

which there was no release. They did not

believe in rewards and punishments after death.

This view of the afterlife contrasts with the

Egyptian vision of the Happy Field of Food.

Differences in geography may explain this

contrast. The floods of the Tigris and Euphrates

were less regular and more destructive than

those of the Nile. As a result, Sumerians may

have developed a pessimistic view of the world.

Some of the richest accounts of

Mesopotamian myths and legends appear in a

long poem called the Epic of Gilgamesh. It is

one of the earliest works of literature in the

world. Through the heroic adventures of

Gilgamesh, a legendary king, the narrative

offers a glimpse into the beliefs and concerns of

the ancient Sumerians. The epic tells of

Gilgamesh's unsuccessful quest for immortality,

a theme that recurs in ancient literature.

To Egyptians, Osiris was especially

important. Not only did he rule over the

underworld, but he was also god of the Nile. In

that role, he controlled the annual flood that

made the land fertile. Isis had special appeal for

women, who believed that she had first taught

women to grind corn, spin flax, weave cloth,

and care for children. Like Osiris, Isis promised

the faithful that they would have life after death.

A God. About 1380 BCE, a young

pharaoh challenged the powerful priests of

Amon-Re. He devoted his life to the worship of

Aton, a minor god whose symbol was the sun's

disk. The pharaoh took the name Akhenaton,

meaning "he who serves Aton." With the

support of his wife, Queen Nefertiti, Akhenaton

tried to sweep away all other gods in favor of

Aton. He ordered priests to stop worshiping

other gods and to remove the names of these

gods from their temples.

Scholars disagree about Akhenaton's

goals. Some think the pharaoh was trying to

introduce a new religion based on worship of a

single god. Others argue that he just wanted to

raise Aton to the highest place among the gods.

Akhenaton's radical ideas had little success.

Priests of Amon-Re and of other gods resisted

the revolutionary changes. The common

people, too, were afraid to abandon their old

gods in favor of Aton. Nobles also deserted the

pharaoh because he neglected his duty of

defending the empire. After Akhenaton's death,

the priests of the old gods reasserted their

power.

The Afterlife. In contrast to the

Mesopotamians, with their bleak view of death,

Egyptians believed in an afterlife, a life that

continued after death. Belief in the afterlife

affected all Egyptians, from the highest noble to

the lowest peasant.

The Egyptians believed that each soul

had to pass a test in order to win eternal life.

According to Egyptian belief, the dead soul

would be ferried across a lake of fire to the hall

of Osiris. There, Osiris would weigh the dead

person's heart against the feather of truth.

To survive the dangerous journey

through the underworld, Egyptians relied on the

Book of the Dead. It contained spells, charms,

and formulas for the dead to use in the afterlife.

The Book of the Dead was written on scrolls and

placed in tombs.

Those he judged to be sinners would be fed to

the crocodile-shaped Eater of the Dead. Worthy

souls would enter the Happy Field of Food,

where they would live forever in bliss.

Today, these scrolls have given modern scholars

a wealth of information about Egyptian beliefs

and practices.

Egyptians believed that the afterlife

would be much like life on Earth. As a result,

they buried the dead with everything they would

need for eternity. To give a soul use of its body

in the afterlife, Egyptians perfected skills in

mummification, the preservation of the dead.

This costly process took months to complete.

At first, mummification was a privilege reserved

for rulers and nobles. Eventually, ordinary

Egyptians also won the right to mummify their

dead.

People of all classes planned for their

burials, so that they might safely reach the Other

World. Kings and queens built great tombs,

such as the pyramids, and other Egyptians built

smaller tombs. The mummy was placed in a

coffin inside a tomb. Then they filled the tomb

with items the dead person could use in the

afterlife, such as clothing, food, cosmetics, and

jewelry. The Egyptians considered the objects

necessary for use in the afterlife.

Mesopotamian Culture

Writing. The Sumerians created many

inventions that still affect our lives today.

Probably their greatest invention was their

writing. Writing was important because it

allowed a society to keep records and to pass

along knowledge from person to person and

generation to generation.

Sumerians wrote by pressing marks into

clay tablets, which were then baked or dried in

the sun. Once dried, these tablets lasted a very

long time. Writers used a wedge-shaped tool

called a stylus. As a result, most signs were

wedge shapes. Today we call Sumerian writing

cuneiform ("wedge-shaped"). Sumerians had

about 600 cuneiform signs.

Cuneiform writing grew out of a system

of pictographs that priests used to record goods

brought to temple storehouses. Later, priests

developed symbols to represent more

complicated thoughts. As their writing evolved,

the Sumerians were able to use it to record not

only grain harvests but also myths, prayers,

laws, treaties, and business contracts.

Mesopotamian peoples used writing primarily

for record keeping. Cuneiform texts, however,

were also used in schools to train scribes,

members of the learned class who served as

copyists, teachers, and jurists.

Several hundred thousand tablets have

been found. They have been a valuable source

of information for modern scholars. Tablets

contain some of the oldest written records of

scientific investigations in the areas of

astronomy, chemical substances, and symptoms

of disease.

Education. The Sumerians considered

education very important. However, only

upper-class boys- and no girls- attended school.

Becoming a scribe was the key to a successful

career. Men who began their careers as scribes

became the leaders of their cities, temples, and

armies. Scribes came to hold the most

important positions in Sumerian society. Young

boys seeking to become scribes began school

when they were small children and trained until

they were young men.

Scribal students spent most of their

school days following the same routine. They

were taught by copying and recopying standard

works on clay tablets and reciting from them.

Egyptian Culture

Although dynasties rose and fell, Nile

Valley civilization lasted for many centuries.

Ancient Egyptians lived in a stable world based

on the dependability of the annual Nile floods

and Egypt's geographic isolation, which

protected it from frequent invasions. This

stability allowed the Egyptians to create a

remarkable culture.

Writing. Like other early civilizations,

the Egyptians developed a form of picture

writing. The development of writing was one of

the keys to the growth of Egyptian civilization.

Hieroglyphics were used to keep important

records.

Writing in Egypt emerged around 3000

BCE. The Greeks later called this earliest

Egyptian writing hieroglyphics, meaning

"priest-carvings" or "sacred writings." As with

Sumerian cuneiform writing, in the earliest form

of hieroglyphics a picture stood for an idea. For

instance, a picture of a man stood for the idea of

a man; a picture of a bird stood for the idea of a

bird. In time, the system changed so that

pictures stood for sounds as well as ideas. The

owl, for example, stood for an m sound.

Hieroglyphics could be used almost like letters

of the alphabet. The hieroglyphic system of

writing, which used both pictures and more

abstract forms, was complex. Hieroglyphic

writing used more than 600 signs, pictures, or

symbols to represent words and sounds.

Learning and practicing it took much time and

skill. Hieroglyphic script was used for writing

on temple walls and in tombs.

A highly simplified version of

hieroglyphics, known as hieratic or demotic

script, came into being. It used the same

principles as hieroglyphic writing, but the

drawings were simplified by using dashes,

strokes, and curves to represent them. Hieratic

script was used for business transactions, record

keeping, and the needs of daily life.

Egyptian hieroglyphs were first written

on stone and clay, as in Mesopotamia.

Inscriptions on temples and other monuments

preserved records of Egyptian culture that have

endured for thousands of years. Hieratic script

was written on papyrus, a paper made from the

papyrus reed that grew along the Nile. Most of

the ancient Egyptian literature that has come

down to us was written on rolls of papyrus.

Although boring, this was probably the scribe's

only way of learning how to form the cuneiform

writing signs neatly and correctly.

Literature. Writing also made it

possible for people to communicate ideas in

new ways. This is especially evident in the Epic

of Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh is a Mesopotamian

epic poem that records the exploits of a

legendary king named Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh is

wise, strong, and perfect in body. He is part

man and part god. Gilgamesh befriends a hairy

beast named Enkidu. Together, they set off to

do great deeds. When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh

feels the pain of death and begins a search for

the secret of immortality. His efforts fail, and

Gilgamesh remains mortal. This epic makes

clear that "everlasting life" is only for the gods.

Technology. The Sumerians invented

several tools and devices that made daily life

easier and more productive. They developed the

wagon wheel, for example, to help transport

people and goods from place to place. The

potter's wheel to shape containers, the sundial to

keep time, and the arch used in construction are

other examples of Sumerian technology. The

Sumerians were the first to make bronze out of

copper and tin, creating finely crafted

metalwork.

Math & Science. Many other new ideas

arose from the Sumerians' practical needs. In

order to erect city walls and buildings, plan

irrigation systems, and survey flooded fields,

they needed arithmetic and geometry. In

mathematics, they used a system of numbers

based on 60. For example, Sumerians divided a

circle into 360 degrees (six 60s). Each degree

was divided into 60 minutes, and each minute

into 60 seconds. Today, when you look at a

compass or a watch, you are using a system that

the Sumerians developed thousands of years

ago.

Priests studied the skies, recording the

movement of heavenly bodies. This knowledge

enabled them to make accurate calendars, which

are so essential to a farming society. Like other

early civilizations, the Sumerians created a lunar

calendar. To keep it accurate, they added a

month every few years.

Architecture. The Sumerians had few

natural resources. They lacked building

materials, such as timber or stone, so they built

with earth and water.

Education. To pass on their knowledge,

Egyptians developed an educational system.

Education focused mainly on an elite group of

people called scribes, or clerks. Scribes learned

to read and write so that they could work for the

government. At the age of 10, boys of the upper

classes went to schools run by scribes. Training

to be a scribe took many years. Students

learned to read and write by copying texts.

Discipline was strict- "A boy's ears are on his

back. He listens only when he is beaten."

Religious instruction formed an important part

of Egyptian education. Schools were usually

attached to temples.

Learned scribes played a central role in

Egyptian society. Temple scribes kept records

of ceremonies, taxes, and gifts. Other scribes

served nobles or the pharaoh. With skill and

luck, a scribe from a poor family might become

rich and powerful. Besides learning to read and

write, scribes also acquired skills in

mathematics, medicine, and engineering.

Math. Egyptians also made advances in

mathematics. In order to assess and collect

taxes, the Egyptians developed a system of

written numbers for counting, adding, and

subtracting. The Egyptians used a number

system based on ten. This system is similar to

the decimal system used today. The Egyptians

used fractions and whole numbers.

Mathematics helped them in building

their massive monuments. Egyptian engineers

also used geometry to calculate the exact size

and location of each block of stone to be placed

in a pyramid or temple. Huge building projects

such as pyramids and irrigation systems

required considerable skills in design and

engineering. Nile floods forced Egyptians to

redraw the boundaries of fields each year.

Farmers used an early form of geometry to

survey and reset property boundaries after the

annual floods.

Science. To help them keep track of the

time between floods and plan their planting

season, the Egyptians developed a calendar.

Early in their history they invented a calendar

based on the movements of the moon.

Sometime later, the Egyptians realized that a

bright star, Sirius, appeared above the horizon

right before the Nile floods. The time between

one rising of this star and the next is 365 days.

They made bricks of clay, shaped in wooden

molds and dried in the sun. Mud bricks, easily

shaped by hand, were left to bake in the hot sun

until they were hard enough to use for building.

People in Mesopotamia were remarkably

creative with mud bricks.

The Sumerians may also have invented

several important architectural designs. Their

architectural innovations- such as arches,

columns, ramps, and the pyramid-shaped design

of the ziggurat- permanently influenced

Mesopotamian civilization. The arch, a curved

structure over an opening, is one of the strongest

forms in building. By combining several

arches, the Sumerians built rounded roofs in the

shape of domes or vaults. The most striking

Sumerian buildings were the temples, known as

ziggurats. Like other Sumerian buildings,

ziggurats were made of baked brick placed in

layers. The ziggurats looked something like a

wedding cake. Each could be up to 150 feet

high. The top served as a shrine to a Sumerian

god.

The Egyptians based their calendar on this

cycle. This calendar had 12 months of 30 days

each. The remaining five days were used for

holidays and feasting. This calendar was so

accurate that it fell short of the true solar year by

only six hours. With a few changes, this ancient

Egyptian calendar became the basis for our

modern calendar.

Medicine. The Egyptians made

important discoveries in medicine. They knew a

good deal about the human body. They used

their knowledge to treat illnesses and to

preserve bodies after death. Although Egyptian

treatments included "magic spells," they also

often involved herbs and medicines. They also

became skilled at observing symptoms,

diagnosing illnesses, and finding cures. Doctors

performed complex surgical operations. The

Egyptians approached their study of medicine in

a remarkably scientific way.

Art. The Egyptians left a rich legacy of

art and literature. Statues, paintings, poems, and

tales have given us a wealth of information

about ancient Egyptian attitudes and values.

Sculptors crafted small, lifelike statues of rulers

and animals. Buildings were decorated with

paintings of everyday life. The paintings show

farmers in their fields, artisans at work, and

people at banquets. They provide us with

colorful examples of the Egyptian way of life.

Artists and sculptors were expected to

follow particular formulas in style. This gave

Egyptian art a distinctive look for thousands of

years. For example, the human body was often

portrayed as a combination of profile, semi-

profile, and frontal view to accurately represent

each part. The pharaohs and gods were always

much larger than any other human figures.

Statues often depicted people in stiff, standard

poses. Some human figures have animal heads

that represent special qualities.

The Egyptians built the pyramids as

tombs for the pharaohs- tombs for eternity.

Because Egyptians believed in an afterlife, they

preserved the bodies of their dead rulers and

provided them with everything they would need

in their new lives.

Architecture. When people today think

of Egypt, they picture the huge stone figure of

the Great Sphinx and the pyramids. About 80

pyramids still stand, most of which are clustered

in groups along the west bank of the Nile.

The best-known pyramids, including the

Great Pyramid, tower above the sands at Giza.

The building of the Great Pyramid was an

enormous construction project. The Greek

historian Herodotus reported the traditional

story that it took 100,000 Egyptians 20 years to

build the Great Pyramid. Herodotus wrote two

thousand years after the event, however, and

much speculation still surrounds the building of

the Great Pyramid.

These magnificent monuments were

remarkable engineering achievements, built by

people who had not even begun to use the

wheel. Historians believe the engineers built

ramps and levers, which were used by thousands

of workers to move the heavy stones.

Pyramids were built as part of a larger

complex of buildings dedicated to the dead- in

effect, a city of the dead. The area included

several structures: a large pyramid for the

pharaoh's burial; smaller pyramids for his

family; and several mastabas, rectangular

structures with flat roofs used as tombs for the

pharaoh's officials.

Guarding the Great Pyramid at Giza is a

huge statue carved from rock, known as the

Great Sphinx. This colossal statue has the body

of a lion and a human head.

The Great Pyramid still stands as a

visible symbol of the power of the Egyptian

pharaohs of the Old Kingdom. No pyramid

built later matched its size or splendor. The

pyramid was not only the pharaoh's tomb but

also an important symbol of royal power. It

could be seen for miles and served to remind

people of the glory, might, and wealth of the

ruler who was a living god on Earth.

The pyramids also reflect the strength of

the Egyptian civilization. They show that Old

Kingdom dynasties had developed the economic

strength to support massive public works

projects, as well as the leadership and

government organization to carry them out.

These costly projects required enormous

planning and organization. Thousands of

farmers, who had to be fed each day, worked on

the pyramids when not planting or harvesting

crops.