week topic textbook chapter - studentvip · 2018. 2. 23. · humanism - abraham maslow (1908-1970),...

WeekTopicTextbookChapter

1WhatisPsychology?Chapter1

2ResearchMethodsChapter2

3BrainandBehaviourChapter3

4CognitiveDevelopmentChapter12

5SocialDevelopmentChapter13

6LearningChapter6

7PersonalityChapter11

8PsychologyandCultureChapter19

9Health,Stress,andCopingChapter14

10AttitudesandSocialCognitionChapter17

11PsychologicalDisordersIChapter15

12PsychologicalDisordersIIChapter16

Lecture1:HistoricalPerspectivesinPsychology...........................................................................................................................8History............................................................................................................................................................................8Psychology......................................................................................................................................................................8Anewscienceisborn–WilhelmWundt(1832-1920):.....................................................................................................9Structuralismvs.Functionalism.......................................................................................................................................9Structuralism–EdwardTitchener(1876-1927)................................................................................................................9Functionalism–WilliamJames(1842-1910)....................................................................................................................9Consciousnessvs.Behaviour...........................................................................................................................................9Behaviourism–JohnB.Watson(1878-1958)...................................................................................................................9GestaltPsychology–MaxWertheimer(1880-1943)........................................................................................................9Psychoanalysis/Psychodynamic–SigmundFreud(1856-1939).......................................................................................9RadicalBehaviourism–B.F.Skinner(1904-1990)...........................................................................................................10Humanism-AbrahamMaslow(1908-1970),CarlRogers(1902-1987)............................................................................10Arenewedinterestincognitionandphysiology............................................................................................................10Morerecenttrends–Increasedinterestintheimpactofevolutionandculture............................................................10PERSPECTIVESINPSYCHOLOGY.....................................................................................................................................11Psychodynamic–SigmundFreud(Unconscious)............................................................................................................11Behaviourist-JohnB.Watson,IvanPavlov,BSkinner(Environmentstimuli)................................................................11Humanistic-AbrahamMaslow(Humanpotential)........................................................................................................12Cognitive–JeanPaiget(1896-1980)..............................................................................................................................12Evolutionary–KonradLorenz(1896-1980)(Ancestors)..................................................................................................12AbriefhistoryofPsychology.........................................................................................................................................12Theboundarywithbiology............................................................................................................................................13Historyofpsychology....................................................................................................................................................13

Philosophicalrootsofpsychologicalquestions..................................................................................................................................13Fromphilosophicalspeculationtoscientificinvestigation................................................................................................................13

Perspectivesinpsychology............................................................................................................................................14Psychodynamicperspective(SigmundFreud)...................................................................................................................................14

Behaviouristperspective(JohnWatson)........................................................................................................................14Humanisticperspective(AbrahamMaslow/CarlRogers)...............................................................................................15Cognitiveperspective....................................................................................................................................................15Evolutionaryperspective...............................................................................................................................................16

Lecture2:ResearchMethodsinPsychology................................................................................................................................17Whypsychologicalscience............................................................................................................................................17Criticalthinking.............................................................................................................................................................17Researchconcepts:Theoryandhypotheses..................................................................................................................17

Agoodtheory.....................................................................................................................................................................17Constructingtheories.........................................................................................................................................................17Theoriesmustbetestable..................................................................................................................................................17

Doingresearchinpsychology........................................................................................................................................17

Differentresearchdesignsarecomplementary.................................................................................................................18Naturalisticobservation.....................................................................................................................................................18Casestudy...........................................................................................................................................................................18Surveys...............................................................................................................................................................................18Correlationalresearch........................................................................................................................................................18Experimentalresearch~Establishingcauses.....................................................................................................................20

Sample..........................................................................................................................................................................20ManipulatingorMeasuringvariables:Operationaldefinitions......................................................................................20Reliability&Validity......................................................................................................................................................20

3techniquestodeterminethereliabilityofameasure.....................................................................................................20Correlationalresearch~Lookingforrelationships.........................................................................................................20

Correlationalcoefficient.....................................................................................................................................................20Correlationdoesn’timplycausation...................................................................................................................................22

Experimentalresearch~Establishingcauses.................................................................................................................22Identifytheindependentvariable(hypothesisedcause)&thedependentvariable(hypothesisedeffect):.....................22Basicelementsofanexperiment.......................................................................................................................................22Holdingothervariablesconstant........................................................................................................................................22

Evaluatingresearch:Lookingforflaws...........................................................................................................................24Sourcesofbiasinresearch............................................................................................................................................24

Participantbias...................................................................................................................................................................24Experimenterbias...............................................................................................................................................................24Controllingbias...................................................................................................................................................................24

Ethics............................................................................................................................................................................24Conclusion....................................................................................................................................................................24Researchmethodsinpsychology...................................................................................................................................24Whypsychologicalscience?...........................................................................................................................................24History..........................................................................................................................................................................24

Dangerofmisinformedpractice........................................................................................................................................................24Criticalthinking.............................................................................................................................................................25Researchconcepts:theoryandhypotheses...................................................................................................................25Agoodtheory...............................................................................................................................................................25Constructingtheories....................................................................................................................................................25Reliability......................................................................................................................................................................25Validity..........................................................................................................................................................................25Researchdesign............................................................................................................................................................25

Naturalisticobservation.....................................................................................................................................................................25Casestudy..........................................................................................................................................................................................25Surveys...............................................................................................................................................................................................25Correlationalresearch.......................................................................................................................................................................26Experimentalresearch–establishingcauses.....................................................................................................................................26

Independentvariable(IV).............................................................................................................................................................26DependentVariable(DV)..............................................................................................................................................................26Sampling........................................................................................................................................................................................26Manipulatingormeasuringvariables:operationaldefinitions.....................................................................................................26

Lecture3–Biologicalbasesofmentallifeandbehaviour............................................................................................................27Nervoussystem.............................................................................................................................................................28Forebrain......................................................................................................................................................................28Telencephalon...............................................................................................................................................................28

BasalGanglia......................................................................................................................................................................................29Limbicsystem.....................................................................................................................................................................................29

Hippocampus................................................................................................................................................................................29Amygdala.......................................................................................................................................................................................29Cerebralcortex..............................................................................................................................................................................29

OccipitalLobes.........................................................................................................................................................................29ParietalLobes...........................................................................................................................................................................29Temporallobes.........................................................................................................................................................................30Frontallobe..............................................................................................................................................................................30Broca’sarea..............................................................................................................................................................................30Wernicke’sarea........................................................................................................................................................................30Functionallocalisation..............................................................................................................................................................30

Dincephalon..................................................................................................................................................................30

Thalamus............................................................................................................................................................................................30Hypothalamus....................................................................................................................................................................................32Pituitarygland....................................................................................................................................................................................32

Midbrain.......................................................................................................................................................................32Superior(anterior)colliculi............................................................................................................................................32Inferior(posterior)colliculi............................................................................................................................................32Hindbrain......................................................................................................................................................................34Medulla.........................................................................................................................................................................34Pons..............................................................................................................................................................................34Reticularformation.......................................................................................................................................................34Cerebellum....................................................................................................................................................................34Brainstem.....................................................................................................................................................................34Medialviewofthebrain...............................................................................................................................................34CerebralHemispheres...................................................................................................................................................35CorpusCallosum............................................................................................................................................................35Lateralisation................................................................................................................................................................35Contralateralarrangement............................................................................................................................................35Thesplit-brain...............................................................................................................................................................36Thesplit-brainexperiment............................................................................................................................................36

Lecture4:CognitiveDevelopment...............................................................................................................................................38Developmentpsychology..............................................................................................................................................38Cognitive.......................................................................................................................................................................38ConceptualisingtheLifespan.........................................................................................................................................38Piaget’scognitivestagetheory......................................................................................................................................38(JeanPiaget1896-1980)................................................................................................................................................38Piaget’sconcept............................................................................................................................................................39Sensorimotor................................................................................................................................................................39

Objectperformance...........................................................................................................................................................39Pre-operationalstage(earlychildhood2-7years)..........................................................................................................39

Theoryofmind...................................................................................................................................................................41Concreteoperationsstage(middlechildhood7-11years).............................................................................................41Formaloperationsstage(adolescenceandbeyond12+)................................................................................................41

Lecture5–Socialdevelopment...................................................................................................................................................42Meaning........................................................................................................................................................................42TheoreticalPerspectives................................................................................................................................................42Vygotsky&Socialconstructivism..................................................................................................................................42EricErikson’stheory(1902-1994)..................................................................................................................................42Developmentinthecontextofearlycaregiving.............................................................................................................43Attachmentmodel........................................................................................................................................................43Attachmentpatterns/style(MaryAinsworth)..............................................................................................................43Stabilityofattachment..................................................................................................................................................44Parentingstyles(Baumrind’stheory).............................................................................................................................44Developmentinthecontextofnon-familialrelationships.............................................................................................46Peers.............................................................................................................................................................................46Peerstatus....................................................................................................................................................................46FriendshipFunctions.....................................................................................................................................................46SocialCognition:TheMechanismofSocialDevelopment..............................................................................................46Socialcognition.............................................................................................................................................................46Socialunderstanding.....................................................................................................................................................46Socialinformationprocessing........................................................................................................................................47

Lecture6:Learning......................................................................................................................................................................48Learning........................................................................................................................................................................49ClassicalConditioning....................................................................................................................................................49

ClassicalConditioningModel.............................................................................................................................................................49JohnB.Watson1925.........................................................................................................................................................................49Emotionalresponse...........................................................................................................................................................................49Advertisement...................................................................................................................................................................................50Principles............................................................................................................................................................................................50Biologicalconditioning.......................................................................................................................................................................50

Tutorialexamples...............................................................................................................................................................................51Operantconditioning....................................................................................................................................................53EdwardThorndike(1874-1949).....................................................................................................................................53

.......................................................................................................................................................53B.F.Skinner(1874-1949)................................................................................................................................................53

.............................................................................................................................................................53OperantvsClassicalConditioning..................................................................................................................................53OverviewofOperant.....................................................................................................................................................53Reinforcement&Punishment.......................................................................................................................................55Limitationofpunishment..............................................................................................................................................55Principles/CharacteristicsofOperantConditioning.......................................................................................................55Cognitive-SocialTheory.................................................................................................................................................57EdwardTolman.............................................................................................................................................................57

..............................................................................................................................................................57AlbertBandura..............................................................................................................................................................57

.............................................................................................................................................................57CognitionandLearning.......................................................................................................................................................57LearnedHelplessness.........................................................................................................................................................57

Lecture7:Personality..................................................................................................................................................................58Wayswedescribeourselves..........................................................................................................................................59Personality....................................................................................................................................................................59Approachestounderstandingpersonality.....................................................................................................................59ContentModels............................................................................................................................................................59

Traits(Level1)....................................................................................................................................................................59FiveFactorModel...............................................................................................................................................................59The“DarkTriad”ofpersonality..........................................................................................................................................61

Psychopathy.......................................................................................................................................................................................61Narcissism..........................................................................................................................................................................................61Machiavellianism...............................................................................................................................................................................61

Value(Level2)....................................................................................................................................................................63Uses....................................................................................................................................................................................................66

Lifenarratives(Level3).......................................................................................................................................................66Uses....................................................................................................................................................................................................66

Issues............................................................................................................................................................................66

Context-dependence..........................................................................................................................................................66Self-otherconsistency........................................................................................................................................................66Summary.............................................................................................................................................................................67

Lecture8:Culture........................................................................................................................................................................68Culture..........................................................................................................................................................................69Culturalspecificity.........................................................................................................................................................69

Example1:Müller-Lyerillusion..........................................................................................................................................69Example2:Analytic-holisticcognition(Nisbettetal.,2001)..............................................................................................69Example3:Spatialorientation............................................................................................................................................71

Approachestoculture...................................................................................................................................................71“Emic”v“etic”approaches................................................................................................................................................71Culturalvcross-culturalpsychology...................................................................................................................................71Emic....................................................................................................................................................................................71Etic......................................................................................................................................................................................73

Cultureandself.............................................................................................................................................................74Independentself.................................................................................................................................................................74Interdependentself............................................................................................................................................................74

Cultureshock(Eckermann)............................................................................................................................................76Acculturation................................................................................................................................................................76

Consequencesofacculturationstyles................................................................................................................................76Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................76

Lecture9:Health,Stress,andCoping...........................................................................................................................................78Healthpsychology.........................................................................................................................................................79Biopsychsocialmodel....................................................................................................................................................793-4-50Model.................................................................................................................................................................79Globalhealthtrends......................................................................................................................................................79SocialEcologicalModel.................................................................................................................................................79Theoriesofhealthbehaviouralchange..........................................................................................................................79

HealthBeliefModel............................................................................................................................................................80TheoryofReasonedAction................................................................................................................................................81TheoryofPlannedBehaviour.............................................................................................................................................82TranstheoreticalModel......................................................................................................................................................82Stagesofchange.................................................................................................................................................................82

Caseexample:obesity...................................................................................................................................................82Physicalactivityinterventions............................................................................................................................................82

Stress............................................................................................................................................................................84Transactionalprocess.........................................................................................................................................................84

Lazarus’model...................................................................................................................................................................................84Psychologicalprocess.........................................................................................................................................................................86GlandsoftheEndocrinesystem........................................................................................................................................................86HPAAxis.............................................................................................................................................................................................86GeneralAdaptationSyndrome(Selye,1936).....................................................................................................................................87Groupsatrisk.....................................................................................................................................................................................88Coping................................................................................................................................................................................................88

Lecture10:Socialpsychology......................................................................................................................................................89Socialpsychology..........................................................................................................................................................90SocialBehaviour............................................................................................................................................................90Socialthinking...............................................................................................................................................................90

Attitudes.............................................................................................................................................................................90Strength.............................................................................................................................................................................................90Otherfactors......................................................................................................................................................................................90Attitudebehaviourlink......................................................................................................................................................................90TheoryofPlannedBehaviour.............................................................................................................................................................90AttitudeChange:Persuasion..............................................................................................................................................................90ElaborationLikelihoodModel(Persuasion).......................................................................................................................................92CognitiveDissonanceTheory.............................................................................................................................................................92

Socialcognition.............................................................................................................................................................92Schemas..............................................................................................................................................................................92

Memory.............................................................................................................................................................................................92Schemastypes...................................................................................................................................................................................92

Fourmainareas.................................................................................................................................................................................93Socialjudgement................................................................................................................................................................94Attributiontheory...............................................................................................................................................................94

FritzHeider–Dimensionsofcausalattribution.................................................................................................................................94FundamentalAttributionError(orCorrespondenceBias).................................................................................................................95Actor-observerBias............................................................................................................................................................................95Self-servingBiases..............................................................................................................................................................................95FalseConsensusEffect.......................................................................................................................................................................95

Socialinfluence.............................................................................................................................................................96Conformity..........................................................................................................................................................................96Obedience..........................................................................................................................................................................96

SocialRelations.............................................................................................................................................................97GroupRelationsandIntergroupBehaviour........................................................................................................................97

RealisticConflictTheory.....................................................................................................................................................................97SocialIdentityTheory........................................................................................................................................................................97

KeyDistinctionsofSocialPsychology............................................................................................................................97Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................97

Lecture11:PsychologicalDisordersI...........................................................................................................................................99MentalIllnessandPsychopathology..............................................................................................................................99Thehistorycontextofmentalillnessandpsychopathology..........................................................................................100Theculturalcontextofmentalillnessandpsychopathology.........................................................................................100Thesocialcontextofmentalillnessandpsychopathology............................................................................................100Thetheoreticalcontextofmentalillnessandpsychopathology....................................................................................101

Psychodynamic.................................................................................................................................................................102Cognitive-Behavioural......................................................................................................................................................102Biological..........................................................................................................................................................................102

Thediathesis-stressmodel..............................................................................................................................................................102Systems(JohnnyandJenny).............................................................................................................................................103EvolutionaryPerspective..................................................................................................................................................103

DSM(TheDiagnosticandStatisticalManualofMentalDisorders)................................................................................103DSM-IVvsDSM-5..............................................................................................................................................................105Anxietydisorders..............................................................................................................................................................105

PhobicDisorder................................................................................................................................................................................105GeneralisedAnxietyDisorder..........................................................................................................................................................105PanicDisorder..................................................................................................................................................................................105AnxietyandOlderAdults.................................................................................................................................................................107

ObsessiveCompulsiveandRelatedDisorders..................................................................................................................107Trauma-andStressor-RelatedDisorders(PostTraumaticStressDisorder)....................................................................107DepressiveDisorders........................................................................................................................................................107

PrevalenceofDepression................................................................................................................................................................107MajorDepressiveDisorder:Criteria................................................................................................................................................107

BipolarandRelatedDisorders..........................................................................................................................................108Drawingaline..............................................................................................................................................................108

Lecture12:PsychologicalDisordersII........................................................................................................................................109DSM-5DiagnosticCategory:SchizophreniaSpectrumandOtherPsychoticDisorders...................................................110SymptomsofSchizophrenia.........................................................................................................................................110Positivesymptoms.......................................................................................................................................................110

Delusions..........................................................................................................................................................................................110DelusionalbeliefvsIrrationalbelief............................................................................................................................................110

Hallucinations..................................................................................................................................................................................110Modality......................................................................................................................................................................................110

Auditoryhallucination............................................................................................................................................................110ThoughtDisorder....................................................................................................................................................................111

Negativesymptoms......................................................................................................................................................112Misdiagnosis................................................................................................................................................................112Prevalence...................................................................................................................................................................112TheoriesofSchizophrenia............................................................................................................................................112

Biologicalfactors..............................................................................................................................................................................112Genestudies....................................................................................................................................................................................112Neurotransmitters:TheDopamineHypothesis...............................................................................................................................112Brainstructure.................................................................................................................................................................................113

TreatmentofPsychologicalDisorders...........................................................................................................................113Whathappenswhenapersonseekspsychologicaltreatment?......................................................................................113PsychologicalTreatmentApproaches..............................................................................................................................113

PsychodynamicApproach(Freud)...................................................................................................................................................113Thetransferencerelationship.....................................................................................................................................................115FormsofPsychodynamicTherapy...............................................................................................................................................115

Cognitive-BehaviouralTherapies.....................................................................................................................................................115CBT-BehaviouralAspects............................................................................................................................................................115CBT-CognitiveAspects................................................................................................................................................................115CBT–testit.................................................................................................................................................................................116

PsychotherapyIntegration...............................................................................................................................................116FromFlashcardvideo...................................................................................................................................................117

Lecture1:HistoricalPerspectivesinPsychology•ABriefHistoryofPsychology•PerspectivesinPsychology

HistoryPsychology Psychologyisdefinedasthescientificinvestigationofmentalprocesses(thinking,rememberingand

feeling),behaviour,andtheinteractionbetweenthem

Biologyandcultureprovidepossibilitiesandconstraintswithinwhichpeoplethink,feelandact

Anewscienceisborn–WilhelmWundt(1832-1920):

- EstablishedthefirstpsychologicallaboratoryinGermany- Triedtoidentifytheelementsofconsciousness- Usedtrainedintrospection–careful,systematicobservationsofone’sownconscious

experience- Introspection:reportingonone’sconsciousexperiencebylookinginward.- Giveimageorobject,thenverballydescribetheexperiencethatwentthroughtheirmind.

Thenslightlychangetheimageandaskforthedescription.Thencomparethetwoanswers.

Structuralismvs.Functionalism

Thebattlesbegin…

Structuralism–EdwardTitchener(1876-1927)

• Believedthatthetaskofpsychologywastoanalyseconsciousnessintoitsbasicelementsandinvestigatehowtheseelementswererelated.

• attemptedtouncoverthebasicelementsofconsciousnessthroughintrospection• Ifwecouldbreakdownconsciouscomponents,wecanunderstandthestructureofhuman

consciousness.• Devisingatableoftheelementsofhumanconsciousness

Functionalism–WilliamJames(1842-1910)

- Believedthatpsychologyshouldinvestigatethefunctionorpurposeofconsciousness,ratherthanitsstructure

- Usedobjectivemethods,comparativepsychology- Appliedpsychologicalfindingstopracticalsituations- attemptedtoexplainpsychologicalprocessesintermsoftherole,offunction,theyserve.

Consciousnessvs.Behaviour

Thebattlescontinue…

Behaviourism–JohnB.Watson(1878-1958)

- Believedthatscientificpsychologyshouldstudyonlyobservablebehavior- Behaviourreferstoanyovertresponseoractivity

GestaltPsychology–MaxWertheimer(1880-1943)

- Psychologicalphenomenaarebestviewedasorganised,structuredwholes,notanalysedintocomponentelements

- Contextinfluencesinterpretationo Reactiontostructuralism&behaviourismo Experimentsinperception,problem-solving

Psychoanalysis/ - Freudandthe‘unconscious’- The‘unconscious’containsthoughts,memories,anddesiresthatarewellbelowthesurface

Psychodynamic–SigmundFreud(1856-1939)

ofconsciousawarenessbutexertasignificantinfluenceoverbehaviorSource

RadicalBehaviourism–B.F.Skinner(1904-1990)

- ChampionedareturntoWatson’sstrictfocusonobservablebehaviour.- ‘Organismstendtorepeatresponsesthatleadtopositiveoutcomesandtendnottorepeat

responsesthatleadtonegativeoutcomes’

Humanism-AbrahamMaslow(1908-1970),CarlRogers(1902-1987)

- Humaniststakeanoptimisticviewofhumannature- Emphasisetheuniquequalitiesofhumans,especiallytheirfreedomandtheirpotentialfor

personalgrowth.

Arenewedinterestincognitionandphysiology

- The1950salsosawarenewedinterestinconsciousness(cognition)andasignificantdevelopmentinunderstandingthebiologicalbasesofbehavior

- Psychologyasaprofessionalsoexperiencedconsiderablegrowthinthisera

Morerecenttrends–Increasedinterestintheimpactofevolutionandculture

- Importanceofthesocial,cultural,historical,andevolutionarycontext- Complexanddynamicnatureofhumanexperience

PERSPECTIVESINPSYCHOLOGYPsychodynamic–SigmundFreud(Unconscious)

- Theunconsciousthoughts,feelingsandwishesthatmighthaveinfluencedyourdailyandbroaderlifechoices(suchaswhatdegreeyouhavechosen).

- Consciousandunconsciousforcesinteracttocontrolourthoughtsandbehaviours.

- Behaviourisaninterplaybetweenthoughts,feelings,andwishes.- Somementaleventsareunconscious.- Mentalprocessescanbeinconflict,resultinginanxiety.

Behaviourist-JohnB.Watson,IvanPavlov,BSkinner(Environmentstimuli)

- Howyourbehaviourhasbeenshapedbystimuliinyourenvironment(forexample,whetheryourexercisebehaviourisrewarded),ratherthanyourthoughtsorfeelings.

- Environmentalstimulicontrolbehaviourthroughlearning- Thebehaviourofhumans(andanimals)canbeunderstoodwithoutreference

tointernalstatessuchasthoughtsorfeelings- Stimulibecomeassociatedthroughconditioning- Seekstounderstandtherelationsbetweenstimuliandbehaviourthroughthe

experimentalmethod.

- Classicalconditioning(IvanPavlov,Watson)LittleAlbertexperiment–Fearsarelearnt,notinherent(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HZPXVb0W3Hc&feature=youtu.be)

- Operantconditioning(B.F.Skinner)

Whatdobehaviourismandpsychoanalytictheoryhaveincommon?

theimplicationthatpeoplearenotmastersoftheirowndestinies

Humanistic-AbrahamMaslow(Humanpotential)

- Youraspirationsandwhatexperiencesorchallengesmighthelpyoutofulfilyour“bestself”.

- Peopleareinnatelygoodandwillstrivetorealisegoalsandambitions(AbrahamMaslow)

- Thehumanisticperspectiveisperson-centred(CarlRogers)- Thehumanisticperspectivefocusesontheuniquenessoftheindividualand

thatpeoplearemotivatedtoreachtheirfullpotential(self-actualisation:–theideathatpeoplearemotivatedtoreachtheirfullpotential).

Cognitive–JeanPaiget(1896-1980)

- Thewaythatyoureceive,processandretrieveinformation,suchashowyourememberthingsthathavehappenedinyourlife

- Behaviourcannotbeunderstoodwithoutunderstandinghowweacquire,store,&processinformation

- Applicationofscientificmethodstostudyinginternalmentalevents- JeanPiaget’sthree-mountaintask(Egocentric)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OinqFgsIbh0&feature=youtu.be

Evolutionary–KonradLorenz(1896-1980)(Ancestors)

- Howsomeofyourbehavioursmightoccurbecausetheywerebeneficialtoyourancestors’survival.

- Humanbehavioursevolvedbecausetheyhelpedourancestorssurviveandreproduce

- Somebehavioursarebiologicallydetermined(e.g.,theimpulsetoeat,sexualimpulses)

Seriesofshift:‘philosophyofthemind’(westernphilosopher)tothe‘scienceofthemind’(structuralist)to‘scienceofbehaviour’(researchofthebehaviourist),tothe‘scienceofbehaviourandmentalprocess’(contemporary,cognitivelyinformedpsychology)

AbriefhistoryofPsychologyPsychology

• Isthestudyofmentalprocessesandbehaviour?• Isthescientificinvestigationofmentalprocess(thinking,rememberingandfeeling),behaviour,andtheinteraction

betweenthem.• Understandingapersonrequiresattentiontotheindividual’sbiology,psychologicalexperienceandculturalcontext.• Isscienceandprofession.• Butscienceofpsychologyistheonethatcanbeappliedtodifferentareas.• Whatweknowtodayisjustaversionofthetruth.Wedon’thavealltheanswers.

• DominatedbywhitemaninNorthernAmericanandEurope.Westerncentreview.• Philosophyandphysiology.Understandingphysiologicalprocess.Breakingthingsdownintocomponentspartto

understand.• Psychemeaningsoul.Studyofthesoul,studyofthemind.Applytotheconsciousness,wewouldunderstandthe

soul/mind/psyche.• Hasfocusedonmentalillnessratherthanmentalhealth,pathologyratherthansubjectivewellbeing.• Tendedtoviewpeopleasdeficientratherthanhumanexceedremarkableresults.• Viewedasasciencetofixabnormality• Psychologicalexperienceliesattheintersectionofbiologyandculture.Itoccursthroughtheinteractionofcellsinthe

nervoussystem.• Psychologistmustpractice‘triplebookkeeping’tounderstandanindividualatanygiventime,simultaneouslytracking

biologicalevents,psychologicalexperience,andtheculturalandhistoricalcontext.• recentyearsshiftingtoPositivePsychology

o proactiveapproachtohelppeoplelivehappiero harnessingpositiveemotionso Topicsuchashope,optimism,creativity,forgiveness,gratitude,wisdom,happiness,resilienceetc.o Atthesubjectlevelisaboutvaluedsubjectiveexperience:well-being,contentment,andsatisfaction(inthepast);

hopeandoptimism(forthefuture);andflowandhappiness(inthepresent).o Attheindividuallevel,itisaboutpositiveindividualtraits;thecapacityforloveandvocation,courage,

interpersonalskill,aestheticsensibility,perseverance,forgiveness,originality,futuremindedness,spirituality,hightalentandwisdom.

o Atthegrouplevel,itisaboutthecivicvirtuesandtheinstitutionsthatmoveindividualstowardbettercitizenship:responsibility,nurturance,altruism,civility,moderation,toleranceandworkethic.

o Shiftingenergyatstimulatinghappiness,notfocusingonanillnessorproblem.

TheboundarywithbiologyBiopsychology(behaviouralneuroscience)examinethephysicalbasisofpsychologicalphenomenasuchasmotivation,emotionandstress.Althoughdifferentneuralregionsperformdifferentfunctions,theneuralcircuitthatthepsychologicaleventscannotbefoundinonelocationasitisdistributedthroughoutthebrain.

• Investigatetheelectricalandchemicalprocessesinthenervoussystemthatunderliethesementalevents.• Aimistolinkmindandbody,psycheandbrain• Headinjuriescancausedeficitsinlanguageandmemory,ordramaticchangeintheirpersonality• Thecircuitsforpsychologicalevents,suchasemotionsorthoughts,aredistributedthroughoutthebrain,witheachpart

contributingtothetotalexperience.• Psychologybecomeincreasinglybiologicaloverthelastdecade,asbehaviouralneurosciencehasextendedintovirtuallyall

areasofpsychologyAnotherboundary:cross-culturalinvestigatedpsychologicalprocessthatarespecifictoparticularculture.

HistoryofpsychologyPhilosophicalrootsofpsychologicalquestions

• Couldpsychologicalscientistuncoverbasiclawsofhumanandanimalbehaviour?• Freewillordeterminism?Dowefreelychooseouractionorisourbehaviourcaused–determined–bythingsoutsideour

control.ReneDescartes(1596-1650):humanactionfollowsonfromhumanintention;peoplechooseacourseofactionandactonit.

• Howcananon-materialforce–will–displacematerialforces?E.g.willtoliftapen.Howmentalandphysicaleventsinteract?Psychologicalmeaningcanbetransformedintomechanism(physiologicalevents).

• Doeshumanbehaviourreflectnature(biology)ornurture(environmentalinfluence)?o Amancouldexercisehisfreewilltokillhisgirlfriendandhecanbelegallyliablebecauseheknewwhathewas

doing.Adeterministcouldargue,hewasthesonofviolent,alcoholparenthadphysicallyabusedhimwhichcausedhimtodevelopanantisocialpersonalitydisorder.

o Whatcausespersonwithantisocialpersonalitydisordertoproducecriminalbehaviour?Fromphilosophicalspeculationtoscientificinvestigation

• Philosophicalweretheprovinceofreligion.Speculatedfreelyontheirexperiencesandobservations.• Allowspeopletobetterunderstandthemselves.

Functionalism(James)

• Explainpsychologicalprocessesintermsoftheroleor–function–theyserve

• Helpingindividualtoadapttotheirenvironment.• Consciousnessexistbecauseitservesafunction,i.e.runningawayfromalion.• Psychologist’sjobistounderstandthatfunction.• Biological• Whatisthepurpose• Whywehavethesethoughts• Comparetoanimals.• Applypsychologicaltopracticalsituation.

PerspectivesinpsychologyParadigmisabroadsystemoftheoreticalassumptionsemployedbyascientificcommunitythatincludessharedmodels(Chemistry:atomscombinetoformmolecules/Psychology:elementsofconsciousnesscombinedintothoughts),metaphors(themindislikeacomputer)andmethods.Psychologylacksaunifiedparadigmbuthasanumberofschoolsofthought,orperspectives,thatcanbeusedtounderstandpsychologicalevents.Psychodynamicperspective(SigmundFreud)

• Proposedthatpeople’sactionsreflectthewaythoughts,feelingsandwishesareassociatedintheirminds;thatmanyoftheseprocessesareunconscious;andthatmentalprocessescanconflictwithoneanother,leadingtocompromisesamongcompetingmotives.

• DevelopedatheoryofmentallifeandbehaviourandanapproachtotreatingpsychologicaldisordersknownasPsychoanalysis

• Focusonentirepersonandthewholeofhumanexperienceratherthanjustinvestigatingspecificvariablethatreflectonlyafractionofanindividual’spersonalityorbehaviour.

• Exampleofstudy:whycertainpeoplearemoredrawntohorrormovies.• Thoughtsandemotionsanddesiresthatevenourselvesareunawareof.Elementofourpersonalitythatsitsbelowthe

iceberg(unconsciousness).• Conflictsunderneathperson’sconsciousness.• Ifwecanmakeunconsciousnessbecomeconsciousness.Thenwecanalleviatetheconflictandcriticism.• Dreamanalysis.• Sexualdesiresaffectourpersonality.

Origins

• People’sbasismustbeunconsciousbecausetheirsymptomsisnotconsciouscreated,suchasirrationalguiltafterthedeathofaparent

• Researchconfirmsthatmostpsychologicalprocessesoccuroutsideofawarenessandthatmanyoftheassociationsbetweenfeelingandbehavioursorsituationsthatguideourbehaviourareexpressedimplicitlyorunconsciously.

Methodsanddata

• Usinganyandallformsofinformationaboutapersonreflectsthepsychodynamicassumptionthatpeoplerevealthemselvesineverythingtheydo(whichiswhypsychoanalystsmaynotalwaysbewelcomeatdinnerparties)

• Useclinicaldatatosupporttheirtheories.Thishasbeenscepticalinthepast.• Inrecentyears,psychologistswhoareinterestedinthisideahavebeentryingtointegrateexperimentaltestswithclinical

data.E.g.peoplewhoavoidtheirconsciousnessawarenessofnegativefeelingsareincreaseattheriskofcancer,heartdisease,alsorelevancetobingedrinking.

Criticism

• Lackofscientificgrounding,itsviolationofthefalsifiabilitycriterion,anditsrelianceonretrospectiveaccountsarejustafewofitscriticisms.

Behaviouristperspective(JohnWatson)• Usingexperimentalmethodtostudyrelationshipbetweenexternal(environmental)eventsandobservablebehaviours.• Rejectstheconceptof‘mind’,mentaleventsasthecontentofablackboxthatcannotbeknownorstudiedscientifically.• Prefertostudywhatcanbeobserved–therelationshipbetweenwhatgoesinandwhatcomesout.• 19202-1960s:dominantpsychology,NorthAmerica.

Origin

• Humanbehaviourarelargelyacquiredbylearning.• Psychologisttodayhavebeguntoidentifybiomechanicalchangesinbraincellsandneuralcircuitsinvolvedinlearning.

• Humanbehaviourcanbeunderstoodwithouttheinternalstatessuchasmindandthoughts.TheyattemptedtocounterCartesiandualism(thedoctrineofdualspheresofmindandbody)bydemonstratingthathumanbehaviourfollowslawsofbehaviour,justaslawsofgravity.

• Watsonbelieveshecanturnahealthyinfantintowhateverprofessionhewantedbycontrollingtheenvironment.Environmentandbehaviour

• Mentalprocessesareby-productsofenvironmentalevents.Metaphors,methodanddata

• Metaphor:humansandanimalsarelikemachines,justaspushingabuttonstartsthecoffeemaker,presentingfoodtriggereddog’ssalivation,openingpsychologybookprobablytriggeredthelearnedbehaviourofunderlining.

• Employercanmaximisetherateatwhichemployeesproduceaproduct.Helppeoplequitsmoking.• Twoimportantcontributionsfrombehaviouristperspective:

o Learning:rewardandpunishment.Formula:behaviourfollowsitsconsequences.Behaviouristswerethefirsttodevelopscientificallybasedsetofprinciplesthatdescribethewayenvironmentaleventsshapebehaviour.

o Emphasisonempiricism–thepathtoscientificknowledgeissystematicobservationand,ideally,experimentalobservation.

Lecturenotes

• CBT• Somethingthatcanbemeasured.• Observebehaviour.• Science.• Experimentalsituation.• Consciousness• Weseehumanaswholisticthing.• Ifwebreakhumandown,wearemissingtheimportantstuff.• RadicalBehaviourism(B.F.Skineer)

o Thoughttobethemostinfluentialguy.o PositiveandnegativeReinforcement.o Repeatresponseo Animalmodelling.Hecaninfluencebehaviourbymodifyingenvironment,bycontrollingenforcement,by

controllingoutcome.o Freewillisanillusion.Decisionwearemakingisillusion.Humanisshapedbyourenvironment.o Weareshapedbyforcesoutofourcontrol.o Eithershapedbysexesaroundusorforcesaroundus.

Humanisticperspective(AbrahamMaslow/CarlRogers)

• Uniquenessofindividualandfocusesontheperson’simmediateexperience.• Optimisticview:peopleareinnatelygoodandwillalmostalwayschooseadaptive,goal-directedandself-actualising

behavioursOrigin

• ScientificmethodborrowedfromthenaturalsciencesareinappropriateforstudyingpeopleMetaphors,methodanddata

• Metaphor–Lifeislikeabottleofmilk–thecreamalwaysrisestothetop.• Ayoungmanfrompovertywhowantstostudy,hewillworkhardandgetthere.• Notinfluencedbyexternalforces• Goalpeoplesetforthemselvesareinfluencedbytheirownpersonalandsubjectiveexperience.Theycanchoose

consciously.• Person-centredandreliesonthetherapistshowingempathy.Treatpeoplewithrespectandwarmth.• Setself-actualisationgoaltomodifytheirbehaviour.• Data:thoughts,motivesandactions• Personalexperienceisapowerfulmediumforpeopletobecomemoreself-awareandself-directed.• Peopleexperienceproblemswhenthereisadiscrepancybetweenself-conceptandtheidealself.Thiscanhappenwhen

ourexpectationsexceedourachievements.

Cognitiveperspective• Focusesonthewaypeopleperceive,processandretrieveinformation.

• Interestedinhowmemoryworks,howpeoplesolveproblemsandmakedecisions,andsimilarquestions.• Usecomputertomodelthewaymindsworks.Thinkingisinformationprocessing:theenvironmentprovidesinput,which

aretransformed,storedandretrievedusingvariousmental‘programs’,leadingtospecificresponseoutput.Justasthecomputerdatabaseofabookstorecodesitsinventoryaccordingtotopic.Humanmemorysystemsencodeinformationinordertostoreandretrieveit.E.g.rememberaUSpresidentbasedonwhathedidratherthanwhichnumberofpresidenthewas.

• Ourmemorysystemevolvedtoplacefrequentlyusedandmorerecentinformationatthefrontofourmemory‘files’• Responsetimeisausefulmeasureofmemory.• Visualimagesstaysinfrontofourmentalfilesforaverylongtime.• Cognitiverevolutioninthelast30years.• Cognitivearerankedthemostimportantcontemporarypsychologist.• Gestaltpsychology,wasarguablyacognitivepsychology,focusonthewaypeopleorganisesensoryinformationinto

meaningfulunits.Origin

• Whereknowledgecomesfrom• Complexideasarisefrommentalmanipulationofsimpleideas(productofsenses,ofobservation)• Studiedthewaypeopleformabstractconcepts,conceptsarederivedinpartfromexperience,butdifferfromany

particularinstancethepersonhaseverperceived,whichmeansthattheymustbementallyconstructed.E.g.childrencanrecogniseabulldogasadogbecausetheyhaveformedanabstractconceptof‘dog’.

Metaphors,methodanddata

• Experimental• Metaphor:mindasacomputer.Inrecentyears,psychologistshaveturnedtothebrainitselfasasourceofmetaphor.• Bothcognitiveandbehaviouristperspectivevieworganismsasmachinesthatrespondtoenvironmentalinputwith

predictableoutput.Whatdifferentiatethetwoperspectiveiscognitivefilledtheblackboxofthebehaviouristswithsoftware–mentalprogramthatproducetheoutput.

• Anotherdifferenceiscognitiveuseexperimentalprocedurestoinfermentalprocessesatwork• Usebrainitselfasametaphorofthemind,networkofbraincellsthatareactivatedtogether.Whenapersonthinksofa

bird,certainsetofnervecellsbecomesactive.Personisabletorecognisesparrowasabirdbecauseitresemblesmostotherbirdsandenoughnetworkisactivated.Howeverclassifyingapenguincantakelongerbecauseitislesstypically‘bird-like’andactivatelessnetwork.

Evolutionaryperspective• Arguesthathumanbehaviouraltendenciesevolvedbecausetheyhelpedourancestorstosurviveandreproduce• Nature-nurturecontroversy:inbornprocessesdeterminehumanbehaviour.

Lecturenotes(can’trememberwherethisonefits)

• 50s• Cognition• Mentalprocess.• WW2• Solider:Shellshock/PTD• Applysciencetoclinicalproblem.

TodaySociallyculturallynarrowed.Weinfluenceourenvironmentandourenvironmentinfluenceus.RestofthesemesterDifferentlenseshowweviewthehumanexperience.

Lecture2:ResearchMethodsinPsychologyWhypsychologicalscience

Forthescientist- Understandinghuman(&animal)behaviour,thoughtsand

feelingsForthepractitioner:Evidence-basedpractice

- Psychologicalpracticeshouldbebasedonthebestavailableresearchevidence

- Researchersandpractitionersshouldjointogethertoensurethattheresearchavailableonpsychologicalpracticeisbothclinicallyrelevantandinternallyvalid.(APApolicyonEBP)

Dangersofmisinformedpractice

- Hysteria- Bettleheim’stheoryofautism- Frontallobotomy

“Commonsense”isnoguide

- Whatreallycausesautism?Neuroses?- Iftherewasanobviousanswerwewouldn’tneedpsychologyat

all

Criticalthinking Whatdistinguishesscienceisthedesireforproof–criticaltestsoftheories.Infactweareallcriticalthinkerswhentherearerealconsequencestoourdecisions–weallbehavelikescientists–Decidingwhatcarissafetodrive–Decidingtohaveanelectivesurgery–Weaskquestions,anddemandevidence

Researchconcepts:Theoryandhypotheses

Goodresearch,regardlessofthetopic,isgroundedintheory–Theoryisasystematicwayoforganisingandexplainingobservations;differentschoolsofthoughtpromotedifferenttheories.–leadstonewpredictionsthatcanbetested.Theoryprovidestheframeworkforahypothesis–Ahypothesisisatentativebelief/predictionaboutthewaytwo(ormore)variablesinteract/impacteachother.Itpredictsthefindingsthatshouldbeobservedifthetheoryiscorrect.

Agoodtheory –Fitstheknownfacts–Makesnewtestablepredictions–Isfalsifiable

•KarlPopper

Constructingtheories InarecentstudyKremeretal.(2014)observedthatphysicalactivitywasassociatedwithlowerdepressivesymptomsamongchildrenandteens,whilemorescreen-time(videogames,internetetc.)wasassociatedwithmoredepression.Whatmightbeanexplanationfortheassociationofscreentimeanddepression?–Kremer,P.,Elshaug,C.,Leslie,E.,Toumbourou,J.W.,Patton,G.C.,Williams,J.(2014).Physicalactivity,leisure-timescreenuseanddepressionamongchildrenandyoungadolescents.JournalofScienceandMedicineinSport,17(2),183-187

Theoriesmustbetestable Howwouldyoutestthetheorythatincreasedscreentimeleadstodepression?

Doingresearchin ChoosingaresearchdesignChoosingasample

psychology Choosingdatacollectiontechniques:OperationalisingvariablesControllingsourcesofbias

Differentresearchdesignsarecomplementary

Naturalisticobservation Researchercarefullyobservesbehaviourwithoutintervening- Participantobservation:Researcherisalsoaparticipant- Advantages

o In-depthobservationofbehaviourinnaturalsetting,notcontrived

o canprovidenewinsights- Disadvantages:Reactivity:difficulttoremainunobtrusive

Casestudy In-depthinvestigationofanindividualperson/situation:usinginterview,

directobservation,records,psychologicaltests- Advantages:Canproviderich,compellingdatatosupporta

theory- Disadvantages

o Representativeofgeneralpopulation?o Subjectivity:investigatorsmayseewhattheyexpectto

seee.g.studysomeonewithararedisordersuchasphotophobia(thefearoflight),Acasestudyinvolvesin-depthobservationandstudyofonepersonorasmallgroupofindividuals.Itisoftenusedforpsychologicalphenomenathatarenotwellunderstoodorarerelativelyrare.

Surveys Usequestionnairesorinterviewstogatherinformationaboutspecificaspectsofbehaviour

- Advantages:o dataondifficult-to-observebehaviouro datafromalargesample

- Disadvantage:self-reportdatacanbeunreliable(intentionaldeception,socialdesirability,responsesets,relianceonmemory)

Inconductingsurveyresearch,peoplewhoarechosenfromthepopulationofinterestandbecomeparticipantsinthestudyareknownasthesample.Inasurveyofstudentconformity,researchersselectedagroupofuniversitystudentswhoappearedtorepresentthecharacteristicsofstudentsfromtheentireuniversitycampus.Theselectedgroupservedasthesampleoftheuniversitypopulation.

Correlationalresearch - Lookingforrelationshipsamongvariables- Usefulforstudyingvariablesthattheresearchercan’t

manipulate:personality,intelligence,age,sex- Candemonstratethatarelationshipexists,butcan’t

demonstratecausality.

Experimentalresearch~Establishingcauses

Toestablishcausation,researcher:- IndependentVariable:manipulatesonevariable- DependentVariable:toseeitseffectonanothervariable- holdingallothervariablesconstant.

Sample

Seldomcanwetestourhypothesisoneverybody.Weselectasampletostudy

- Population:theentiregroupofpeopleweareinterestedinstudying

- Sample:asubsetofthepopulationselectedforstudy- Randomsampling:Eachmemberofthepopulationisequally

likelytobeincludedinthesample- Representativesample:possessestheimportantcharacteristics

ofthepopulationinthesameproportions

ManipulatingorMeasuringvariables:Operationaldefinitions

TurningabstractconceptsintoconcretevariablesthatwecanmeasureormanipulateHowwouldyoumeasurethesevariables?–hunger–sadness–stressHowwouldyoumanipulatethem?

Reliability&Validity Reliability:Doesthemeasureproduceconsistentresults?Validity:Doesitmeasurewhatit’ssupposedtomeasure?Areyoumeasuringtherightthing?

- Isourmeasurerelatedtoothermeasureswithdemonstratedvalidity?

- Isourmeasurerelatedtoanoutcomeitshouldberelatedto?- E.g.,Doeshighperformanceonanaptitudetestpredict

performanceonthejob?

3techniquestodeterminethereliabilityofameasure

- Test-retestreliability:Doesthetestgivesimilarvaluesifthesameparticipanttakesittwoormoretimes?

- Internalconsistency:Differentitemsonthesametestshouldproducesimilaranswers-beconsistent.

- Inter-raterreliability:Twotesterswhoratethesamepersononthesamevariable,shouldgivesimilarratingstotheparticipant.

Correlationalresearch~Lookingforrelationships

- Lookingforrelationshipsamongvariables- Usefulforstudyingvariablesthattheresearchercan’t

manipulate:personality,intelligence,age,sex- Candemonstratethatarelationshipexists,butcan’t

demonstratecausality.•Alsocalled“observational”research•Examinethedegreetowhichtwoormorevariablesarerelated.•Cantelluswhethertwovariablestendtovarytogether,buttheycannotinfercausality•Anexample:

Correlationalcoefficient Measuresthestrengthoftherelationshipbetween2variables

- Positivecorrelation:Peoplewithhighscoresononevariable

tendtohavehighscoresontheothervariableo E.g.Themorenappiesapersonchanges,themoreoften

theywashtheirhands.- Negativecorrelation:Peoplewithhighscoresononevariable

arelikelytohavelowscoresontheothervariableo E.g.Themorehourspeoplespendpractising,thefewer

errorstheymakewhentheyperform.

- Nocorrelation:Ahighscoreononedimensionpredictsnothingaboutaperson’sscoreontheotherdimension

o E.g.Thenumberofdreamspeoplehaveaboutplanecrasheshasnothingtodowiththenumberofplanecrashes.

Correlationdoesn’timplycausation

Canyouthinkofathirdvariablethatexplainsthecorrelationbetween:- UseofcontraceptioninTaiwan&numberofappliancesinthe

home- Numberoficecreamseatenatthebeach&numberof

drownings

Experimentalresearch~Establishingcauses

Toestablishcausation:Researcher- manipulatesonevariable:IndependentVariable- toseeitseffectonanothervariable:DependentVariable- holdingallothervariablesconstant.

•Experimentalstudiesaretheonlydesignwherewecaninfercausality•Inexperimentalstudies,wemanipulatesomething(anindependentvariable,orIV)toseewhateffectithasonanoutcome(adependentvariable,orDV).•Forexample:

Identifytheindependentvariable(hypothesisedcause)&thedependentvariable(hypothesisedeffect):

- Helpislesslikelyinanemergencywhenthereareseveralbystanderspresent.

- Heartrateandbloodpressurewillbehigherafterviewingaviolentfilmsequenceasopposedtoanonviolentfilmsequence.

- Heatstressleadstodisorientation&confusedthought.Bold:IV

Basicelementsofanexperiment

- Hypothesis- ManipulationofIV

o Randomassignmento holdingallothervariablesconstant

- MeasurementofDV- Eliminatingsourcesofbias/alternativeexplanationsforresults- Conclusion

Holdingothervariablesconstant

• Experimentalgroup:exposedtotheexperimentalconditionofinterest

• Controlgroup:notexposedtotheexperimentalcondition,butotherwisetreatedidenticallytotheexperimentalgroup

• Randomassignment:Participantsareequallylikelytobeassignedtotheexperimentalorcontrolcondition.

Inagoodexperiment,theonlydifferencebetweentheexperimental&controlgroupsisthattheexperimentalgrouphasbeenexposedtotheindependentvariable.Inanexperiment,participantswhoareinthegroupthatexperiencesaneutralconditioninrelationtotheindependentvariable(i.e.,whohave

notbeenexposedtotheexperimentalcondition)aresaidtobeinthecontrolgroup.

Evaluatingresearch:Lookingforflaws

- Reactivity:experimenter/participantbias- Confoundingvariables:rulingoutotherexplanations- Samplingbias

SourcesofbiasinresearchParticipantbias • Thetendencyofpeoplewhoknowtheyareparticipantsina

studytobehaveinawayotherthantheynormallywoulde.g.Hawthorneeffect

• Self-presentation• Demandcharacteristics:participantsrespondinthewaythey

thinktheexperimenterwantsthemtorespond.• Placeboeffects:participants’conditionimprovesbecausethey

believetheprocedureswillhelpthem.

Experimenterbias • Thetendencyofexperimenterstolettheirexpectanciesalterthewaytheytreattheirparticipants.

• Self-fulfillingprophecy:afalsedefinitionofasituationthatevokesbehaviourthat,inturn,makesthefalseconceptionbecometrue.

Controllingbias • Single-blindstudy:Eitherexperimenterorparticipantunaware

ofpurposeofthestudy• Double-blindstudy:Bothexperimenterandparticipant“blind”

tothepurposeofthestudy

Ethics ACodeofEthicshasbeendevelopedbytheAustralianPsychologicalSociety(2007)–Informedconsent–Maintainparticipantwelfare–Voluntaryparticipation–Ensureconfidentiality–Avoiddeception–Fairandhumanetreatmentofanimals–Gainappropriateethicsapproval

Conclusion Intheendwhatdistinguishesgoodsciencefrombadscienceishonesty–Inreporting–Analysing–InterpretingdataDevelopinghonestyandintegritywithregardtoresearchisthekeytodevelopingacompassionateandmeaningfulscienceofpsychology

ResearchmethodsinpsychologyWhypsychologicalscience?HistoryDangerofmisinformedpractice

• Hysteria:women,lookinreproductivesystem.• Battleheim’stheoryofautism:syndromeautisminchildren.Ifmotherisaproblem,takethechildawayfromher.• Frontallobotomy:thisinjurycausedrasticpersonalitychange.E.g.moreviolent.Oriftheyaremorepeaceful,theymight

beavegetable.Peoplewhoreceivefrontallobotomyareextremelypsychiatry,moredangerous.• Peoplewanttohelppeoplebutsomeofthesepracticesmayhavehurtpeople.• Anytreatmentwilllikelytomakechangestopeople,tomakethembetter,peoplewillnormallyjustgetbetter.Keeptrying

differentpracticeandseewhichoneworksbetterandwhichonenot.

Criticalthinking• Science:abilitytodisproofsomethingthatisnottrue.Notlookingforevidenceinfavour,butlookingforevidencethatis

nottrue.• Scienceispeoplewhodon’tbelievestuff.• Isitreallytrue?• Beforeasurgery,youwillaskdoctorwhataretheconsequencesbeforeyouwillgoaheadwithit(criticalthinking)• Itiseasytogetscepticalwhenthereissomethinglikelytogowrongwithit

Researchconcepts:theoryandhypotheses• Theoryisasystemicwayoforganisingandexplainingobservations.Whythingshappenintheworld.• Cooperatingdifferentschoolofthoughtpromotedifferenttheory• Testable• Prediction,thendisconfirm• Allittakesisonedisconfirmthenthetheoryisgone.Eg:gravity:abottledoesn’tdroponaground.

Agoodtheory• Createsomethingnew,makesnewtestableprecdictions• Falsifiable:KarlPopper(agoodtheoryisfalsifiable)

ConstructingtheoriesMorescreentimewillcausemoredepression:notenoughsunlighttotriggerhormone,notenoughexercising(endorphin),isolated,notsocialising,viewdepressingstuffonlineDepression:lowenergy,lowmotivation,tiredness,isolationdeliberately,donothingandlieinbed.Morelikelytousemobiledevice.

Reliability• Howconsistentwillthisbe?• Producethesameresults.E.g.Weightscaleshouldproducesameresult• Retestreliability:testingthesameindividualovertimeproducethesameresults.• Internalconsistency:sameresultswhenaskingthesamequestionsindifferentways• Interraterreliability:samescoreshouldbegivenwhen2differentinterviewersratethesameindividual

Validity• Isitmeasuringtherightthing?• Abilitytoassesstheconstructitisintendedtomeasure• UseWeightscaletomeasuretemperature???

ResearchdesignTestoutpredictionNaturalisticobservation

• Informationgatheringtool• Anthropologist/sociologist• Gooutandobserve• Lesscommonispsychology

Casestudy• Systematicobservationofindividual• Useinmedicine• Freud• Detailedcasenotesofindividual• Hardtodefinerules• Behaviourism:experimenttherat’sreaction• Butisthatindividualcanbegeneralisetothepopulation?

Surveys• Closertotestinghypothesis• Canaskembarrassingquestions• Cancollectlargesample• Representpopulation• Selfreport:e.g.manevendon’tliketoadmittothemselves

Correlationalresearch• Measureresponsethatrepresentvariable• Childhoodabusearemorelikelytodevelopdepression,designaresearchtoseeiftherearecorrelation.• Lookingforrelationship• 2measures/variables

o Positive:highscoreononevariablehavehighscoreontheother.MoveIVgoesup,DVgoesupo Negative:morehourspracticing,lessmistakeso Doesn’timplycausation

Experimentalresearch–establishingcauses

• Takeoutvariables• Somethingcausessomethingelse

Independentvariable(IV)• Cause• manipulatesonevariable• Outsideparticipant’scontrol

DependentVariable(DV)• toseeitseffectonanothervariable• indexwhatwethinkresultcanvary,toseeitseffectonanothervariable• participant’sresponse

HoldingallothervariablesconstantE.g.workinginahotroom(IV,changeoftemperature)canloseconcentration(DV)

Sampling• theorycanapplytoeverybody• subsetofpopulation• randomlysample• sex,ethnicgroup

Manipulatingormeasuringvariables:operationaldefinitions• depression,aconstruct,it’sasymtoms,suchaslackofself-esteem,lowmotivation.Butit’snotahardphysicalthing.Index.

Differenceonthescale.• Thingshouldchangewithconstruct• OperationaldefinitionsOfconstruct:Statementofaconditionunderaconditionyoucanobserve.Eg.

o Stress:operational:heartrate,temperature,bloodpressure,breathingrate,sweatypalm,o Manipulatehunger:feedpeopledifferenttime,xamountofhourstoeat

Lecture3–Biologicalbasesofmentallifeandbehaviour

Nervoussystem • Centralnervoussystem• Peripheralnervoussystem

Forebrain • Telencephalon• Diencephalon

Telencephalon Biggerpartofthebrain.• Cerebralcortex• Limbicsystem(HippocampusandAmygdala)• Basalganglia

.

• Cerebralcortex• limbicsystem• basalganglia

BasalGanglia • Planningandproducingmovemento E.g.Parkinsondisease,lowindopamine

WadePlanningMovementParkinsondiseaseLowdopamine

Limbicsystem • Hippocampus• Amygdala

Hippocampus• Memory:particularlyinconsolidationofnewmemories

(learning)• HenryGustavMolaison(HM),whohasseizure,whenhelost

hippocampus,hewasn’tabletotransfershorttermmemorytolongterm.

DavidHMIronbar

Amygdala• Emotionalinformation:particularlyinthelearningoffear

responsesandrecognisefearinotherpeople• Usinginformationthatwerecogniseinotherpeople,e.g.ifI

haveneverseenasnakebeforebutwhenotherpeopleshowthefearintheirface.Itpromptsmetobescared.

• almond-shapedstructureinvolvedinmanyemotionalprocesses,especiallylearningandrememberingemotionallysignificantevents.

AnneSnake

Cerebralcortex• 4lobes:Frontal,Parietal,Temporal,Occipital• Outerlayerofthecerebralhemispheres• 2-6mmthick• Foldedsoitcanfitinsidetheskull• Gyrus(plural:gyri):bumporbulgeonthecortex• Sulcus(plural:sulci):groove.Sulciisusedtobreakdownthe

lobes

Frontal,Parietal,Temporal,Occipital

OccipitalLobes• Primaryvisualcortex• Visualinformation

Visual

ParietalLobes• Behindthecentralsulcus• Concernedwithperceptionofstimulirelatedtotouch,

pressure,temperatureandpain.

Feeling

Temporallobes• Belowthelateralfissure• Concernedwithperceptionandrecognitionofauditory

stimuli(hearing)andmemory(closetoHippocampus)

LanguageAudioMemory

Frontallobe• Infrontofthecentralsulcus• Concernedwithreasoning,planning,partsofspeechand

movement(motorcortex),emotionsandproblem-solving.

reasoning,planning,partsofspeechandmovement(motorcortex),emotionsandproblem-solving.

Broca’sarea

• Speechproduction,grammar Speech

Wernicke’sarea• Speechcomprehension

Broca'sandWernicke'sareasbothhaveenlargementinthedominanthemisphere(usuallyleft).

Speech

Functionallocalisation

Suggeststhatdifferentareasinthebrainarespecializedfordifferentfunctions

Dincephalon • Thalamus• Hypothalamus.

ThalamusHypothalamus.

Thalamus • 2lobs(avocados)sittingontopofmidbrain• Relaystationforsensoryinformationtohigherbrain

(cerebralcortex)forprocessing(exceptsmell)• Filterandbegintoorganisethesensoryinput• Filtersouttheirrelevantstuff,e.g.howcomfortableismy

underwear• Aswellasreceivingfeedbackfromhigherbrainstructures,

thethalamusreceivessensoryinformationfromevery

SensoryrelaystationExceptsmellAvocados

week topic textbook chapter - studentvip · 2018. 2. 23. · humanism - abraham maslow (1908-1970),...

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