week 6

1Benedictine University

Week 6CHAPTER 7 Tracey and Morrow

◦Information/Cognitive Processing Perspectives Continued (1980s)

◦Pages 160-166

Morrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (2006). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press.Content in this section directly cited from Lenses on Reading unless otherwise noted

2

Information/Cognitive Processing Perspectives

Continued(1980s)

Chapter 7Tracey and Morrow

Benedictine University

Morrow, L. M., & Tracey, D. H. (2006). Lenses on Reading: An Introduction to Theories and Models. New York, N.Y.: The Guilford Press.

Content in this section directly cited from Lenses on Reading unless otherwise noted

Benedictine University3

INTERACTIVE COMPENSATORY

MODEL


Stanovich published an article entitled:◦ “Toward an Interactive-Compensatory Model of Individual Differences in

the Development of Reading Fluency” (1980)

◦ In the article, he began by reviewing the concepts of “bottom-up”, “top-down” and interactive models of the reading process

The Interactive Model (Rumelhart, 1977), discussed in Chapter 7, was the first model of reading to propose a nonlinear, simultaneous view of information processing

In addition to summarizing the key points of “bottom-up”, “top down” and interactive models of reading, Stanovich extended Rumelhart’s model…◦ He added the idea that, not only are text processors interactive

and nonlinear, but they are also compensatory i.e., if one processor is not working well, or has insufficient data, the other

processors compensate for it

Interactive and Compensatory


“BOTTOM-UP” MODELS First: letters are identified

Second: sounds are attached to them

Third: the word meaning is added

Fourth: after all the words are processed-the sentence's meaning is understood

“TOP DOWN” MODELS Built on the assumption that the

reading process is primarily driven by what is in the reader's head rather than by what is on the printed page

"Top-down" models of reading emphasize the importance of a reader's background knowledge during the reading process

This background knowledge includes information from many sources: ◦ Knowledge of…

The topic Text structure Sentence structure Word meanings (vocabulary)

Interactive-Compensatory Model-Neither Bottom Nor Top

• The Interactive-Compensatory Model is an extended example of the Interactive Model (Chapter 7)

• It is extended to include the idea that not only are text processors interactive and non-linear, they are also compensatory!


According to "top-down" models, readers use all four sources of information to make predictions and hypotheses about upcoming text

When the upcoming text is consistent with a reader's hypotheses and predictions:◦ The reading process progresses rapidly and smoothly, with the reader

sampling the text and confirming his or her hypotheses and predictions However, when the upcoming text is inconsistent with the

reader's expectations:◦ Reading is slowed◦ The reader will attend more closely to the actual printed text

The term "top-down" is derived from this heavy reliance on the reader (rather than the text) during the reading process

Top-Down Models• Knowledge about the topic• Knowledge of text structure• Knowledge of sentence structure• Knowledge of word meanings


This model suggests that there are four primary processors used during reading:1. Orthographic Processor: Handles Visual Input2. Syntactic Processor: Handles Word Order Within Sentences3. Lexical Processor: Handles Word Meanings4. Semantic Processor: Responsible for Overall Message Construction

Additionally, this model suggests that these processors are interactive, nonlinear, and compensatory

Interactive-Compensatory Model CONCLUSIONS


One classroom application related to this model is teaching children to be flexible readers◦Flexible readers know that there are many ways to

figure out words and word meanings when reading Sometimes….

Words can be identified immediately because they are in the reader’s sight vocabulary

Word families can be used to help identify a word or a word can be sounded out based on its phonetic clues

A reader can figure out the meaning of an unknown word because he or she understands the meaning of a sentence

In The ClassroomWhat is a Flexible Reader?


*IMPORTANT NOTE*: Teaching children how to use context clues when

reading is a popular and effective instructional activity associated with this model

When teachers provide instruction on how to be a flexible reader, they are providing instruction consistent with the Interactive-Compensatory Model

In the ClassroomConclusions


ORTHOGRAPHIC PROCESSING

MODEL


Stanovich published the Interactive-Compensatory Model Erhi published an article that articulated the ways in

which the brain processes orthographic information (visual, printed text) during the reading process ◦ Ehri identified the way in which orthographic forms (words)

are captured in memory◦ "This written unit is thought to be incorporated not as a rotely

memorized geometric figure but rather as a sequence of letters bearing systematic relationships to phonological properties of the word” (p. 313)

Orthographic Processing Perspective


Ehri (1992) explained the process through which readers see a printed word and connect it to its pronunciation stored in memory

She called a key early step in this process "recoding“◦ During recoding, printed letters are connected to their

pronunciations through the use of letter-sound rules◦ More familiar terms for Ehri's "recoding" are "decoding" and

"sounding out"



More recently, Ehri (2000) has been stressing the importance of graphophonemic awareness

"Graphophonemic awareness" refers to the reader's ability to connect printed text (graphemes) to sounds (phonemes)

In lay language, graphophonemic awareness is the knowledge that underlies decoding skill

Ehri emphasizes that graphophonemic awareness is critically important to successful early reading



VERBALEFFICIENCY

THEORY


Perfetti (1985) wrote an influential book entitled Reading Ability◦ Perfetti outlined a theory of the reading process that attempted

to explain individual differences in reading ability A PDF copy of this book is located in Session 8 Resource Folder for future reference

◦ Perfetti’s work is entitled the Verbal Efficiency Theory The Verbal Efficiency Theory was built on three assumptions

(Kuhara-Kojima, Hatano, Saito, & Haebara, 1996) ◦ The three assumptions concern automaticity of word recognition

and decoding skills as the major source of variations in vocalization latencies

Verbal Efficiency Theory


Assumption #1: One's reading of printed text is related to one's internal hearing The first, and most general, assumption is that

word recognition skills during reading are related to speech access◦ This means that, as the reader reads, the sound of the word (the

phonological code) is activated as the word is read (lexical access)



Assumption #2: ”…vocalization latencies to single printed words represent the extent of automaticity of word recognition" (Kuhara-Kojima et al., 1996, p. 158)

The amount of time it takes the reader to read an isolated word aloud is indicative of how well the reader knows the word◦ The amount of time it takes to read an isolated word aloud is known

as vocalization latency◦ How quickly the reader can identify a printed word is also known as

word recognition automaticityPerfetti and his colleagues have demonstrated that more skilled comprehenders have faster automatic word recognition than less skilled comprehenders (Hogaboam & Perfetti, 1978)



Assumption #3: a reader's decoding skill is the major source of variation in his or her vocalization latency The Verbal Efficiency Theory suggests that faster word

recognition is associated with improved reading because automatic word recognition requires less cognitive energy than decoding, thus freeing up cognitive capacity for comprehension processing (Wolf & Katzir-Cohen, 2001)

In simpler terms, how well a reader can decode will determine how quickly he or she can identify words when reading isolated words◦ The reading of isolated nonsense words is often used as a measure of

decoding skill since this condition eliminates the readers' ability to use context or whole-word recognition skills for word identification



Stanovich (1980) has reported that “…the speed of naming pronounceable non-words is one of the tasks that most clearly differentiates good from poor readers" (p. 62)

Regarding the importance of Verbal Efficiency Theory:◦ “Assumptions about vocalization latencies as a measure of

automaticity of word recognition and about decoding skill as the major source of variations in the latencies have been accepted virtually unanimously in the North American reading research community” (Kuhara-Kojima, et al., 1996 ,p. 161)



Verbal Efficiency Theory emphasizes the central role of language ability in the reading experience

Classroom activities that acknowledge and reinforce the link between oral language development and reading are consistent with this perspective

Activities known to strengthen children's oral language include: Listening to stories read aloud and books on tape Creating language experience charts Buddy reading Engaging in dramatic play and storytelling Cooking activities

In The ClassroomVerbal Efficiency Theory


CONSTRUCTION INTEGRATION

MODEL


According to the Construction-Integration Model, when readers read they construct representations, or understandings, of what they have read in their heads

The Construction-Integration Model (Kintsch, 1994)

objective is to articulate the ways in which:◦ Text representations are constructed when readers read◦ How the cognitive processes that construct them…work!

Construction-Integration Model

A copy of the Construction-Integration Model is located in Session 8 Resource Folder for future reference


The Construction-Integration Model suggests that during reading, representations occur at several levels: Linguistic level (a representation of the words themselves) Conceptual level (a representation of what the words and

sentences mean) Situational level (a representation of the text integrated with

the general knowledge in the person's mind)



The model suggests that two primary cognitive processes are used to construct the linguistic-, conceptual, and situational-level representations:◦The first process is: Construction in which ”…a text

base is constructed from the linguistic input as well as from the comprehender's knowledge base" (Kintsch, 1994, p. 953)

◦The second process is: Integration, in which the understanding of the text is integrated into the reader's general knowledge base



The Construction-Integration Model is consistent with a cognitive processing perspective because of its heavy emphasis on articulating the ways in which the brain is seen as functioning during reading

The model is also consistent with a constructivist perspective on reading (see Chapter 4)



PHONOLOGICAL- CORE VARIABLE

DIFFERENCE MODEL


Dyslexia: The Reason for the Phonological-Core Variable

Difference Model


PREVIOUS THOUGHTS ON DYSLEXIA DIAGNOSIS


DYSLEXIA: A CHANGE IN PERSPECTIVE


DYSLEXIA: THE MATTHEW EFFECTS

Stanovich’s paper: “Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy” is located in Session 8 Resource Folder as future reference.


MATTHEW EFFECTS IN READING: ACADEMIC CONSEQUENCES


Phonological-Core Variable Difference Model

MATTHEW EFFECTS - FAN-SPREAD The Matthew Effects have been justly described as

"fan-spread effects" because the reading-disabled child's problems are initially specific to the area of phonemic awareness, but then "fan out”…that is, they become more generalized and widespread over time

The concept of Matthew Effects has tremendous implications for the importance of early identification and treatment of children with phonemic awareness problems

Stanovich's early emphasis on the area of phonological deficits as the primary issue characterizing dyslexia would prove to be an important key to future efforts to understand and treat at-risk readers (Shaywitz et al., 2004)


Since Stanovich's (1988) identification of phonological deficits as central to reading difficulties in the Phonological-Core Variable Difference Model, the term "phonemic awareness" has gained prominence

Phonemic awareness refers to a child's understanding that words are comprised of individual sounds

Children who acquire this ability are able to hear rhyming words and can segment individual sounds out of words and blend them together again

Phonemic awareness is developed over time and through practice (Juel, 1991)

In The Classroom“Phonemic Awareness”


When children are phonemically aware, they know that a word such as bug is composed of three sounds that can be segmented into the sounds /b/u/g/

They also know that the sounds can be blended together again and that the individual sounds make the spoken word “bug”.

Phonemic awareness does not involve associating the visual letter symbols with the sounds of the letters◦ It is simply hearing that there are different sounds in

words and being able to segment the sounds, say them, and then blend them together


I’m a B-U-G


There are many ways to strengthen children's phonemic awareness skills

Children can:◦ Listen to rhyming books and nursery rhymes ◦ Play rhyming games◦ Play linguistic games in which speech sounds are manipulated


“I’m as SNUG as a BUG in a RUG”

week 6

Documents

interactive models of

text processors interactive

interactive model chapter

upcoming text

development of reading

readers hypotheses

actual printed text

readers background knowledge