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B e h a v i o r a l I n t e r v e n t i o n C o n t i n g e n c i e s a n d C o n t r a c t P a g e | 1

Behavioral Interventions

Contingencies and Contracts

Welcome to the topic of contingencies and contracts! Contingencies and contracts are behavioral

interventions that can help increase pro-social behaviors and reduce problem behaviors among

students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The use of contingencies and contracts can also

improve motivation and help individuals to understand expectations and boundaries, complete

less preferred tasks, and increase responsibility.

For many individuals with ASD the world can be a confusing and unpredictable place. Often

they do not understand cause-and-effect relationships and how their behavior impacts themselves

and others around them. Additionally they may have great difficulty understanding concepts

related to time, which makes waiting for things or knowing when something will happen very

difficult. Contingencies and contracts are one way to address these and other characteristics of

ASD (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). This lesson teaches you how you can help

individuals with ASD to gain more control over their behavior by giving them clear, consistent,

and concrete contingencies.

What are contingencies and contracts?

Consider the following scenario…

When Bobby, a third grader, comes home from school one afternoon, his grandmother meets him

at the front door. Bobby immediately asks for a cookie. His grandmother answers, “You can

have a cookie, but first you need to take out the trash.” Bobby reluctantly agrees and proceeds to


empty the garbage into the garbage can in the backyard. As he comes back inside the house, his

grandmother immediately gives him a cookie and a hug, and thanks him for helping her out.

The above scenario is a familiar one to many people. Adults are often setting up conditions with

children to perform less preferred activities first before they can have a more preferred activity.

This has called Grandmother’s Rule or in scientific terms the Premack Principle (Premack,

1959). According to this principle, individuals are more likely to complete less preferred tasks

and activities if they know a more preferred or motivating activity will be available to them when

they complete the less preferred activity. Regardless of the scientific background, setting up

contingencies for a certain behavior and then rewarding the child when the behavior is performed

is an excellent and effective strategy.

Background

The use of contingencies and contracts is taken from the field of applied behavioral analysis

(ABA). Based on principles of learning and behavior (Alberto & Troutman, 1999; Baer, Wolf, &

Risley, 1968), ABA techniques focus on the sequence of antecedent, behavior, consequence, and

how behaviors are reinforced. Very briefly, ABA basically addresses what is done before a

behavior happens, what the behavior itself looks like, and what is done immediately after the

behavior. By changing (a) the environment and/or what happens before behaviors occur, (b) how

adults/teachers prompt children (antecedents), and (c) how adults/teachers respond after a

behavior occurs (consequences), we can increase, decrease or eliminate behaviors.


Definitions

The Random House Dictionary of the English Language (1998) defines a contingency as

“dependence on the fulfillment of a condition” (p. 439) and a contract as “an agreement between

two or more parties for the doing or not doing of something specific” (p. 441).

In addition to current terminology, contingencies and contracts have been called different names

over the years, including contracting, contingency contracting, contingency contracts,

contingency management, behavior contracts, learning contracts, and social contracts.

Minor differences between the various terms will be explained later in this lesson. Although the

names may differ, all of them consist of the same basic elements, as described below.

In the Handbook of Special Education (Wang, 1988), contracting is defined as “… a formal

written agreement between a student and a teacher, parent, peer, or other person.

A typical contract specifies the behavior(s) to be increased and/or decreased, the student goal

with respect to these behaviors, and the consequences associated with goal attainment or non-

attainment” (p. 130).

In greater detail, Alberto and Troutman (1999) describe the minimum elements of an educational

contract as follows:

1. Behavior the child is either increasing or decreasing (e.g. completing more math

examples or decreasing the number of times asking a question during a lesson)

2. Conditions under which the behavior will occur (e.g. whenever the teacher hands out a

math worksheet or during the entire class period from 9:00 to 9:45 AM)


3. Criterion for completion (e.g. when 75% of math examples are correct or only asking

one question every 10 minutes)

4. Reinforcer the child receives for meeting goal (e.g. 10 minutes of computer time or

being the line leader going down to lunch). This would also include the dates that the

contract is in effect.

For some children, especially for those who need very explicit information, additional details

may be a part of the contract. This might include precise information about the reinforcer (e.g.

using the computer in Mrs. Jones’ room for 10 minutes at 3:00 PM); the conditions (e.g. all work

assigned in the Math Trailblazers workbook during the month of January); and criterion such as

a description of the behavior (e.g. a question is defined as you asking a question that is audible to

the teacher in the math period, or completion of math is when you have completed all 10

problems with at least 75% accuracy).

In brief, a contract is when adults set up “if-then” statements with students to help children do

less preferred activities first and more preferred activities later. The following is one example of

a contract.

Each day Bobby Johnson will be given two assignments in math when he is in Mrs.

Jones’ resource room from 9:00 to 9:45 AM. When Bobby completes these two

assignments he will have earned 15 minutes of computer time. Assignments will be

considered complete when Bobby has finished all examples given in each


assignment and when he has at least 75% of problems correct. If he has less than

75% correct he will have to edit his work. Bobby may choose any of the educational

games that are on the computer. He may choose to use the computer in Mrs. Jones’

room or a computer in the computer lab. When his 15 minutes of computer time is

completed he will go back to his classroom.

This contract was signed on January 6, 2003. Signed by

Bobby Johnson, Student

Mrs. Jones, Teacher

Mrs. Smith, Witness

Research

Research across several decades has shown that contingencies and contracts work well with

groups and individuals, with students of all ages and ability levels, and in general education,


special education, and home settings (Mable & Marholin, 1980; Nelson & Rutherford, 1988;

Rutherford & Polsgrove, 1981; Salend, 1987; White-Blackburn, Semb, & Semb, 1977).

Why do we use contingencies and contracts?

There are numerous reasons, both theoretical and practical, why contingencies and contracts can

be used successfully to help students with ASD (Alberto & Troutman, 1999; Downing, 1990,

1995; Hodgdon, 1996; Myles & Southwick, 1999).

Contingencies and contracts are part of the larger field of applied behavioral analysis,

which is supported by a large research base of proven methodologies. When used

appropriately, contingencies and contracts use many of the sound aspects of behavioral

programming, including, prompting, fading, reinforcement, consequences, and task

analysis, and an emphasis on data collection.

Contingencies and contracts can be used to teach new behaviors, help maintain learned

behaviors, or decrease inappropriate behaviors. When if-then contingencies are set up,

students are more likely to complete less preferred activities.

Contingencies and contracts can be used to give students or groups of students an

opportunity to work on independent projects or enrichment activities. For example, a

teacher and a group of students could create a contract where by students agree to

independent work time projects, while the teacher agrees to having the material students

will need as well as the reinforcement they will earn for successful completion of the

project.


Contingencies and contracts can improve communication between parties by specifying

exactly what is expected for a given behavior and the consequences that will follow.

Many children with ASD have difficulty managing their behavior. These individuals may

have difficulty understanding expectations, time, cause-and-effect relationships,

boundaries, and the impact of their behavior on themselves and others. The use of

contingencies and contracts addresses these areas by providing children with explicit,

visual reminders of what is expected and what will happen when behaviors are or are not

exhibited.

By being in written, “permanent form”, contracts can help to lesson the amount of

questioning that oral agreements with adults may prompt. Adults and children may forget

the specific verbal statements that they have made to each other. However when using a

contract everything is in writing to refer back to if there are questions. Students are

required to sign contracts before they are implemented.

Contracts by their very nature give students a visual support that is always there to refer

back to if they have questions, concerns or need reminders. This is particular important

for students with ASD for whom visual processing is often reported as a strength.

Contingencies and contracts may be individualized to a student’s particular challenges

and motivation areas, thus increasing the chances of success and increasing the student’s

ability to accept responsibilities.

Contingencies and contracts data can be used to support IEP documentation, such as

progress on goals and objectives.


Contracts allow students to see themselves as being more involved with their learning

because students are active participants in the negotiation of the contract.

Contingencies and contracts can be used with individuals or groups of students and

therefore can be very effective classroom management techniques.

How do we set up contingencies and contracts?

There is no single prescribed way of using contingencies and contracts. However Homme,

Csanyi, Gonzales, & Rechs (1969) suggest the following 10 helpful rules when creating a

contract (pp. 18-20).

1. “The contract payoff (reward) should be immediate.” When the student has exhibited the

behavior required by the contract, provide immediate reinforcement. Don’t wait to

reinforce the student. Your reinforcer will be so much more motivating if it is given

immediately following the behavior.

2. “Initial contracts should call for and reward successive approximations.” Don’t set the

bar too high. Reward students for smaller achievements. For example, reward a student

for first getting 50% of the math problems correct rather than expecting 100% to start.

3. “Reward frequently with small amounts.” By reinforcing the student often, teachers can

really monitor progress. Also students feel success quicker.

4. “The contract …rewards accomplishment rather than obedience.” Don’t word the

contract as “If you do what I tell you to do then you get to have the reward” but rather

“When you have completed the assignment, then you will be rewarded with free time.”

http://www.autismnetwork.org/glossary/index.html#successive


5. “Reward the performance after it occurs.” This seems obvious but is critical. Only

provide the reward after the student has performed as contracted.

6. “The contract must be fair.” Make sure that the rewards are in proportion to the required

performance. For example, don’t give a student 30 minutes of free time for doing 1

minute of work. Likewise don’t give a student only 1 minute of free time after she has

finished 2 hours of working.

7. “The terms of the contract must be clear.” Be specific in the writing of the contract.

8. “The contract must be honest.” Terms of the contract should be carried out as specified.

9. “The contract must be positive.” Use language such as “I will..” and “if you do…” not “If

you do not…” or “I won’t…”

10. “Contracting as a method must be used systematically.” Adults must be consistent with

the terms so students know that adults can be trusted and will follow through on what

they have promised.

The following format by Downing (1990, p. 111-113), can also be used to implement a

contingency contract for a student. It can be adapted, as needed, to individualize for students and

classrooms.

1. Meet with all parties involved to prioritize concerns. Choose the behavior that will be of

focus. For example, the teachers and parents meet and determine that ‘talking out’

behavior disruptive to Johnny’s day.

2. Determine where, when, with whom, and under what conditions the behavior happens

(often referred to as a functional assessment). For example, it is determined that Johnny


talks out 5 times every minute during math class and only one time per minute in other

classes.

3. Determine who will use the contract, when, and where. For example will the contract be

used throughout the school day or just in math class?

4. Figure out what will be used as a reward. You may want to complete a reinforcement

survey. The reward must be motivating for the child!

5. Keep the reinforcers small and manageable and consider changing reinforcers so students

don’t get tired of the same thing. For example you may want to have a list of rewards for

the child to choose from each week.

6. Figure out which, if any, “negative” consequences will be used if the student does not

follow through with their part of the contract. For example, will the student have to stay

after school to complete work?

7. Decide how often the child will be reinforced. Will it be for every occurrence of the

behavior or will it be intermittent?

8. Make sure that you have baseline data that clearly shows the current rate of the behavior.

This is critical to demonstrate the student is making progress after the intervention is

initiated.

9. Determine what the goal and expectations for the behavior will be. For example, do you

expect the student to talk out only one time per class period or is that unrealistic?

10. Write the contract with all of the above elements included. Use positive, non-ambiguous

language.


11. Set up daily expectations and increase these over time to ensure success.

12. Discuss the contract with the student and others involved. Answer questions and ensure

that all involved understand their role in implementing the contract.

13. Make sure that all parties sign the contract.

14. Schedule meeting times to evaluate the child’s success using the contract.

15. Set up a monitoring plan to chart progress.

Some students are able to contribute significantly as the contract is written by, for example,

negotiating the terms of the contract (e.g. what reward(s) they will work for, how much work to

do, etc.). Other children will not be able to make these decisions without adult assistance. The

negotiation process can be a valuable teaching tool for many of the children with whom you

work. For example, some children can come to understand what it means to negotiate by

repeated use of contracts. As the child agrees to complete work or exhibit other behaviors, the

teachers agree to various rewards and conditions.

For younger children or those with cognitive impairments other supports may be needed to

facilitate the contract process. Some children will need visual supports to accompany the contract

to help them remember what is expected or to understand the contingency. These might include

mini-schedules, a videotape of the expected behaviors (e.g. what the expected behavior looks

like, what the inappropriate behavior looks like, etc.), and reminders such as pictures or icons.

Other children may need to role-play behaviors to fully understand what is expected. For

example, teachers and students can role-play what is the appropriate behavior and what is not.


Sometimes more intrusive measures and assessment may be necessary. This may include a

functional assessment of behavior to determine possible causes of the behavior. Once the reason

has been identified strategies can be designed to address the function of or reason why a certain

behavior is occurring.

Where, when, and how can contingencies and contracts be used?

Group contingencies

As stated previously, contingencies have been shown to be effective with individuals, groups or

entire classrooms of students. When creating contingencies for groups of children, the basic rules

and guidelines described earlier in this lesson must be followed. In addition, are some specific

considerations are also necessary when developing contingencies/contracts with more than one

student.

1. Take into account that there will be differences in the motivational factors of items used

with groups. That is, what is reinforcing for one student may be neutral or even aversive

to another. Talking to students about what is rewarding for them is very important when

creating the group contract or contingency. You might want to develop a menu of

reinforcers so that students can choose what is reinforcing to them. For example, for

completing contractual requirements (e.g. work completion or behavior related), students

could choose from an activity list (Reading Corner, using clay, listening to a tape, etc.).

Because the list also includes choices for different reinforcer time, most students will be

able to find something that they like to do.


2. For some children following a class contract can be a challenge, so they may need their

own individual contract as well.

3. Some students may seek to sabotage a group contingency for any number of reasons.

These students will need to understand that their behavior will be individually tracked

and that they will not be able to impede the group’s chances of earning the promised

rewards.

Differences in contingencies

As stated before, a variety of terms are used to refer to contingencies and contracts (contracting,

contingency contracting, contingency contracts, contingency management, behavior

contracts, learning contracts, and social contracts). Generally, these terms refer to the same

concept, that is, using the behavior principles discussed throughout this lesson to create written

contingencies whereby students complete less preferred work in order to receive a reward.

Contingency management refers to the general procedures and principles behind the use of all

contingencies and contracts. It is the idea that we are managing behaviors by the use of

contingencies with students. A behavior contract usually refers to a contract that focuses on

decreasing specific inappropriate behaviors. A learning contract usually refers to a specific

chunk of learning or project that the student will accomplish. A learning contract may not always

have a reward attached to it. Social contracts refer to contracts specifically aimed at increasing

or decreasing social interaction/communication behaviors.

Using Contracts and Contingencies in the home and community

Parents and caregivers frequently use contingencies and contracts with children and youth in

home and community settings. If you listen to conversations at the mall or in a restaurant, you


will probably hear contingencies used all the time. “Maria, you may have ice cream but first you

need to eat 10 bites of your sandwich.” “No Keith, you may not have that toy. You know that

you need to buy that with your own money. You earn 5 dollars every week for chores and when

you have earned enough to buy that toy we will go to the mall.” “When we get home from school

today Roberto, you can have a snack. Then you need to work for 30 minutes on your homework.

When you finish that work, then you can use the computer game.” What grandmother knew so

many years ago still holds true today. Children are more likely to do less preferred tasks when

they know something they like will follow.

The guidelines and principles of contracts are the same in the home and community as they are

in the school setting. Just as in the school, parents need to decide which reinforcers to promise

after task completion. Set up contingencies that can be followed. For example, if you promise

your child pizza after completing a book report, the pizza reward will be the most reinforcing if

given as soon as the book report is completed. Reinforcers lose effectiveness and children begin

to mistrust adults if there is a delay in rewards or lack of follow-through on the adult’s part of the

bargain.

Limitations

Despite their many advantages, there are some limitations to using contingencies and contracts.

For some students, putting a contract into their day (especially without their input) is

aversive, so they may not respond.

Students with cognitive impairments may have difficulty understanding the contract and

the expectations.


It can be time-consuming to set up and manage successful contingencies and contracts.

Sometimes the reinforcers children want are not available at all or at the time they want

them (e.g. extra time playing in the gym, going to McDonald’s, computer time, etc.).

Some reinforcers quickly become satiated or otherwise lose their motivating power to

students.

Students must be able to perform the behavior that you are rewarding.

In summary, using contingencies and behavioral contracts, although somewhat time-consuming

to implement, can be very effective in helping children in a number of areas. These include

completing less preferred work, decreasing problem behaviors, increasing motivation,

understanding expectations and boundaries, and accepting more responsibility.


Quiz

1. Using contingencies and contracts is an intervention that takes very little effort and very little time for educators or families to implement.

True

False

2. Which of the following are reasons to use contingencies and contracts?

A. Helps children learn expectations

B. Helps children to take responsibility

C. Creates a permanent product that can be referred to when there are questions

D. All of the above

3. When creating a contract the language should be…

A. ambiguous

B. clear, positive and to the point

4. Can a contract be used with a student who has mental retardation?


A. No, never

B.Yes, always

C. Probably, but you may have to use some other supports (pictures, etc.) to help the child understand what is expected

5. A contingency…

A. Depends on the fulfillment of a condition

B. Gives a child what he or she needs

C. Gives a child a reward just because you want to be kind

6. Which of the following does not describe a characteristic of a contract?

A. Reinforcement can be given at any time and for any reason

B. Contracts reward accomplishment

C. It is OK to first reward students in small approximations

D. The student is rewarded when the contracted behavior has been exhibited

7. When creating a contract with a student, try to get as little input as possible from the child as possible.


True

False

8. Contingencies can be used…

A. with students of all ages

B. with students with and without disabilities

C. with individuals and/or groups of students

D. all the above

References

Alberto, P. A., & Troutman, A. C. (1999). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (5th ed.).

Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders

(4th ed.- Text Revision). Washington, DC: Author.


Baer, D. M., Wolf, M. M., & Risley, T. R. (1968). Some current dimensions of applied behavior

analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1, 91-97.

Downing, J. A. (1990). Contingency contracts: A step-by-step format. Intervention in School and

Clinic, 26(2), 111–113.

Hodgdon, L. A. (1996). Visual strategies for improving communication: Practical supports for

school and home. Troy, MI: Quirk Roberts Publishing.

Homme, L., Csanyi, A. P., Gonzales, M. A., & Rechs, J. R. (1969). How to use contingency

contracting in the classroom. Champaign, IL: Research Press.

Mable, T. J., & Marholin, II. D. (1980). Behavioral contracting: The principal as a resource.

Pointer, 24(3), 39-46.

Myles, B. S., & Southwick, J. (1999). Asperger syndrome and difficult moments: Practical

solutions for tantrums, rage, and meltdowns. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing

Company.

Nelson, C. M., & Rutherford, R. B. (1988). Behavioral interventions with behaviorally

disordered students. In M. D. Wang, M. C. Reynolds, & H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Handbook of

special education: Research and practice, Vol. 2, pp. 125-153. New York: Pergamon Press.

Premack, D. (1959). Toward empirical behavior laws: I. Positive reinforcement. Psychological

Review, 66, 219-233.

Random House Dictionary of the English Language (1998). New York, New York.


Reynolds, C. R., & Mann, L. (Eds.), (1987). Encyclopedia of special education: Vol. 1. New

York: John Wiley & Sons.

Rutherford, R. B., & Polsgrove, L. J. (1981). Behavioral contracting with behaviorally

disordered and delinquent children and youth: An analysis of the clinical and experimental

literature. In R. B. Rutherford, A. G. Prieto, & J. E. McGlothlin (Eds.), Severe behavior

disorders of children and youth (Vol. 4, pp. 49-69). Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional

Children with Behavioral Disorders.

Salend, S. J. (1987). Contingency management systems. Academic Therapy, 22, 245-253.

Simpson, R. L., & Myles, B. S. (1998). Aggression among children and youth who have asperger

syndrome: A different population requiring different strategies. Preventing School Failure,

42(4), 149-153.

Wang, M., Reynolds, M. C., & Walberg, H. J. (eds.) (1988). Handbook of special education:

research and practice, vol. 2, mildly handicapped conditions. New York: Pergamon Press.

White-Blackburn, G., Semb, S., & Semb, G. (1977). The effects of a good-behavior contract on

the classroom behavior of sixth-grade students. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 312.

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