Migrants and refugees’ information literacy and information-seeking behaviour:

A literature review

Introduction

This literature review discusses the fields of Information literacy and Information-seeking behaviour within communities of migrants and refugees. To begin with, it is important to outline the basic difference between the two disciplines. Information literacy concerns itself with an individual’s understanding and consequent acknowledgement of a particular gap or need in their information spectrum and subsequently their capacity for obtaining this information. Information-seeking behaviour refers to the channels the individual then follows in pursuit of this information - how they go about obtaining it.

The fields of Migrants and refugees’ information literacy and Information-seeking behaviour are complex and growing areas of research. There are a number of trends and schools of thought that have emerged over the last two decades and in the last few years. This review of the literature aims to summarise some of the strongest and most prolific exponents for studies in the field, as well as a few of the latest ideas. It highlights the similarities in thought as well as some disparities and different directions. The articles used for this review have been grouped in overarching themes, outlining the ideas within. In analysing the literature some of the most prevalent trends have been used to create criteria for the articles that were to be reviewed. The identified themes are:

Social inclusion vs social exclusion Information resilience Social networks Migrants and refugees-Similar yet different The three stages of settlement Everyday spaces

A number of gaps in research are highlighted as a matter of course during this paper. The articles will be reviewed and compared in the above order. After this, the methodology for most of these articles is briefly discussed in another section as well as the reasoning behind it. Lastly, the review finishes with a summary and conclusion as well as some recommendations for future studies and insights regarding the relevance of the topic within the Library profession. As a final perspective, a personal reflection is added at the end.

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According to the United Nations Refugee Agency (2017) the figure of “forcibly displaced people worldwide” is at 65.3 million and increasing. It is with this sobering fact that the importance of migrants and refugees’ Information Literacy and information-seeking behaviour must be put into context. There is a massive influx of people all over the world arriving into different cultures and societies, and information plays an integral role in their ability to become fully participating members of the societies they settle in.

Social inclusion vs social exclusion

Lloyd, A. (2010) refers to the concepts of social inclusion vs social exclusion of migrants and refugees into their newly-adopted communities and the direct role the inability to access basic information has on this group and on their capacity to successfully integrate as informed citizens of society. Furthermore, this incapacity to develop information practices can lead to information poverty, exacerbating their exclusion from society and indeed placing them in the periphery of it. Similarly, Caidi & Allard (2005) refer to social exclusion as an information problem-by having a lack of access to it, the individual faces conditions and barriers that prohibit full participation in education, work and everyday life. Additionally, Caidi & Allard (2005) refer to the capacity of information literacy skills as a tool for social empowerment.

Lloyd, Kennan, Thompson & Qayyum (2013) state that “refugees encounter complex and challenging barriers in their new information landscapes” (Lloyd et al., 2013). They credit trusted mediators with enabling social inclusion and refer to the importance of providing information on many different levels and through a range of communication mediums and activities. Additionally, Allen, M., Matthew, S., & Boland, M. J. O. (2004) also mention the vital role that interpreters serve within the healthcare system as well as mentioning that the information provided needs to be “culturally and linguistically appropriate” (Allen et al.,

2004). For a well-functioning society, it is important newcomers integrate successfully. Caidi, N., & Allard, D. (2005) argue “It is increasingly clear from the literature that social exclusion hurts not only those people who are excluded (their needs are not met), but also the broader society”.

Information resilience

In the same way, Lloyd A. (2015) also refers to the importance of “socially mediated” information. In addition, she identifies a gap in the research by introducing the concept of Information resilience, an outcome of Information Literacy practice. She states “While an inability to find information is often alluded to, missing from these studies is an understanding about how mastery of the information environment, through information practices such as information literacy can act as a critical strategy to reduce uncertainty in times of transition”. Lloyd, A. (2014). In the process of dealing with this uncertainty, Lloyd presents two interconnected mechanisms undertaken by these communities as part of Information resilience in order to piece together information they lack: Collective coping

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and pooling. Lloyd, A. (2015). Collective coping and pooling refers to an activity undertaken in a place where there is a high level of trust and refugees get together, either purposively or coincidentally and pool their information resources to deal with the information issue (in the case of this study, health issues) and help each other fragment information together. It is through this practice that they begin to develop a measure of control over their information landscape.

Social networks

Social networks play an ever-present role in the lives of migrants and refugees as a way to obtain information. These social networks can take place either face to face in a physical setting or on social media or online forums. When newcomers have problems accessing information services, whether they be for health, work or education purposes, these groups turn inwards and rely on their colleagues, work mates, relatives and friends. Often these social networks include online platforms. However, as the following studies explain, some communities prefer getting their information from family, friends, colleagues and the like even when other sources are available. In an example of two ethnic communities living in Canada, there is a relationship between two studies conducted by Dominic, H. S. (2006) and Quirke, L. (2012). In both cases, the Sudanese youth in London, Ontario, and Afghan youth in Toronto use family, friends and colleagues as chief sources of information, preferring this over official channels or online materials. Although six years apart, the authors of both studies recommend further research in the area as there is a dearth of information in studies of refugee youth in Canada.

Goodall, K. T., Newman, L. A., & Ward, P. R. (2014) found an area where little research had been conducted on how older culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD) migrants find health-related information. In many of the cases the information was relayed by their adult children as they had problems understanding English and using computers. In another example, Sirikul, P., & Dorner, D. (2016) found in their study of Thai immigrants to New Zealand that “the main information sources during settlement were family, friends and the internet”. In an extreme case of a very limited social network, Newell, B. C., Gomez, R., & Guajardo, V. E. (2016) describe how the safest information for migrants at the U.S-Mexico border is word of mouth, not technology. Indeed the use of phones, which until they reach the border has been a lifeline, at the border becomes, “a double-edged sword, because the disclosure of phone numbers of a person's contacts or family members is a window to extortion and abuse”. (Newell et al., 2016). Whether face to face, phone or online, migrants rely on these information lifelines to go on and often to survive.

Migrants and refugees - Similar yet different

The myriad examples stated previously serve to show there are differences between migrants and refugees’ circumstances and information experiences. A growing area of research concerns itself with the importance of establishing this difference. From an

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information perspective, the needs of migrants and refugees arriving to a new country can seem somewhat similar. There are comparable groups of needs: health, language, employment, education. However, there are a number of clear differences between the two groups. Koo, J., Cho, Y., & Gross, M. (2011) refer to a number of these; “in the process of forced migration, refugees often suffer psychologically traumatic experiences, such as sudden separation, loss, grief, violence”. In addition to this, they explain the refugees’ exodus is an involuntary one, leading to inadequate preparation for migration. To this is added the fact they cannot return home, whereas a normal migrant can. Furthermore, they state that: “In the spite of their qualitatively different experiences and needs as compared to general immigrants, almost all studies have treated refugees’ information worlds and information barriers without differentiating them from general immigrants” (Koo et al., 2011).

In another study from 2011, Kennan, A. A., Lloyd, A., Qayyum, A., & Thompson, K. (2011) found that “the information landscape for the refugee settlers is different and highly specialised”. Lloyd, A. (2017) also maintains that “of the research that is available there is a tendency to treat migrants and refugees as belonging to the same category. This tendency to group refugees and migrants together fails to acknowledge the political nature of the refugee designation”. Furthermore, she identifies the importance of nomenclature in definitions of refugee and migrant and introduces a range of themes to frame the information experience of the refugee such as the “exilic journey, liminality, integration, bonding and bridging capital”. Lloyd, A. (2017). In terms of LIS and the terms migrant and refugee she states it is “of particular importance to ensure the terms are not used interchangeably in reporting research in the library and information science field”. Finally, Shankar, S., O'Brien, H. L., How, E., Lu, Y., Mabi, M., & Rose, C. (2016) concur with the previous researchers by asserting “Refugees, displaced persons, and asylum seekers are distinguished from other immigrants due to the conditions that lead to migration and the lack of choice these present”. Encountering a new information landscape is a difficult process for any newcomer experiencing a different culture and society. But the trauma related to the departure of their homelands, renders the experience for refugees a particularly poignant.

The three stages of settlement

Newcomers go through a number of stages as part of their settling into a new environment. Kennan, A. A., Lloyd, A., Qayyum, A., & Thompson, K. (2011) suggest these three stages: Transitioning, settling in, and being settled. As they describe it, “these phases are not necessarily sequential; rather they are cyclical and iterative” (Kennan et al., 2011). The manner in which a settler arrives in the country and their level of previous education seems to have a direct bearing on the length of time in each phase as well as returns to previous phases. Once more, the difference between migrants and refugees is highlighted. As the findings were analysed they found that “it became clear that the information landscape was

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a much more complex issue for refugee settlers than for settlers of other types” (Kennan et al., 2011).

In a much earlier Canadian report, Mwarigha (2002, pp. 9-10) also identifies three stages of settlement: Immediate, intermediate and long term. The stages on both the previously mentioned study and Mwarigha’s report are somewhat similar; however, the study undertaken by Kennan, A. A., Lloyd, A., Qayyum, A., & Thompson, K. (2011) goes into much more depth, specifically addressing the needs of refugees as a group. They also mention the importance of the case worker as a receptacle of information “[the] caseworker is a vital information source really so they become quite attached to them ... - it's constant, the case workers work daily with them” (Kennan et al., 2011) and further, “Based on experience, service providers anticipate settler information needs and navigate the settlers through the information landscape and towards the appropriate information sources”. (Kennan et al., 2011). In a 2016 Canadian study, Shankar, S., O'Brien, H. L., How, E., Lu, Y. (., Mabi, M., & Rose, C. (2016) also refer to three stages of settlement for refugee students coming to study to Canadian Universities: pre-migration or transitioning phase, immediate stage or settling in phase and intermediate and integrative stages or settled phase. The initial stages are described as “hectic, high-contact periods for Student Refugee Program (SRP) students and staff” (Shankar et al., 2016). They also identify a potential area of research, as little is known about ”the information sources utilized by refugee students after their immediate arrival and settling in period, or how settled or integrated students feel in their new homes”(Shankar et al., 2016). This study, once again in Canada, reiterates the lack of research on refugee youth in this area. There are commonalities in all these studies. The process of introduction, integration, and eventual settlement is a lengthy, bewildering one for migrants and refugees. For refugees specifically, the studies would indicate a particularly iterative, difficult transition.

Everyday Spaces

The concept of everyday spaces as sources of informal learning for migrants and refugees and as a doorway to the community is one that Lloyd, A., & Wilkinson, J. (2016) have identified as a topic rarely described in the LIS literature, yet often referred to in the LIS field. The everyday space is described as an opening to “information resources that relate to social rules, regulations and prescribed ways of knowing that enable communities to operate and people within the communities to learn how to go on”. (Lloyd et al., 2016). Further, they explain that an everyday space constitutes much more than just a physical environment. “Everyday spaces may therefore be physical, for example, a location, they may be virtual, or emotional, but they exist temporally and spatially”. (Lloyd et al., 2016). Indeed, participants of this study talk about using Facebook and even gaming sites as rich sources of social information and a way to learn and develop skills for real-world situations. Through finding these varied spaces and linking them together, the newcomer begins to create their information landscape. The very act of travelling to a particular everyday space

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can be imbued with information gathering and produces information about the space being

inhabited. In a project by Lingel, J. (2015) the findings “demonstrate the informational dimension of mobility and the extent to which information practices can be tracked not only in terms of where spatial data are located but also in the trajectories of movement that produce information”.

By their very nature, Libraries are clearly identified in a number of these studies as communal everyday spaces where a high degree of trust is prevalent. Varheim, A. (2014) describes public libraries as “highly trusted universalistic institutions visited by a wide spectrum of people” and argues that “public libraries in particular contribute to increased generalized trust, a core component of social capital, among immigrants”. Caidi, N., & Allard, D. (2005) expand upon this by asserting “The first step in providing social services to immigrants and other marginalized communities would be facilitating literacy of these services”. (Caidi et al., 2005). In their study, Kennan, A. A., Lloyd, A., Qayyum, A., & Thompson, K. (2011) also mention the way that refugee communities that have been introduced to the library come to see it as “a resource, for themselves and their children, and as a safe space to meet others”. This however, is not easy to achieve. In the same study a service provider mentioned the difficulties refugees had in accessing the services as well as recognising the relevant information when it was not in their language. This is an area equally explored in a study by Peterson, K. J. (2014). She concludes in her recommendations that “The best strategy, or at least the one that seems to be currently working the best, is to bring the resources to where Latino migrant workers are”. Peterson, K. J. (2014). She also recommends that libraries should give English lessons.

Unlike the physical environments just mentioned, Caidi, N., Komlodi, A., Abrao, A. L., & Martin-Hammond, A. (2014) specifically focus on the relevance that online forums have for foreign-trained health professionals working in the U.S and Canada. Upon arrival and finding a complex and unwelcoming professional environment, these professionals meet their information needs through online spaces by”sharing experiences and stories, expressing visceral or affective reactions, offering opinions, and negotiating the norms and etiquette of the forum” (Caidi et al., 2014). Similarly, Rayes, W., Martin-Hammond, A., Komlodi, A., Caidi, N. and Sundin, N. (2016) found that a number of participants in a 2016 U.S. and Canada study of international medical graduates (IMG’s) begun creating their own online spaces as a way to support their peers and disseminate information through the difficult process of integration. They identified this group (IMG’s) as one where much more research needs to be undertaken. The theme of the online everyday space is also given another level of relevance by Srinivasan, R., & Pyati, A. (2007) who express the opinion that “technologically mediated diasporas, however, are not merely entities in cyberspace, disconnected from the economic, social, and political realities of lived experience. Rather, these diasporas are connected to real social contexts”. The concept of diaspora and online space is further explored by Sibal, H. T., & Foo, S. (2016). Referring to low-paid Filipino domestic workers (FDW’s) working in Singapore, the authors state “they maximize online use to service their

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information needs, that cover varied areas inclusive of subsistence, rights protection, leisure, health and social security, employment, social and psychological support, government services, left behind families’ welfare, and local events”. (Sibal et al., 2016). The authors assert not enough research has been undertaken on the information-seeking behaviour of low-paid transnational workers as most previous studies of transnational workers has concentrated on elite professionals. It is interesting to observe the similarities between these workers (FDW’s) and the experiences of the International medical graduates in the U.S and Canada. Although of an entirely different status, both groups turn to their everyday spaces as a means for connection, support and information.

Methodology

In an overwhelming majority of these cases, the methodology used was qualitative, grounded theory-focused. Semi-structured interviews are common, as they give the participant free range to talk about their experiences. There seems to be a general consensus on this type of method being the best to represent the reality of this research area. T. D. Wilson, (1981) describes it thus: “Qualitative research seems particularly appropriate to the study of the needs underlying information seeking behaviour because ‐our concern is with uncovering the facts of the everyday life of the people being investigated”. As a departure from just conducting interviews and something fairly new and relevant in the field, two recent studies by Lloyd, A., & Wilkinson, J. (2016) and Lloyd, A. (2017) used a visual technique called Photovoice. By equipping participants of the study with cameras and teaching them protocols of how to go about using them, “the technique allows participants to represent aspects of their everyday life that are often difficult to articulate” (Lloyd et al., 2016). They describe this method as becoming “increasingly important to the social science methodology toolbox and has significant benefits for research in the Library and Information Sciences field” (Lloyd et al., 2016).

Conclusion

To summarise, there have been some major contributions within the themes discussed. These are the main points.

Social inclusion vs social exclusion

It is clear from the studies there is a direct link between an individual or group’s capacity to access information and their ability to successfully integrate as informed citizens of society. This incapacity can lead to information poverty, increasing their degree of social exclusion vs social inclusion. Social exclusion has been identified and qualified as an information problem, prohibiting full participation in society. Newcomers, and specifically refugees, need to be provided with information that is culturally and linguistically adequate and using a range of communication mediums and activities. The importance of building trust through social mediators has been identified, as well as establishing that social exclusion is damaging not just for the people affected but also for the broader society.

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Information resilience

The concept of Information resilience has been introduced as a by-product of information literacy practice. Information resilience takes place through two intertwined mechanisms: Collective coping and pooling. Collective coping refers to the banding together of individuals to deal with the uncertainty of having a lack of information. Pooling is identified as piecing together the different fragments of knowledge within a group to make sense of an information problem. This in turn creates mastery of the information environment, thereby lessening the sense of uncertainty.

Social networks

This is a universal theme within Information literacy and Information-seeking behaviour. No matter what social strata people come from, when coming into a new information landscape they rely heavily on a network of family relatives, friends and colleagues as a source of information. These networks can either take place face to face or by phone or internet. Some groups of refugees are identified as having a proclivity for face to face sharing of information as opposed to formal channels or online sources. On a number of occasions the information habits of refugee youth in Canada are identified as an area where further research is required.

Migrants and refugees - Similar yet different

The clear differences between the information landscapes of migrants and refugees are established in these studies and the case is presented for the need of specific nomenclature in referring to these two similar yet distinct groups. Entering the new information landscape of a different society is a difficult and lengthy process for any individual but refugees face special challenges by the traumatic nature and lack of choice present in the circumstances surrounding their exodus. The information landscape of a refugee is thereby identified as much more complex than the one for other settlers.

The three stages of settlement

There seems to be a relative consensus on the stages of settlement of migrants and refugees derived from three different studies conducted in 2002, 2011 and 2016. The studies concur in that the nature of the settlement process seems to be cyclical and iterative, as well as a lengthy process. Once again refugees are specifically mentioned as a group for whom the process is particularly iterative and lengthy. The importance of a caseworker or trusted point of contact during the settlement process is mentioned in two of the studies.

Everyday Spaces

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The concept of the Everyday space has been described as an opening to “information resources that relate to social rules, regulations and prescribed ways of knowing that enable communities to operate and people within the communities to learn how to go on” Lloyd, A., & Wilkinson, J. (2016). These spaces are not just physical. Online platforms can be Everyday spaces. By linking together these spaces, a settler begins to develop their information landscape. Libraries are defined as a universal and communal Everyday space where a high degree of trust can be generated. However, English and information literacy skills are described as two barriers to accessing these services.

Migrants and refugees and insights for the Library profession

Without a doubt, all of the literature shows Librarians have a role to play in helping migrants and refugees integrate successfully into mainstream society. In the case of refugees specifically, safety and trust are two especially significant issues in creating a space where their Information literacy and Information-seeking behaviour can be encouraged. To this end, English language classes should be promoted in Libraries. In addition, when access to a library is difficult, an effort should be made on the part of the City Council/Social services to bring the library to them so they can at least be exposed to the information and word of mouth could be created in the community. One of the studies from Norway mentioned having ethnic volunteers work in Libraries as a way to connect with their communities. This is something that should at least be attempted in Australia.

Recommendations

Given the figures provided and the current state of world affairs, it is a sad fact that this area of research is of huge relevance to the future. More studies are needed on the social inclusion vs social exclusion of migrants and refugees, as societies around the world miss out on a huge resource by not being able to tap into the experience and information these groups bring with them. More research is required on how to deliver information literacy training that is culturally and linguistically relevant. There is a clear difference between the information landscapes of migrants and refugees. More research is required on how to develop specific programmes tailored for each of these groups. This is an enormous issue and it is not going away. Information is knowledge and knowledge is power. The only way to empower these individuals is through helping them recognize their own capacity for mastering their information landscape.

Reflection

Writing this assignment taught me two important things. From a technical perspective, the first and obvious one is how to write a Literature review. I now have a clear understanding of the steps involved and when I have to write another one (or help someone write one) I will begin the process earlier, specifically the reading of articles. One important area to consider is the time required for the concepts and themes to “marinate” in the mind so they can be assimilated and one can have the necessary understanding to write about a topic

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with a degree of discernment. That can’t really be rushed; it takes time to reflect on all the different perspectives. This is a huge issue and one that I care about, so I would have liked to spend more time doing it. Because of the complexities in the topics, once I started I almost felt a literature review of both Information literature and Information-seeking behaviour was beyond the scope of the assignment. I feel I concentrated too much on general patterns of general congruence as opposed to finding areas of clear disagreement in the literature and the research. One of the hardest things about writing this assignment was separating the articles under different themes, as so many of them overlapped with each other. The analysing and synthesising of all the information and then deciding what would make it into the review was also difficult. The article tables we were provided with by Luke made all the difference. By physically filling them separately it allowed me to organize them into topics and begin having the themes coalesce in my mind. I need to further develop my research skills. I find what I need but I know I could do it faster, making it easier for myself. Something else I found difficult in this assignment was not expressing an opinion about the issue being discussed and to simply review the literature. Nevertheless, I am mostly happy with my work. The writing is eloquent, clear and concise. The ideas are expressed clearly and with an audience in mind. The research has been thorough and relevant to the topic. The contexts are well-identified. There has been consistent attention to key issues and the discussion has progressed logically. There has been a comprehensive understanding of the issues. I know I could do a better job but considering it is the first time I am writing a literature review, I think this work is representative of my abilities. Having a look at the criteria, I would award this paper a 6.

Finally, there is the second most important thing I learned, which turned out to be the most important thing for me personally in this assignment. It was something that I hadn’t really thought about consciously before I started this class: The capacity for individuals to change their circumstances can only really take place through the empowerment that comes from being informed and knowing how to access that knowledge. Change begins with information.

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