Keywords:society, nomadic, semi-nomadic, settled, hunt, farming, paleoliticum, mesoliticum, neoliticum, megaliticum, fossil, copper, bronze, iron, axe, cave, animism, dan dynamism.

After studying this chapter, you are expected to be able to understand the characteristics of life of Indonesian preliterate society and its relics.

LIFE OF PREHISTORIC SOCIETY

Types of Prehistoric People

Discoveries of Prehistoric People

Ancestors of the Indonesian People

Prehistoric People in Indonesia

Socio-Economic and Cultural Life

Socio-Economic Life

Cultural Products

CHAPTER IILIFE IN THE PRELITERATE PERIOD

IN INDONESIA

Concept Map

The ancestors of the Indonesian people were from Yunan, a region located in Myanmar (Burma). When moving from Yunan to Indonesia, they did not know any writing system yet.

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Therefore, their society is called a preliterate society. They lived as nomads, moving from one place to another. Their destinations were places which produced their foodstuffs. One of those places was Indonesia. It was not too difficult for them to reach Indonesia because at that time the Indonesian territory still became one with the Asian mainland. This is proven by the similarity between the fauna in Indonesia and the fauna in the Asian mainland.

For the purpose of farming, they started to settle in a place temporarily. After they finished farming in one place, they moved to another place to fulfil their basic needs in life. In a new place, they would again farm and have a temporarily settled life. Finally, they would be back in their original place when harvest time arrived. They had this kind of life continuously. Therefore, they are called semi-nomads.

Their life continued to develop and finally they started to settle in one place. To survive, they did not depend on only what nature gave them. They started to know a system of agriculture and started to rear farm animals. In addition, they started to live together as a group so that a pre-literate society was formed. They helped each other in surviving and living. For example, they hunted animals together.

To make it easier for them to fulfil their needs, they started to know and make tools. The tools were made of stone, bone, wood, or metal. Some of the tools were still in a very simple shape but others were already in a fairly fine or even very fine shape. They were round, flat, pointed, small, or large. The shape and type of the tools were according to the user’s development and need in life. The relics of tools which were made of bone and wood have now generally petrified (becoming stone) and are called fossils.

The preliterate society also already knew the beliefs called animism and dynamism. Animism is the belief that every object has a spirit or soul. Meanwhile, dynamism is the belief that every object has mystical power.

A. PREHISTORIC PEOPLE IN INDONESIA 1. Discoveries of the Fossils of Prehistoric People

The discoveries of prehistoric people in Indonesia could not be separated from the river Bengawan Solo because many fossils of prehistoric people were found along the river.

The discoveries of various shapes and types of prehistoric people along Bengawan Solo could give an idea of the physical development of prehistoric people at certain times. Discoveries of prehistoric people in other parts of the world could not give a

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Fig. 2.1Prehistoric People

complete idea like the idea shown by the discoveries in this country.

The first discovery of fossils of prehistoric people in Indonesia is the discovery of Pithecanthropus erectus by E. Dubois in 1890. This is said to be the basis of further investigation The discovery was in an area of Trinil, a village on the bank of the river Bengawan Solo, in the region of Ngawi, East Java.

The level of prehistoric people’s intelligence was indicated by the volume of their brain. It was estimated that the brain volume of the prehistoric people was approximately 900 cc. For comparison, the brain volume of common people nowadays is always more than 1000 cc while the brain volume of the most intelligent primate (ape) is only 600 cc. Therefore, the prehistoric people like the people who were discovered in Trinil have been categorized as creatures whose position is between human beings and primates. The shape of the bone at the back of the skull, which determines the position of the head on top of the neck, indicates that direction of thought. The lower part of the forehead is very much more forward than the upper part and the parts above the nose where the eyebrows are become one.

All that above makes it difficult to decide whether to regard the creatures as apes (pithekos) or as humans (anthropos). E. Dubois himself placed the creatures between apes and humans for they already began to walk erect. Therefore, the creatures were given the name of Pithecanthropus erectus (meaning ‘apeman who walks erect’). They could not be put in the class of apes because they were higher in level than any species of ape and they could not be put in the class of humans, either, because they were lower in level than any member of the modern human species (Homo sapiens).

Further investigation was done by von Koenigswald. He conducted some research in the period of 1936-1941 in the region along the valley of the river Bengawan Solo. In 1936, a fossil of the skull of a child was found near Mojokerto. According to the teeth, it was estimated

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Figure 2.2Skull of

Homo soloensis

Figure 2.3Prehistoric Javanese

that the child had not passed the age of five years. The owner of the skull was given the name of Homo mojokertoensis.

In 1941 in the region of Sangiran (in the valley of the river Bengawan Solo) von Koenigswald found a part of a lower jawbone which was far larger and stronger than the lower jawbone of Pithecanthropus erectus. The teeth showed human characteristics but there were still many ape characteristics in them. There was no chin. Von Koenigswald placed the owner of the jawbone in an older period than the period of Pithecanthropus erectus. In view of the large size, which was associated with the term megas, the creature was given the name of Meganthropus paleojavanicus.

Meanwhile, in the period of 1931-1934, near Ngandong, Regency of Blora, still in the valley of Bengawan Solo, eleven skull fossils were found. According to von Koenigswald’s and Weidenrich’s investigations, it was stated that the owners of the skulls were higher in level than Pithecanthropus erectus and were even already close to or could be regarded as human beings. Therefore, the owners of the fossils were given the name of Homo soloensis (to mean humans from Solo).

New investigation on the skull fossil which was found near Wajak, Tulungagung, Kediri, in 1889 indicated that the skull of Homo wajakensis was different from the skull of the average Indonesian. However, it had many similarities with the skull of the natives of the Australian continent of today, who are also known as Aborigines.

After the period of Dutch imperialism ended, investigations about prehistoric people were continued by Indonesian scientists themselves. One famous researcher was Prof. Dr. T. Jacob. His research was particularly around Sangiran and along the valley of Bengawan Solo.

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2. Types of Prehistoric PeopleOn the basis of the discussion above, it could be known that

several types of prehistoric people lived in the Pleistocene age. Homo sapiens have developed from previous types of humans, who already showed a form like the form of present humans. Fossils of these human types have been found in several regions in Indonesia. The results of the discoveries of prehistoric people could schematically be described as follows:

No.

TypeDiscoverer

Discovery

SiteYear

1 Pithecanthropus erectus

Eugene Dubois

skull fossil Trinil 1890

2 Meganthropus paleojavanikus and Homo soloensis

Ter Haar, Openoorth and Von Koenigswald

large lower jawbone fossil

Ngandong

1936-1941

3 Homo mojokertoensis

Tjokrohandojo and Duifjes

Prehistoric human fossil

Perning Mojokerto and Sangiran

-

4 Homo wajakensis

Van Reictshotten

skull fossil Wajak 1889

5 Homo sapiens - - -6 - Prof. Dr.

Teuku Jacob13 fossils Sambung

Macan and Sragen

1973

B. ANCESTORS’ ORIGINSAs previously mentioned, according to some experts, the

ancestors of the Indonesian people were from Yunan. The region of Yunan is in the mainland of South East Asia. To be more precise, it is in the territory of Myanmar today. The first wave came in the period of 3000-1500 B.C. on single-outrigger boats while the second wave came in the period of 1500-500 B.C. on boats with double outriggers.

Meanwhile, some other experts have various opinions with their own various arguments or reasons presented as below:1. Prof. Dr. H. Kern, with his theory of immigration, states that

the ancestors of the Indonesian people were from Champa,

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Cochin China, and Cambodia. This opinion is based on the similarity among the languages used in the Indonesian, Polynesian, Melanesian, and Micronesian archipelagos.

2. Von Heine Geldern has the opinion that the ancestors of the Indonesian people were from a certain region in Asia. The opinion is supported by the fact that artefacts or cultural heritages which are found in Indonesia have many similarities with artefacts or cultural heritages which are found in that region.

3. Prof. Mohammad Yamin has the opinion that the ancestors of the Indonesian people were from any region outside Indonesia. This opinion is based on the great number of fossils and artefacts of the oldest people which were discovered in Indonesia.

4. Hogen has the opinion that the race who inhabited the coastal areas of the Malay peninsula originated in Sumatra. This race mixed with the Mongols and became the races which are called the Proto Malays and Deutro Malays. The Proto Malays (Older Malays) spread to Indonesian regions in the period of 3000–1500 B.C. while the Deutro Malays (Younger Malays) spread to Indonesian regions in the period of 1500-500 B.C.

The Malays who were the ancestors of the Indonesian people could be categorized into two: Proto Malays and Deutro Malays.

1. Proto MalaysThese people entered Indonesian regions through two

routes:a. going west from the Malay peninsula to Sumatera and then

spreading to several regions in Indonesia and

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Figure 2.4Map of the migration routes of the Indonesian people’s ancestors

TASK 2.1Discuss with your friends the origins of the ancestors of the Indonesian people.

b. going east from the Malay peninsula to the Philippines and Minahasa and then spreading to several regions in Indonesia.

Descendants of the Proto Malays who are still alive today are the Dayak, Toraja, Batak, and Papua tribes.2. Deutro Malays

Since 500 BC, the Deutro Malays have entered Indonesian regions in waves through the western route. Their culture was higher than the culture of the Proto Malays. Some products of their culture were already made of metal (bronze and iron). Their culture is often called the Dong Song culture. Descendants of the Deutro Malays who are still alive today are, among others, the Malay, Batak,

Minang, Java, and Bugis tribes.

C. SOCIO-ECONOMIC LIFE AND CULTURE 1. Socio-Economic Life

The preliterate society is an illustration of the life of people who did not know writing yet. The life of pre-literate society could be divided into three stages: (1) nomadic life, (2) semi-nomadic life, and (3) settled life.

Wherever their origins were and at whatever times they started to live in Indonesian regions, the ancestors of the Indonesian people had lived in Indonesian regions for thousands of years before the birth of Christ. Like the life of other peoples in other parts of the world, their life underwent a steady development. The stages of development of preliterate society’s life in Indonesia were as follows.

1. Nomadic Life PatternBeing nomads means to keep moving from one place to

another. Preliterate society’s life depended very much on nature. What they ate were whatever foodstuffs which nature provided them with. The foodstuffs were the fruits, leaves, and tubers which they ate after they just had to pick them from trees or dig them up from the ground.

When they wanted to eat fish, they just had to catch fish in rivers, lakes, or other places. When they wanted to eat meat, they just had to hunt animals.

Based on the nomadic life pattern, the period of

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preliterate society’s life is often called ‘the period of gathering food and

hunting’. When there were no more food materials to gather, they moved to another place which still provided them with lots of foodstuffs.

They lived in places they found in nature. These were places in forests, under trees, beside rivers, on mountains, in caves, and in valleys. The most dangerous threats for them were wild beasts.

Because of the needs and challenges which they kept facing, finally they had the thought of making rafts as means of transportation. In their development, the preliterate society even became capable of making canoes and boats as means of transportation through rivers.

During the period of nomadic life, preliterate society already knew living in groups. The number of members in each group was around ten to fifteen. To help themselves in their life, they even could already make tools of stone and wood though they were still very crude and simple in form. The characteristics of nomads’ society’s life are as follows. They always moved from one place to another. They were very dependent on nature. They did not process foodstuffs yet. They lived on results of gathering foodstuffs and hunting. They did not have a permanent place to stay. They used life equipment which was still very simple and

made of stone, bone, horn, or wood.After a time, members of the preliterate society realized

that the food which nature gave them was very limited and there would finally be no more food. Therefore, the method of living very dependently on nature had to be improved. It was improved by cultivating the areas of land that they would leave so that the areas could provide them with enough food when they came there again.

2. Semi-Nomadic Life PatternThe limited ability of nature to fulfil society’s needs in

life demanded a change in the pattern of each society member’s life. Therefore, the preliterate society started to change their life pattern from the life pattern of nomads into the life pattern of semi-nomads. The semi-nomadic life pattern is a pattern of life in which there is still a movement from one place to another but already with temporary settling down. This is linked with the fact that they had started to know the ways of processing foodstuffs.

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The semi-nomadic life pattern was indicated by the following characteristics. They still moved from one place to another. They still depended on nature. They started to know the ways to process foodstuffs. They already had temporary places to stay. Besides gathering foodstuffs and hunting, they started

growing various kinds of plants. Before leaving one place to move to another, they first

grew various kinds of plants and they would be back when harvest time arrived.

Their life equipment was already better than the life equipment of the nomad’s society.

Besides tools which were made of stone and wood, they also had tools which were made of bone so that the tools were sharper.

The social life of semi-nomadic society was one level better than the social life of nomadic society. The number of group members became larger and larger and the members of a group were not limited to a certain family. It indicates that a feeling of togetherness among them started to be developed. They started to learn values of life like doing activities together, having a feeling of love, appreciation, and respect towards one another, and so on.

It is assumed that society in that age already took care of dogs as pets. The dogs were the animals that could help humans in hunting animals. In a cave in South Sulawesi, remains of dog teeth from the preliterate age were discovered.

3. Settled Life PatternPreliterate society’s life continued to develop in

accordance with its needs and demands. It turned out that the semi-nomads’ life pattern was not advantageous. Every human individual still had to move from one place to another. In addition, everyone had to build a place to stay though only for a temporary length of time. Therefore, the semi-nomads’ life pattern could be said to be not effective and efficient enough. Therefore, there came the idea to develop a settled life pattern, and further development of preliterate society’s life was based on this idea.

The settled life pattern had several benefits or advantages as follows, among others: each family could build a dwelling place which was better

and for a longer period of time,

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TASK 2.2

In groups of 4-5 students, discuss the following: why preliterate society always moved from one place

to another why preliterate society tended to live alongside

rivers and in river valleys

everyone could save energy because no one had to carry life equipment again and again from one place to another,

women and children could stay in one place for a longer length of time,

they could store their remaining food better and more safely,

they could keep animals that helped them fulfil their needs,

they had more time to gather with their families, they started to know a system of astronomy for

agricultural interest, and they started to know a system of belief.

Viewed from the point of geography, preliterate society tended to live in river valleys or alongside rivers. The tendency was based on the fact that such areas had more fertile soil structure and were greatly beneficial

for agricultural interest, had springs as sources of fine water as one of the

necessities of human life, and were more accessible and had easier access to other

areas.

2. Cultural Life The preliterate age could be outlined into two: (1) the stone

age and (2) the metal age. This is based on the tools or cultural products which they invented to fulfil their needs in life. Schematically, the division of the preliterate age could be described as follows:

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The earliest age is called the stone age because the products of culture (or artefacts) during that age were mostly made of stone, ranging from simple ones to good and fine ones. The difference in quality gives an idea of the age when the artefacts were produced. The more simple and more crude the product is, it is said to be from an older age and vice versa.

The stone age itself is differentiated into three:(1) old stone age (Paleolithicum), (2) middle stone age (Mesolithicum), and (3) new stone age (Neolithicum).

Besides these divisions of the stone age, there is also a period called the large stone age (Megalithicum).

Some cultural products from the Paleolithic age are, among others, hand axes, chipping tools, choppers, and some types of axes whose two sides have been worked out. These tools could not be categorized core stone culture nor put in the blade group. They are still simply made and still very crude.

Some examples of cultural products from the Paleolithic age could be seen in the figures below.

BRONZE

NEOLITHICUM

MESOLITHICUM

IRON

METAL

STONE

TYPE OF AGE

PALEOLITHICUM

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Figure 2.5Chopper from Pacitan

A chopper is a type of hand axe which functions as a chopping tool. Therefore, a chopper is often also called a chopping axe.

Maybe it is still difficult to imagine how to use a chopper. For example, you will cut a wet piece of wood or a large piece of rope but you do not have a cutting tool. Then you can pick up a sharp stone chip. The piece of wood or rope that will be cut is laid on a hard object and the part that will be cut is hit with the stone until the wood or rope breaks. That is the way to use the chopping axe or chopper.

Other examples of cultural products from the Paleolithic age are flakes or chipping tools. These cultural products are frequently found in Indonesian regions and especially in Sangiran, Central Java, and Cebbenge, South Sulawesi. Flakes have great functions and especially for peeling the skin of tubers and animals. Observe the following examples of flakes found in Sangiran and Cebbenge.

Figure 2.6Flake from Sangiran Figure 2.7

Flake from Cebbenge

In the Mesolithic age there were three different types of culture, that is, the cultures of (1) Bac Son-Hoa Binh, (2) Toale, and (3) Sampung. They are assumed to have come to Indonesia at almost the same time. Products of the Bac Son-Hoa Binh culture were found in caves and clam hills in Indochina, Siam, Malacca, and East Sumatra. These were interrelated regions. This culture

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Figure 2.8 Sumateralith axe

Figure 2.9. Toale blade and microlith tools

generally produced tools made of round river pebbles. The pebbles are also often called ‘core stones’ because only one side of the pebbles has been chipped so that the other side has remained smooth and shiny.

Sumatraliths are some tools which Indonesian preliterate people used to chop, break, or cut something, to be thrown at something, to dig, and others. These tools have been discovered in Sumatra in very great numbers. The findings function at least as proof that life in the users’ society was becoming more and more advanced with higher and higher levels of demands.

The culture of Toale and similar other cultures generally produced flake and blade tools. These products had great influence from the ‘microlith’ element which produced tools of small sizes which were made of stone. In addition, tools made of bones and shells were also found. These tools were mostly tools for hunting or fishermen’s tools.

Cultural products which were similar to the Toale cultural products were found in the highlands of Bandung, Tuban, and Besuki, Java, around the lake of Kerinci and in caves in Jambi, Sumatra, in Flores, in Timor, and in Sulawesi. Below is one of the Toale cultural products from South Sulawesi which has a smaller size but it looks sharper compared to the hand axes, or other axe types.

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Figure 2.10 Tools made of bone and horn

Figure 2.11Tools made of bone and horn (Sampung culture)

Figure 2.12Arrowhead from Sulawesi (left) and

arrowhead from Java (right)

Meanwhile, the Sampung culture was a bone and horn culture which was discovered in the village of Sampung, Ponorogo. The objects which were found were needles, knives, and large spoons. In another layer of the soil in Sampung, arrowheads made of petrified chalk were found. Besides, some human skeletons and predator bones with holes made in them (perhaps used as ornaments or talismans) were also found.

The spread of the Toale culture is not clearly known. However, some studies have proven that this culture has developed in Sulawesi and Flores.

In approximately 1000 B.C., new races who had cultures of more advanced and higher levels came. They are known as the

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Figure 2.16Map of the Spread of Oval Axes and Square Adzes

Proto Malay and Deutro Malay peoples. Some of their most important cultural accomplishments were that they already knew agriculture, hunting, fishing, and the keeping of domestic animals (dogs, pigs, and chickens).

The tools that they used were still made of stone, bone, and horn. However, their tools were more finely and sharply made. The general pattern of the culture of the Neolithic age was the rectangular chisel. The tools produced by this culture were found in West Java and South Sumatra. They were the loveliest because they were made of precious stones. In addition, several types of axes (square and oval) and arrowheads were also found in great numbers.

Figure 2.13 Rectangular chisel

Figure 2.14 Bark pounding stone

from West Kalimantan

Figure 2.15Round axe (left) and

terraced axe (right), both from Minahasa, North

Sulawesi.

Various types of axes found had almost the same function. In the Neolithic age, the development of oval axes and square adzes was quite outstanding. It is said that these two types of tools originated in the Southeast Asian mainland and they entered Indonesia through the western and eastern routes. The spread of oval axes and square adzes could be seen in the map

below.

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On the basis of research results, prehistoric people’s tools were considerably found in various regions like Jampang Kulon in Sukabumi, Gombong in Central Java, Perigi and Tambang Sawah in Bengkulu, Lahat and Kalianda in South Sumatera, Sembiran Trunyan in Bali, Wangka and Maumere in Flores, East Timor, Awang Bangkal in East Kalimantan, and Cabbenge in South Sulawesi Selatan.

Besides material culture, preliterate society also already had or produced spiritual culture. Spiritual culture started to appear in the life of humans when they started to know a system of belief. The system of belief had appeared since the period of life when they hunted and gathered food. The society already had certain assumptions and gave homage to people who were already dead. The society believed that the spirits of dead people would remain alive.

Homage to ancestors’ spirits could be seen in the relics in the form of stone monuments like the ones from the megalithic age. Megalithic relics were found more in high places. It is in accordance with the belief that the spirits of ancestors dwelled in higher places.

Actually, the megalithic age was not the continuance of a previous stone age. The Megalithic age appeared at the same time as the Mesolithic and Neolithic ages. Throughout the stone age generally there appeared a culture of large stones (Megaliths) which produced menhirs, stone staircases, dolmens, and others.

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Figure 2.17Burial chests (sarcophagus)

Figure 2.18Dong Son dagger and bronze axe from Flores

Figure 2.19 bronze kettledrum

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ReflectionAfter studying this chapter, do you already have the ability to explain the life pattern of preliterate society with its various chracateristics? If you do not yet, what must you do?

The metal age is divided into three: (1) the copper age, (2) the bronze age, and (3) the iron age. However, the copper age has never developed in Indonesia. Therefore, the metal age in Indonesia began with the bronze age. Some relics of the metal age are, among others, kettledrums, jars, and axes made of bronze and daggers made of iron.

Exercise

A. Choose one of the answers which you think is the most accurate.1. The characteristics of preliterate society are as follows except that

a. they did not know any writing

b. they lived in a nomadic way

c. they did not have any culture

d. they lived depending on nature

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Task 2.3Mention the division of ages based on the tools which were used by preliterate society in Indonesia!Mention material and spiritual cultural products of preliterate society!Task 2.4Mention the types of prehistoric humans discovered in Indonesia, their discoverers, and the places and years of their discovery!

Summary The ancestors of the Indonesian people were from Yunan, a region located in the country called Myanmar. In addition, many fossils and artefacts of prehistoric people have been found in Indonesia. In the beginning, preliterate society lived nomadically. In its development, the life of that society underwent a change from being nomadic into being semi-nomadic. In the end, they lived by settling down in one place with a fixed dwelling place. To fulfil its needs in life, preliterate society used several types of tools made of both stone and metal. Therefore, preliterate society has produced material (or physical) culture. Besides physical culture, preliterate society has also produced spiritual culture: the belief of animism and dynamism. Based on the cultural products (or artefacts), the age of the preliterate period is differentiated into two: the stone age and the metal age.

2. Fossils are

a. petrified historical relics

b. the remains of a prehistoric human skull

c. the remains of preliterate society’s culture

d. indicators of preliterate society’s life

3. The stone age is divided into several stages. The oldest stage is called

a. Megalithicum

b. Mesolithicumc. Neolithicumd. Palaelithicum

4. Pithecanthropus erectus is a type of prehistoric human that was discovered in

a. Ngandong

b. Wajak

c. Trinil

d. Sangiran

5. The Bac Son – Hoa Binh culture was discovered in Southeast Asian caves. In Indonesia, relics of this culture are found in the region of

a. West Kalimantan

b. East Sumatra

c. South Sulawesi

d. East Nusa Tenggara

6. Dolmens and menhirs are relics of culture from

a. the old stone age

b. the middle stone age

c. the new stone age

d. the large stone age

7. In Indonesia, the metal age began in

a. the copper age

b. the bronze age

c. the iron age

d. the Megalithic age

8. The Dong Son dagger was found in a region in

a. Makassar

b. Sumatra Selatan

c. East Java

d. Flores

9. Preliterate society lived in a nomadic way. Being nomadic means

a. depending on nature

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b. moving from one place to another

c. gathering food materials

d. hunting animals

10. The culture of oval axes entered Indonesia by going through

a. the Malacca peninsula to Sumatra

b. the Malacca peninsula to Kalimantan

c. the Philippines to Kalimantan

d. the Philippines to Sulawesi

B. Fill in the dotted places with your answers1. The belief of the ancestors of the Indonesian people that every object

had a spirit is called .....2. The age when preliterate society lived by gathering food is called ....3. Menhirs are among the historical relics from the stone age. Menhirs

were closely related to the activity of ....4. The type of prehistoric people found in Wajak is called ....5. The tools for living which were made by preliterate society were made

of stone, bone, and ....

C. Answer the following questions briefly1. The preliterate age is divided into two: the stone age and the metal

age. Why is the first one called the stone age?2. What is meant by semi-nomadic life?3. Explain the development of the preliterate society’s economic system!4. Most of preliterate society lived in valley regions. Mention three

reasons for that!5. The appearance of group life was very advantageous for preliterate

society. Why was it so?

Bibliography

Bernet Kempers A.J., 1959, Ancien Indonesian Art, Amsterdam, C.P.J. van der Peet Nugroho Notosusanto, Marwati Djoened Poesponegoro, 1990, Sejarah Nasional

Indonesia, Jilid I, Jakarta Balai Pustaka

Koentjaraningrat, 1971, Kebudayaan Flores, Manusia dan Kebudayaan Indonesia, Jakarta, Balai Pustaka

GLOSSARY

acculturation : social process in which a culture accepts elements from

another culture without losing its own characteristics

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animism

Mesolithicum

Megalithicum

Neolithicum

nomadic

pre-literate

semi-nomadic

chopper

Cebbenge

flake

Pithecanthropus erectus

Homo soloensis

Homo sapien

Dong Son

: belief that every object has a spirit or a soul

: middle stone age

: large stone age

: new stone age

: living by moving from place to place

: age when humans did not know any writing yet

: partly settled or already settled but then moving again

: a form of stone axe

: a place in South Sulawesi where objects from the

preliterate age were found

: hand axe which is still crude

: prehistoric human who already walked erect

: prehistoric human whose fossils were found on the

bank of Bengawan Solo

: modern human

: a place in Muangthai which was the origin of the bronze

culture of the preliterate age

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