FORMULATING A GLOBALLY FEASIBLE COUNTER TERRORISM POLICY:

HISTORY:

Counter-terrorism incorporates the practice, military tactics, techniques, and strategy that government, military, law enforcement, business, and intelligence agencies use to combat or prevent terrorism. Counter-terrorism strategies include attempts to counter financing of terrorism. If terrorism is part of a broader insurgency, counter-terrorism may employ counter-insurgency measures.

In response to the escalating terror campaign in Britain carried out by the militant Irish Fenians in the 1880s, the Home Secretary, Sir William Harcourt, established the first counter-terrorism unit ever. The Special Irish Branch was initially formed as a section of the Criminal Investigation Department of the London Metropolitan Police in 1883, to combat Irish republican terrorism through infiltration and subversion. Harcourt envisioned a permanent unit dedicated to the prevention of politically motivated violence through the use of modern techniques such as undercover infiltration. This pioneering branch was the first to be trained in counter-terrorism techniques.

Its name was changed to Special Branch as it had its remit gradually expanded to incorporate a general role in counterterrorism, combating foreign subversion and infiltrating organized crime. Law enforcement agencies, in Britain and elsewhere, established similar units. Counterterrorism forces expanded with the perceived growing threat of terrorism in the late 20th century. Specifically, after the September 11 attacks, Western governments made counter-terrorism efforts a priority, including more foreign cooperation, shifting tactics involving red teams and preventive measures.

DEFINITIONS:

There is no consensus within the international community on the definition of terrorism. Due to the lack of a unified understanding of the term and the deadlocked long negotiations of how to define the threat, there is an ambiguity which makes UN efforts to combat terrorism highly unlike. However, we can come across with some common characteristics in the International law and in several Security Council Resolutions. For instance, par. 3 of the Security Council Resolution 1566 explains terrorist acts as those (1) “committed with the intent to cause death or serious bodily injury, or taking of hostages”. (2) “with the purpose to provoke a state of terror in the general public or in a group of persons or particular persons, intimidate a population or compel a government or an international organization to do or to abstain from doing any act, which (3) constitute offences within the scope of an as defined in the international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism”.

In an attempt to unite all member states to combat terrorism under a common definition of the term, former Secretary General Kofi Annan proposed a definition: “Any action constitutes terrorism if it is intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non- combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act”. He further explained his “principled, comprehensive strategy”, which has to be the State’s common approach on the issue, based on UNSC. 2004. Security Council Acts Unanimously to Adopt Resolution Strongly Condemning Terrorism as one of most Serious Threats to Peace

Kofi Annan. 2005. Secretary- General Kofi Annan Launches Global Strategy Against Terrorism in Madrid mentioned the “five Ds”; “Dissuade disaffected groups from choosing terrorism as a tactic to achieve their goals; Deny terrorists the means to carry out their attacks; Deter States from supporting terrorists; Develop State capacity to prevent terrorism; Defend human rights in the struggle against terrorism”.

However, all these approaches are based more on general characteristics and personal beliefs rather than comprehensive and unanimously accepted legal

frameworks. Most of the UNSC Resolutions are referring to such common characteristics on their perambulatory clauses. Still though, the lack of definition ultimately leaves it up to each UN member to decide whether or not an organization is a terrorist one. The main reason for such an ambiguity, when it comes to explicitly defining terrorism, is the inclusion/exclusion of armed struggle for liberation and as a means of enjoyment of their right of self-determination4

. With the General Assembly Resolution

A/RES/49/60, the United Nations reached a consensus on measures to eliminate terrorism, described in a general matter some elements of terrorism: it is unjustifiable and criminal, a possible jeopardy of friendly relations between States, a grave violation of UN Charter principles, a threat to international peace and security, it is intended or calculated to provoke a state of terror in the general public.

Threat/Breach of Peace, Acts of Aggression, International Peace and Security:

After the adoption of the UN Charter, there have been many discussions on the ways we can define and interpret Article 396 . Discussions have started from the classic notion of inter-state threat of threat to national security, with the threat or use of force. With Resolutions 1373 and 1540, the Security Council has made clear that international terrorism is also a phenomenon, which could be a threat to international peace and security. Another connection made was with the notion of human security, which is defined in the 1994 UN Development Programme, where seven elements were included: economic, health, environmental, food, community, political and physical harm.7 To sum up, we argue that these terms must be strictly defined, as this will cause difficulties on the work of the related UN Bodies. These terms must be translated and interpreted in a case by basis, even though there are risks of exploitation for (geo) political purposes.

PREPERATION FOR THE COUNTER TERRORISM STRATEGY:

Command and control:

In North America and other continents, for a threatened or completed terrorist attack, the Incident Command System (ICS) is apt to be invoked to control the various services that may need to be involved in the response. ICS has varied levels of escalation, such as might be needed for multiple incidents in a given area (e.g., the 2005 bombings in London or the 2004 Madrid train bombings, or all the way to a National Response Plan invocation if national-level resources are needed. National response, for example, might be needed for a nuclear, biological, radiological, or large chemical attack.

Damage mitigation:

Fire departments, perhaps supplemented by public works agencies, utility providers (e.g., gas, water, electricity), and heavy construction contractors, are most apt to deal with the physical consequences of an attack.

Local security:

Again under an incident command model, local police can isolate the incident area, reducing confusion, and specialized police units can conduct tactical operations against terrorists, often using specialized counter-terrorist tactical units. Bringing in such units will normally involve civil or military authority beyond the local level.

Medical services:

Emergency medical services will triage, treat, and transport the more seriously affected victims to hospitals, which will also need to have mass casualty and triage plans in place. Public health agencies, from local to national level, may be designated to deal with identification, and sometimes mitigation, of possible biological attacks, and sometimes chemical or radiologic contamination.

EXAMPLES OF INTERNATIONAL COUNTER TERRORIST AGENCIES:

India: Rashtriya Rifles, NSG, NIA, Anti-Terrorist Squad, Force One, Thunderbolt, state/local Police SWAT teams

Indonesia: Detachment 88 (Police), Satuan 81/Gultor (Army)+, Detachment Bravo 90+ (Air Force), Jala Mengkara Detachment+ (Navy)

Japan: Special Assault Team (Japanese Police), Special Security Team (Japan Coast Guard), Central Readiness Force (JGDSF)

Pakistan: Special Service Group, Pakistan Army Rangers, Elite Police Commandos, Counter Terrorism Department

Russia: Spetsgruppa A, Vympel, OMON, Spetsnaz GRU, Vityaz, Rus, SOBR

United States: FBI Counter-terrorism Special Agents, FBI Hostage Rescue Team, FBI Special Weapons and Tactics Teams, (FBI SWAT) Federal Air Marshal Service, Delta Force, (US Army), Naval Special Warfare Development Group, CIA Special Activities Division, (SAD) Diplomatic Security Service, Immigration and Customs Enforcement, BORTAC, state/local Police SWAT teams

Possible Solutions:

The overall goal of global efforts is to prevent and stop terrorism to make a safer world. The General Assembly needs to create an effective counter-terrorism strategy that considers the Internet and the challenges of dealing with non-state actors. Since the 2005 September World Summit, the need to combat terrorism has been universally accepted, but the world needs a clear plan to stop terrorism.

Defining Terrorism:

Terrorism generally is the use of violence against civilians meant to achieve political goals. There is not a clear definition of exactly what terrorism is. A working definition must identify who perpetrates terrorism, against whom, under what circumstances, for what purpose, and whatever else the body deems necessary. Considering specific cases of political violence can identify key points but opinions may differ widely among states.

Weapons of Mass Destruction:

The potential for terrorist organizations to do harm has increased with technological advances. Starting in the Second World War, nuclear weapons became one of the most potentially destructive forces on Earth. While it is unlikely for terrorists to build a bomb of their own, they may acquire one through state sponsors or through poorly secured facilities that exist in countries that violate or are not part of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Similarly, terrorist groups could also acquire biological or chemical weapons. To address these issues, the committee can try to regulate weapons of mass destruction in conjunction with international organizations such as the IAEA, IMO, and ICAO.

Technological Threats:

In the past few years, cyber-terrorism has been a growing concern. Terrorists can organize via the Internet and conduct attacks that mess up energy grids or information systems within the government or financial sector. However, information technology can also help law enforcement easily track terrorists. Following the release of classified government documents on Wikileaks and the USA Patriot Act, the collection of this data poses issues regarding the extent to which liberty is being compromised for security. States must also decide the extent to which they will collaborate and share information about potential cyber threats.

Deterring Terrorism:

One option for deterring non-state actors is to carry out a decapitation strategy, taking out the leader of a terrorist network. While this is potentially devastating and a relatively cheap option, it can be difficult to achieve and cause even more extremist rulers to come to power. Physically locating terrorists can be equally difficult. By disrupting terrorist acquisition of weapons and funding, states can stop attacks before they start and avoid major civil liberties issues, but this strategy is ineffective with non-state agents who do not receive support from any states.

Development:

Eradicating the conditions conducive to terrorism may, in the long run, be an effective strategy to generally reduce the amount of terrorism in the world. Building on both the Millennium and Sustainable Development Goals, the United Nations can seek to eradicate poverty and promote sustained economic growth as a counter-terrorism strategy. They can also seek to promote tolerance for all religious beliefs and democratic values. While these methods are favorable because they raise the standard of living for people, they are incredibly expensive. Moreover, the leaders of terrorist organizations tend not to be in the lower income brackets of their countries, they actually tend to be rather wealthy. Finally, there is some evidence that rising democracy abroad has reduced terrorism to an extent, but it generally may not be forced upon a state with successful results.

Terrorism is a truly global issue, as people anywhere may choose to use violence to achieve political goals. According to the U.S. Department of State, there were 9,707 terrorist attacks in 2013, resulting in 17,891 dead, 32,577 wounded, and 2,990 taken hostage. Yet the effects of these attacks extends beyond the casualty count. Terrorism increases anxiety in the public sphere, which depresses tourism, foreign direct investments, stock markets, and may drive states to extreme reactions of their own.

For the sake of global security, the international economy, and the people of the world, the United Nations must seek to address this issue from both the security and development perspectives. Previous counter terrorism efforts have been relatively ineffective and so delegates must identify existing issues and resolve them, with particular attention given to the modern developments that have occurred. Failing that, the world has the potential to experience violence spiraling out of control, disrupting previously safe countries around the world.

QUESTIONS TO BE ANSWERED:

● What should be the definition of non-state terrorism?

● What methods of combating non-state terrorism are most effective?

● What are the root causes of non-state terrorism and how can they be solved?

● How can the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy be improved and updated to consider recent developments?

● Is terrorism an issue best targeted on the international, regional, or state level?