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AOHS Foundations of Anatomy and Physiology I

Lesson 1Course Introduction

Student Resources

Resource Description

Student Resource 1.1 Diagram: Hierarchy of Organization

Student Resource 1.2 Chart: Organ Systems and Functions

Student Resource 1.3 Notes: Parts of a Cell

Student Resource 1.4 Reading: Anatomy and Physiology of Cells

Student Resource 1.5 Foursquare: Anatomy and Physiology Concepts

Student Resource 1.6 Reading: Lab Safety Rules

Student Resource 1.7 Diagram: Parts of a Microscope

Student Resource 1.8 Observations: Characteristics of Human Tissues

Student Resource 1.9 Reading: Types of Tissues

Student Resource 1.10

Reading: How Homeostasis Works


Scenarios: Homeostasis

Copyright © 2014‒2016 NAF. All rights reserved.

AOHS Anatomy and Physiology ILesson 1 Course Introduction




Diagram: Hierarchy of OrganizationStudent Name: _____________________________________ Date: ________________

Directions: Label any parts of this diagram that you already know using the following terms: molecule, organ system, cell, organism, organelle, atom, tissue, organ. Then fill in the remaining labels as your teacher talks about the hierarchy of organization.




Chart: Organ Systems and FunctionsStudent Name:_______________________________________________________ Date:___________

Directions: As your teacher talks about each body system, fill in this chart with the major organs and functions for each system.

System Major Organs Major Functions

Integumentary

Skeletal

Muscular

Nervous

Endocrine

Circulatory



Lymphatic (Immune)

Respiratory

Digestive

Urinary

Reproductive




Notes: Parts of a CellDirections: Answer the questions and label the diagram according to what you learn in the presentation on anatomy and physiology of cells.

a. What are four characteristics that make a cell a cell?

1.

2.

3.

4.

b. What are five important functions that a cell performs?

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.



Label the parts of the cell as you listen to the presentation. Then review your labels with a partner to make sure they are complete and accurate.




Reading: Anatomy and Physiology of Cells



Every living thing, from the tiniest bacterium to the biggest elephant and the tallest tree, is made of cells. Just as you have parts such as a heart, a brain, and intestines, cells have parts, too. And many of the parts that make up cells are very similar, no matter what kind of organism the cell is in. Most of the organisms we’re familiar with, like dogs, trees, and mushrooms, are made of many cells. But some organisms, like the bacteria that can give you strep throat or the algae in a fish tank, are just one cell.



Cells are so important in anatomy and physiology that the whole science rests on our understanding of them. There are four key features that define what a cell is:

• Cells are the smallest things that are alive. In the same way that atoms are the smallest piece of an element, cells are the smallest piece of you that we could say is living.

• All the activity that keeps us alive happens in our cells, like transporting oxygen, extracting energy from food, and making sure we don’t lose too much water.

• No cell is really completely new. All cells come from other cells that already exist. Almost all of your cells are created by one cell dividing into two, making an exact copy of itself. The only exception to this is fertilization, when a sperm cell enters an egg cell, and the two of them together become the one cell that will eventually become a person.

• Every cell in your body carries the genetic information that was in that same “starter” cell. The DNA is basically instructions for what your cell should do and when. DNA is passed on from parent to child.



Most of the cells in our bodies have the same basic parts, called organelles, but many of our cells also have special parts or shapes that allow them to fulfill certain functions. In the picture of a neuron, or nerve cell, for example, you can see that it has lots of arms reaching out. Those arms connect it to other cells, letting it pass nerve impulses from one cell to many cells at a time. The muscle cells you see take on the shape of a long wire. These tubes can shorten themselves when they get a signal from a nerve cell to do so. When the tubes shorten, your muscle contracts.

So, each cell has a design that helps it carry out its job. But despite these differences, there are many similarities.



Most kinds of cells have these activities in common:

• They break down glucose and use the energy from that reaction to create new molecules that either store energy or fuel more reactions.

• Proteins are made of amino acids. In the cell, those amino acids are strung together as new proteins that your body can use to get reactions going.

• These myriad reactions in the cell also leave behind some waste products that other parts of the cell clean up.

• Different types of cells have different life spans, but most of them eventually die and need to be replaced. Cells replace themselves by making copies of themselves and dividing into two cells.

• Cells come together to form tissues.



This is what a cell would look like if you could cut a piece out of it and look inside.

One way that a cell is kind of like a living thing all by itself is that it has its own set of organs, which we call organelles. Organelles are to a cell what organs are to an organism.

You can see from this picture that there are several different kinds of organelles. Each one has its own structure and function as well as its own anatomy and physiology.



The largest organelle in the cell is the nucleus. The nucleus houses the DNA that carries all your genes. Genes are like a code the cell uses to put together the parts of a protein.

So, you might wonder, if all your cells have the same genes, why aren’t they all the same kind of cell? The answer is that although each cell contains the information to make each protein, not all cells make every protein. Each kind of cell only makes the proteins it needs to carry out its job.

Proteins are important because they make the chemical reactions in your body happen quickly, and they send signals from one part of your body to another.



All cells have cell membranes. Sometimes the cell membrane is referred to as a plasma membrane.

How the cell membrane controls what goes in and out of the cell is related to its structure.

The cell needs to be able to control what goes in and out of it so that it has the molecules and ions it needs, in the right concentrations, for the cell to carry out the jobs it needs to do.



When you take biology, you will learn more about how the parts of the cell work together to carry out all of its jobs. Here are some examples of cell parts and what they do:

• Ribosomes are like little factories that make proteins.

• The Golgi apparatus packages up important things made by the cell, like hormones, so that those products can be sent out of the cell to some other part of your body.

• The mitochondria break down glucose and turn it into fuel the cell can use to power its activities.

• Lysosomes sweep up waste materials.

• The cytoplasm fills in the space between organelles and supports the cell by giving it structure.



Imagine you want to build a house. You need people from all kinds of different professions—carpenters, electricians, inspectors, engineers, and lots of others—to be involved. Although they all have different jobs and areas of expertise, each of these professionals needs to know about the materials a house is built from. The same is true for every health science profession. Because every living thing is built from cells, anyone in any health care profession needs to understand the building materials of the biological world. Epidemiologists—professionals that study causes and patterns of disease—must understand the bacterial cells that cause infections as well as how diseases and conditions affect cells in humans. Pharmacists must understand how drugs affect different functions in cells. Laboratory researchers often have to grow cells or run tests on cells. Doctors and nurses need to understand many functions and interactions that relate to cells in order to understand illness and treatment.




Foursquare: Anatomy and Physiology ConceptsStudent Name: ________________________________________ Date: ________________

Directions: Choose a term from the list your class has generated. Write the term in the circle in the middle of the foursquare diagram on the next page.

In one quadrant, draw a picture of the term. In the second quadrant, write down something you learned about this term that will help you remember it. In the third quadrant, write down what it is similar to and what it is different from. In the fourth quadrant, write one thing you’d like to learn that relates to this term. The example below shows how to complete a foursquare diagram for the term DNA.

2

I learned that DNA takes the shape of a double helix and contains genes that are the recipes for proteins. Proteins control all kinds of things about how we look and how our body functions.

3

DNA is like a ladder because it has rungs that go between two sides like a ladder does.

DNA is different from other large compounds in our body like sugars and fats because we don’t use it for energy.

4

I would like to learn about how DNA is inherited and what it means if I have a gene for a particular disease.


DNA


1 2

3 4




Reading: Lab Safety RulesStudent Names:_______________________________________________________ Date:___________

Directions: With your partner, read each rule. Discuss the reason for each rule and circle any that you don’t know the reason for. Be prepared to explain the reason for each rule that you understand.

1. Don’t run, push anyone, or get rowdy or noisy in the lab.

2. Only use lab equipment and materials according to instructions. Don’t touch any equipment or make adjustments unless instructed to do so.

3. Always wear safety goggles (unless you are looking through a microscope).

4. Tie back long hair and remove long necklaces or scarves.

5. Don’t eat, drink, or chew anything in the lab, including gum.

6. Wear close-toed shoes (that includes no flip flops).

7. Wipe up all spills and clean up your lab area before your leave.

8. Never do experiments other than the ones given to you by your teacher.

9. Know the location of safety equipment and understand how to use it.

10. Know the location of emergency exits.

11. Wash your hands after every experiment.

12. Keep books, bags, and other things you don’t need for the experiment away from the work space.

13. Get rid of all waste materials in the appropriate containers.

14. If any accidents do happen, tell your teacher immediately.




Diagram: Parts of the MicroscopeStudent Name:_______________________________________________________ Date:___________

Directions: Identify each part of the microscope next to the arrows as your teacher describes each part of the scope. In the chart that follows, explain its function (what it is used for). Notice how the shape and form of each part relates to its function.



Fill in the function of each part of the microscope.

Part Function

Base

Light source

Iris diaphragm

Condenser

Stage

Arm

Coarse adjustment knob

Fine adjustment knob

Low power objective

High power objective

Ocular lens

Revolving nosepiece




Observations: Characteristics of Human TissuesStudent Name:_______________________________________________________ Date:___________

Directions: Follow your teacher’s instructions for each step of this activity, which includes making detailed observations and notes.

Part A

Our First Tissue SampleTake turns with your group mates to observe this tissue using the microscope and make the following observations.

Dark and light features in this tissue sample:

Shapes I see in this tissue sample:

My other observations about this tissue sample:

Part B

Our Second Tissue SampleUse what you have just learned about tissues as you make observations of your second tissue sample.

Dark and light features in this tissue sample:

Shapes I see in this tissue sample:

My other observations about this tissue sample:



Answer these questions about the second tissue sample.

How can you tell one cell from another? What are their shapes?

Can you see the cell membrane? If so, describe its location.

Do you see more than one kind of cell?

Describe any patterns that you notice.

Part C

The Four Types of TissueWhile learning about the four types of tissues, make notes about characteristics of each type and give an example.

Connective

Characteristics:

Example:

Epithelial

Characteristics:

Example:



Muscular

Characteristics:

Example:

Nervous

Characteristics:

Example:

Using the information above, make a guess at what types of tissues you saw in the first and second samples. Explain your guesses.

First station sample

Second station sample




Reading: Types of Tissues



Each cell in your body is specialized for a particular function. Some cells in your eye detect light, cells in your bones provide calcium for strength and structure, and your red blood cells carry oxygen.

Groups of cells with similar structure and function come together to form tissues. When they work together, cells can have a much bigger impact. For example, one muscle cell doesn’t have strength on its own, but a group of similar muscle cells together can create a lot of force.

When comparing the pictures, look more at the shapes and patterns than at the color. The tissue might be stained with a dye to make its features more apparent.



The outer layer of skin is an example of epithelial tissue, but many other organs also have an epithelial lining or covering. For example, both the inner lining and parts of the outer lining of the digestive tract are composed of epithelial tissue. Cells in epithelial tissues protect your organs and the surfaces of your body, and they reproduce quickly. Almost everything that the body takes in or gives off passes through our epithelium.

Epithelial cells can take a variety of shapes, such as cubes, columns, or bricks. Others have irregular shapes. What is distinctive about this tissue is that the cells are packed very close together, with no space between them. These closely packed tissues form sheets.

Epithelial tissues also rest on a basement membrane that connects them with other tissues. In some tissues, like the wall of the bladder, cells can even change shape, elongating when your bladder is full to let your bladder stretch out.

Other examples of epithelial tissue are found in lungs, salivary glands, the inside of your stomach and intestines, and the lining of your mouth.



Connective tissues help connect, and add support, to various organs.

In connective tissues, the cells are farther apart than in the epithelium. The cells themselves make a substance called a matrix that fills in the spaces between them.

The matrix often, but not always, contains fibers. These fibers aren’t living tissue but large proteins that lend strength to the tissue.

Connective tissue takes on many functions, but its most important one is to support and connect parts of the body. Tendons connect muscles to bones, and ligaments connect bones to bones. Fat is also a connective tissue, which cushions parts of the body. Bone is a connective tissue that can withstand immense pressure because calcium in the matrix gives the bone strength.

Blood is also a connective tissue. It connects parts of the body by being the mode of transport for many important things, including oxygen. The fibers in its matrix are only apparent during blood clotting.



There are three types of muscle tissue, and they all function to create different types of movement:

Skeletal muscle attaches to bones. When a muscle contracts, it pulls the bone with it, producing movement.

Smooth muscle is found in your internal organs, like your intestine. When your intestine contracts, it moves food along your digestive tract.

Cardiac muscle is found only in your heart. When it contracts, it moves blood through your body.

Muscle cells tend to be long and thin. The three types of muscle tissue each look different. Skeletal and cardiac muscles tissues are striated, meaning they have stripes going across the fibers. The stripes are created by the overlap of long protein chains that are special to muscle cells.

Examples of places muscle tissue can be found include biceps, heart, intestine, bladder, stomach, and the uterus, among many others.



Nervous tissue contains nerve cells, called neurons. Neurons are very special cells that can use the proteins in their cell membranes to create electrical impulses. These impulses travel along the neurons and can create actions like making muscle cells contract. Nerve cells provide the stimulus for those contractions. Neurons in the brain are mostly connected to other neurons in the brain, and the impulses between them produce thoughts. Yes, your thoughts are made of nervous impulses!

One end of each neuron has lots of little arms that can reach out and connect with other neurons. The other end has a bulb that secretes chemicals that help pass the electrical signal along.

In most nervous tissue, the neurons are surrounded by glial cells that support and protect the neurons. Some glial cells create a fatty substance called myelin that surrounds part of the neuron and helps insulate it as electrical signals pass through it.

Your brain is connected to the rest of your body by neurons that run through your spinal cord. The longest cells in your body are the neurons that go from your spinal cord to your feet. They can be up to 4 feet long!

Examples of nervous tissue include your brain, spinal cord, and the nerves that make your muscles move.




Reading: How Homeostasis Works



Digesting food, breathing, sweating, pumping blood, getting rid of excess water by going to the bathroom—all of these things we associate with daily life are really about maintaining conditions inside our bodies. We call that kind of maintenance homeostasis, and it’s extremely important to anatomy and physiology. The organ systems in your body work together to maintain the right temperature, pH, oxygen levels, and other conditions that are best for the chemical reactions that keep you alive. Our bodies function at their best when our organ systems can keep all these things in balance. Homeostasis is the process of maintaining that balance, and your body is busy with that maintenance 24 hours a day, whether you’re playing basketball, eating a pizza, or watching TV, sleeping, or doing anything else.



To understand how homeostasis works, we are going to compare one example of homeostasis inside our bodies—how we maintain a constant body temperature even when the temperature changes outside—with the heating system in a house. While homeostasis in our bodies is a lot more complex and fine-tuned, it’s like the heating system in a house because they both work on a feedback loop. The “feedback” in the name comes from the fact that one part of the system gets information from another part—it gets feedback about the surroundings—and in response, sends a message to another part of the system that results in a change. This idea will make more sense as you see it unfold here. Usually a feedback loop is triggered by some kind of change in conditions. In the example of the house, that change is a drop in temperature outside of the house.



We call the change in conditions a stimulus, because it stimulates, or sets in motion, the whole process of the feedback loop. The feedback loop really only exists inside the house, but there’s a change in what’s happening outside of the house that the house has to respond to. The same is true for you when you go outside on a cold day: your body is a separate entity from the cold air outdoors, but when you step outside, the cold air affects you. In either case, when the air outside gets colder, the inside of the house—and inside of you--get colder, too. And they both have to adjust so that they don’t keep getting colder.



We call the thermometer the receptor because it senses the change in conditions. In your body, you have lots of cold receptors, which sense the temperature when you’re in a cold environment and when you touch something cold. You have lots of other kinds of receptors, too. Some, like heat and touch receptors, detect changes that you’re conscious of. Many others are sensitive to concentrations of substances such as water, carbon dioxide, and hormones in your body.



When the thermometer senses that the temperature in the house has fallen, it sends a message to the thermostat. We call the thermostat the control center: in a house, the thermostat is set to recognize different temperatures. When you set your thermostat to 68 degrees, called the set point, you’re telling it to take notice when the temperature reaches that point.

The thermometer sends its information to the thermostat. In your body, sometimes receptors send signals via your nervous system to your brain. When you step outside into the cold, receptors in your skin, which are attached to nerves, send signals to your brain. In other cases, like when your stomach is empty, receptors detect that condition and might send a chemical signal to your brain. In either case, it’s your brain that’s the control center, even in cases when you’re not conscious if your brain doing anything.



Let’s say you’ve set your thermostat to a set point of 68 and the temperature falls to 66. The thermostat is set to take note and to recognize that the temperature is falling. In response, it sends a signal to the furnace, telling it to start up. We call the furnace the effector, because it’s the part of the system that’s affected by the change.



When the furnace kicks in, it sends heat into the house, and the temperature inside goes back up again. We call the rise in temperature the response. It’s a change in condition that’s happening as a response to signals being sent by the system.



This is where the loop part of the feedback loop idea comes in. The rising temperature is a response to signals in the system, but it also serves as a stimulus, which begins a similar cycle again.



Just as the falling temperature inside the house was detected by the thermometer, so is the rising temperature.



Just as before, the thermometer sends the information about the temperature inside the house to the thermostat. Remember that the thermostat is set at 68. At what point do you think the thermostat will respond to the temperature?



Because the thermostat is set to 68 degrees, when the house reaches 69 degrees, the thermostat sends a signal to the furnace to turn off. When the furnace turns off, it stops putting heat into the house. What do you think will happen next?



So now you can see why this is a feedback system: we have the thermometer giving the thermostat feedback about the temperature in the house. The thermostat uses that information to signal the furnace to change the conditions. And we call it a loop because this same process keeps happening in a cycle that helps maintain a steady temperature inside the house. A similar set of cycles occurs inside your body. This is the process behind homeostasis, or maintaining the chemical equilibrium and other conditions your cells need for all the reactions your body needs to do to stay alive.




Scenarios: HomeostasisStudent Name:_______________________________________________________ Date:___________

Directions: Circle the scenario that you have been assigned. Develop a flow chart that demonstrates the homeostasis feedback loop for this scenario, which depicts a body process. Use scrap paper or the back of this page to work out your sketch before creating a final draft to be turned in. Remember to label the following elements of your flow chart and to read the assessment criteria at the end of these scenarios so that you know how your work will be assessed.

Label each of these elements of your flow chart:

Stimulus (the change in condition that sets off a series of events that results in a response)

Receptor (the sensor in the system that detects the change in condition and sends information to the control center)

Control center (receives information about a change in condition and sends a message to the effector). It often compares the information received to a set point.

Effector (the component in the system that makes the adjustment to the system)

Response (the change itself)

1. Temperature homeostasis (cold)Our bodies try to maintain a constant temperature of 98.6 F (37 C). If you go outside on a cold day, you might get goose bumps and start to shiver. Goose bumps and shivers are both the result of muscles contracting. When your muscles contract, heat is created.

2. Temperature homeostasis (hot)Our bodies try to maintain a constant temperature of 98.6 F (37 C). If you go outside on a hot day, you’ll eventually start to sweat. When the water in your sweat evaporates, it cools you off.

3. Blood pressure homeostasisWhen you stand up after lying down, blood pools in your legs. With all that blood in your legs, there’s less blood than usual in the rest of your body, which can cause your blood pressure to fall quickly. Sensors in your carotid artery sense the drop in blood pressure. They send a message to your brain, which signals the heart to beat faster and with more force in order to keep enough blood flowing throughout your body.

4. Carbon dioxide homeostasis When we exercise, we use fuel and generate carbon dioxide. To get rid of our carbon dioxide, we breathe it out. When the level of carbon dioxide in your blood goes up, sensors in your carotid artery detect the change. They send a message to the brain, making you breathe faster and/or more deeply.



Make sure your assignment meets or exceeds the following assessment criteria: The feedback loop chart demonstrates a solid understanding of the concept of feedback loops.

The feedback loop chart is clearly drawn and easy to understand.

The language used in the chart and explanations make correct use of pertinent vocabulary.

The completed assignment is neat and uses proper spelling and grammar.


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