we have to trust them, but they must also...

English G3, Bachelor‘s Course

We have to trust them, but

they must also know... A corpus-based investigation of the core modal

must and the emerging modals have to and have

got to in newspapers and social media by Swedes

Author: Teresa Rilling

Supervisor: Mikko Laitinen

Examiner: Fredrik Heinat

Date: January 27, 2015

Subject: English Linguistics

Level: G3, Bachelor‘s course

Course code: 2EN10E

Linnaeus University Teresa Rilling

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Abstract

The aim of this study is to examine to what extent Swedish writers, who write in

English, use the modals must, have to and have got to. The hypothesis being tested

argues that the core modal must is not being challenged by the emerging modals have to

and have got to in this non-native variety of English. The objective of this thesis is to be

accomplished by attempting to answer the following research questions: 1) What is the

frequency and usage of the English modals must, have to and have got to in the

material? 2) How do the frequencies in the Swedish material compare with the

frequencies in the British and American corpora and to the previous studies? 3) How do

the Swedish writers use the modals with regard to epistemic and deontic meaning? The

study is corpus based, and the corpora used consist of Swedish newspapers in English

(SWENC) and material from blogs and tweets which are written in English by Swedes

(SESMC). These are compared with the press sub-corpora in BE06 (the British 2006

corpus of CQP web at Lancaster) and in AE06 (the American 2006 corpus of CQP web

at Lancaster), which represent British and American native varieties of English. The

method is quantitative and the results are presented after the process of normalization.

The results show that must, have to and have got to are used in SWENC and SESMC

although, to greatly varying degrees. The core modal must is more frequently used in

the Swedish corpus than in the British and American sub-corpora. The emerging modal

have to is used more frequently than must in all three corpora. The second emerging

modal have got to is very seldomly used. Additionally, a qualitative examination of the

modals and their meanings reveal that the writers in SWENC and SESMC use the older

modal must alongside the newer have to and newest modal have got to, but with a

preference for a toned-down style of language. The conclusion drawn is that the core

modal must is indeed being challenged by the emerging modal have to even in the non-

native variety of English.

Keywords

colloquialization, core modal, corpora, emerging modal, English as a foreign language,

grammaticalization, have got to, have to, modal auxiliaries, must


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Contents

1 Introduction _________________________________________________________ 1 1.1 Aim, Scope and Research Questions __________________________________ 2

2 Theoretical Background _______________________________________________ 3 2.1 Modal Auxiliaries _________________________________________________ 3

2.2 Emerging Modals _________________________________________________ 4 2.3 Must versus Have to _______________________________________________ 4 2.4 Grammaticalization _______________________________________________ 5 2.5 English as a Foreign Language _______________________________________ 7 2.6 Previous Studies __________________________________________________ 8

3 Material and Method ________________________________________________ 10 3.1 Material ________________________________________________________ 10

3.2 Method ________________________________________________________ 11

4 Results and Discussion _______________________________________________ 14 4.1 Frequency and usage _____________________________________________ 14 4.2 Comparison with previous studies ___________________________________ 17

4.3 Epistemic and deontic meaning _____________________________________ 20

5 Conclusion _________________________________________________________ 23

References ___________________________________________________________ 27 Primary sources ____________________________________________________ 27

Secondary sources __________________________________________________ 27

Appendix ____________________________________________________________ 30


1

“In a world where humans grow old, tadpoles change into frogs, and milk turns into

cheese, it would be strange if language alone remained unaltered”. Aitchison (2013:4)

1 Introduction

This thesis investigates how ongoing changes which are apparent in the usage of the

core modal must and the emerging modals have to and have got to within the American

and British standard varieties of English are reflected in English in Sweden. As

indicated by Aitchison (2013:4), language change is not a new phenomenon and any

such indication would indeed be strange. However, in a world where native and non-

native varieties of the English language are intertwining with one another, the study of

language change is not only interesting from a linguistic point of view, but it can also

provide evidence of on-going trends.

A recent study of auxiliary modals in British and American English by Leech,

Hundt, Mair & Smith (2009:99) reveals the core modal must is used less frequently than

it was a few decades ago. Additionally, the study shows that the emerging modals have

to and have got to are two of the modals which are increasing most rapidly in usage.

Their research covers a span between 1961 and 1991/2 in the Brown family of corpora,

and provides figures which show how usage of the core modal must has fallen by 46%

(from 2,165 instances to 1,482 instances), while at the same time the emerging modal

have to has increased by 0.95% (from 1,384 instances to 1,464 instances). It is evident

that by 1991/2 the emerging modal have to has almost attained the frequency of its

‗rival‘ modal must.

Additionally, to investigate the reasons for the change in frequency, Leech et al

(2009:83) further examines the usage in terms of semantic categories; the modal

auxiliaries must, have to, and have got to express meanings of obligation (deontic) and

probability (epistemic). Evidence is shown how must has suffered a decline in both

epistemic and deontic aspects (Leech et al 2009:88). One hypothesis given is that the

core modal must is limited in grammatical form, and another is due to social factors -

―the democratization and individualization of society causing deontic must, with its

overly authoritative tone, to decline in popularity‖ (Leech et al 2009:114). As for the

epistemic use of must, its partial decline is suggested to possibly be due to

―contamination‖ by the fall of deontic must (Leech et al 2009:88). However, how these

frequencies and usages are reflected in English in Sweden has never been examined.

Previous studies have not taken into consideration the phonetically and typographical


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similarity of the Swedish måste to the English must which Yule (2011:191) refers to as

a positive transfer of first language knowledge to the second language. This thesis aims

to address these shortcomings. Are similar tendencies, which are evident by native

speakers of the English language, reflected in English used by Swedes where English is

a foreign language?

1.1 Aim, Scope and Research Questions

The aim of the thesis is to examine to what extent Swedish writers, who write in

English, use the modals must, have to and have got to. The hypothesis of this study

argues that the core modal must is not being challenged by the emerging modals have to

and have got to in this non-native variety of English. One difference may be that the

Swedish måste is stylistically similar to the English must and therefore this core modal

could still be used more frequently by Swedes when using the English language.

The objective of this thesis is to be accomplished by attempting to answer the

following research questions:

1. What is the frequency and usage of the English modals must, have to and have

got to in the material?

2. How do the frequencies in the Swedish material compare with the frequencies in

the British and American corpora and to the previous studies?

3. How do the Swedish writers use the modals with regard to epistemic and deontic

meaning?

The thesis is composed of five sections. Section 2, the theoretical background, functions

as the basis upon which the results are discussed and analyzed. This section includes a

description of modal auxiliary verbs, the emerging modals, the differences between the

core modal must and the emerging modals have to/have got to. Additionally, it presents

the concept of grammaticalization and colloquialization, the notion of English as a

foreign language and several previous studies in this field. Section 3 describes the

process of how the research was conducted and gives a description of the material used.

Next, the results are presented in tables and charts and then discussed in section 4. This

means that the tables and charts presented are analyzed in reference to the theoretical

background described in section 2. The final section is the conclusion, which includes a

summary of the aims, the research questions, the results, and finally suggestions for

further research.


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2 Theoretical Background

2.1 Modal Auxiliaries

The principle English modal auxiliary verbs are can, could, may, might, must, shall,

should, will, and would. These modals are used to express properties of modality;

properties such as obligation, possibility, necessity, certainty, prediction and

commitment. Although a large body of literature has been written on defining modality

(Stubbs 1996:202, Auwera & Plungian 1998:80, Krug 2000:39, Huddleston & Pullum

2013:54), traditionally the major distinction has been made between deontic and

epistemic meaning. Both terms are derived from classical Greek, and were first used in

modal logic (Auwera & Plungian 1998:80). Deontic modality comes from the Greek

―obligation‖ and is concerned with what is required or permitted. Epistemic modality is

derived from the Greek ―knowledge‖ and is concerned with logical necessity, or what

we know or believe to be true based on the available evidence (Auwera & Plungian

1998:80, Tottie 2002:155, Huddleston & Pullum 2013:54).

Using the example of the modal auxiliary verb must, the deontic and epistemic

forms are expressed in the following sentences:

(1) ―He must apologize.‖

(2) ―He must have overslept.‖

(3) ―You must be tactful.‖

(Huddleston & Pullum 2013:54)

Huddleston & Pullum (2013:54) state that the deontic notion of must in (1) indicates a

meaning of obligation to apologize, and has to do with authority or judgment. Very

often declarative clauses with deontic meanings of modals are used to try and influence

what happens. In sentence (2), the epistemic meaning of must reflects the limitation of

the speaker‘s knowledge or belief as to whether or not the person overslept. The link

between the two families of meanings is that the concepts of necessity and possibility

apply to both. The difference is that with epistemic modality, necessity and possibility

refer to whether or not something is true, whereas with deontic modality there is a

reference to whether or not something is done. However, as Huddleston & Pullum

(2013:55) also point out that ―many examples are ambiguous, allowing either kind of

interpretation for the modal‖. Must in sentence (3) can either be interpreted as

epistemic where one has evidence that leads to the belief that ―you‖ are tactful or

deontic, one informing that there is an obligation or need to be tactful. In other words,


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must can be interpreted as either one or the other, or both (Huddleston & Pullum

2013:54). Even Leech et al (2009:83) indicate that the same modal may express a range

of modal meanings, including deontic and epistemic modality.

2.2 Emerging Modals

Emerging modals are multi-word constructions that function like modal verbs (Biber,

Conrad & Leech 2002:174). According to Krug (2000:4), there are four auxiliary verb

constructions that have become common in the last 150 years in the course of Modern

English: be going to, have to, have got to, and want to. These have recently been termed

emerging modals due to the fact that they are relatively recent. Unlike the central

modals, none of the emerging modals are inherited from the Germanic: in fact, except

have to, none is attested in Old English. These four constructions are becoming widely

used in British and American English (Krug 2000:4, Tottie 2002:158). Have to, in both

American and British English, but more common in American English, is used to

express obligation. Have got to, used with the same meaning as have to, is

predominantly British English. In colloquial American English, got to is often heard. In

written form, this is often spelled gotta (Tottie 2002:158). The term emerging gives the

implication that these emerging modals are changing and spreading as we speak.

2.3 Must versus Have to

There are several syntactic properties that distinguish the modal auxiliary must from the

emerging modal have to (Huddleston & Pullum 2013:39). Modals have only primary

forms and therefore cannot occur in constructions requiring a secondary form: (5) plain

form, (6) gerund-participle, (7) past participle.

(4)a ―I must work late tonight” b ―I have to work late tonight‖ [primary form]

(5)a ―*I will must work late‖ b ―I will have to work late‖ [plain form]

(6)a ―*I am musting work late‖ b ―I am having to work late‖ [gerund-participle]

(7)a ―*I‘ve often must work late‖ b ―I‘ve often had to work late‖ [past participle]


Additionally, the modal auxiliaries show no agreement with the subject having a single

present tense form: (8) 1st singular subject, (9) 3

rd singular subject.

(8)a ―I must leave now‖ b ―I have to leave now‖ [1st singular subject]

(9)a ―She must leave now‖ b ―She has to leave now‖ [3rd

singular subject]



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Finally, Strutt (2009:142) gives some specific criteria for the uses of the modal verb

must versus that of the emerging modal have to. Examples (10)-(11) illustrate the

interchangeability of the modal and emerging modal:

(10) ―Must is used when imposed by an official authority or when an obligation is self-

imposed”

(11) ―Have to suggests a more external obligation than must”

(Strutt 2009:142)

2.4 Grammaticalization

The concept of grammaticalization, coined by Antoine Meillet in 1912, comes from the

notion that ―function words come into a language, arising out of the reanalysis of

content words or less abstract function words‖ (Hopper & Traugott 2003:19). As an

example the word full as in ―a basket full of apples‖ has become a compound, as in ―a

spoonful of sugar‖, and also an affix, as in hopeful. Meillet shows that the issue is not

the origins of grammatical forms but that of their transformations. Through this notion,

the creation of grammatical forms became a legitimate study for linguistics. Later

studies in the field developed and altered Meillet‘s ideas introducing several other

examples of grammaticalization.

Aitchison (2013:115) states that grammaticalization ―covers the whole of

language; semantic attrition, grammatical reduction, and phonetic reduction, as well as

some idioms‖. In other words, grammaticalization is not just a syntactic change (change

in the form and order of words) but also a semantic change (the meanings which are

implied). Moreover, no necessary relationship exists between the two processes

(Aitchison 2013:121). An example is the word have as in:

(12) ―I have a letter to write‖

(13) ―I have to write a letter‖

(Aitchison 2013:121)

The sense of obligation in (13) developed from the former verb construction in (12).

This illustrates how the meaning change began earlier than the grammatical one. As

Aitchison (2013:122) indicates, this form of grammaticalization has been ongoing for

hundreds of years.

Furthermore, Aitchison (2013:116) indicates that grammaticalization is not a

simple slide from one usage to another, but rather various stages of overlapping often

referred to as layering. New layers are continually emerging and the older layers may

remain to coexist with and interact with the newer layers (Hopper 1991:22). An


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illustration is seen in the old and new forms in the deontic modality system, from the

older modal must as in (14), variants with have + got to, as in (15)-(16), to the newest

layer, got to, as in (17) (Tagliamonte 2013:134).

(14) ―You must do something, you see, for the war effort.‖

(15) ―The doors is locked and you have to watch who comes in.‖

(16) ―He‟s got to do what he‘s telt, oh aye.‖

(17) ―You got to watch them...‖

(Tagliamonte 2013:134)

The overlapping stages of grammaticalization form chains. Chains refer to a graded

continuum, often called a cline; a gradation of differences of form (Aitchison

2013:117). Deontic modality includes a range of meanings such as obligation,

permission and necessity (Coates 1983:32). At the same time, there is a cline ranging

from interpretations such as ―it is imperative or important that‖ to interpretations more

like ―it is necessary or a requirement that‖ (Coates 1983:32). The use of must is thought

to be ―directly applied and irresistible‖, whereas have to is ―resistible‖ under certain

circumstances (Hopper & Traugott 2003:79). It is often that have to and have got to are

recognized as toned down choices in contrast to must, without distinguishing

differences in meaning nor strength to the choice between them (Huddleston & Pullum

2013:54). An example provided by Tagliamonte (2013:136) shows that the actions in

(18) are relatively strong in consequence compared to (19) which appears more trivial.

The coexistence of these layers of gradation in deontic modals attests to the fact that the

modal system of English is currently undergoing a grammaticalization process

(Tagliamonte 2013:134).

(18)a ―We must have those who are fit to help those who are not so fit.‖

(18)b ―She‘s working till late ‗cos she has to bide and count up all the money and all the

rest of it‖

(19)a ―Next time Papa‘s down we must get him an ice cream.‖

(19)b ―Every time you come to mine, I‘ve to make you coffee.‖

(Tagliamonte 2013:136)

Additionally, Aitchison (2013:119) states that the grammaticalization process changes a

word phonetically (20)-(21). Phonetic reduction is associated to ―loss of phonetic

substance‖ (Aitchison 2013:115). Although conventional spelling is not recognized, the

following formation is often heard in spoken language:


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(20) ―I gotta go home‖ – ―I‟ve got to go home‖

(21) ―I hafta go home‖ – ―I have to go home‖

(Aitchison 2013:115)

However, Svartvik & Leech (2006:207,208) suggest that grammaticalization is only one

cause of phonetic word change, the other cause is that of colloquialization, the changes

in grammar of English coming from the spoken language and then gradually spreading

into the written language. It is different variations and speech styles that affect language

change (Aitchison 2013:41). This brings up the topic of English spoken as a foreign

language and its role in syntactic and semantic change.

2.5 English as a Foreign Language

Since this research is looking at English used by native speakers of Swedish, a short

presentation will be given of English as a Foreign Language. A well-known model

explaining the relations of English around the world is Kachru‘s Three Circles of

English. Svartvik & Leech (2006:2) describe Kachru‘s model as a global village of

English speakers which is divided into three concentric circles, each representing a

distinction between English learners and speakers: an inner, an outer, and an expanding

circle. The Inner Circle contains the countries where the inhabitants speak English as a

first language. The Outer Circle includes the countries where English is a second,

official or semi-official language and the users of English are not always native

speakers. The Expanding Circle includes those countries where English is learnt as a

foreign language. This Expanding Circle now includes most countries of the world,

including Sweden, where English is learnt as a foreign language in order to

communicate globally in areas such as business, politics, diplomacy, education,

research and technology (Svartvik & Leech 2006:5).

At the same time, Svartvik & Leech (2006:4-9) state that there are linguists who

argue that in today‘s world, a distinction between the Outer and Expanding Circles, and

more specifically, between users of English as a second and a foreign language, is not

relevant. Non-native speakers of English in the world now outnumber native speakers

by at least three to one. It doesn‘t matter in which country one learns English because

English linguistic influences are becoming so strong and penetrating that it is the

international language of today. From this point of view, this study will not differentiate

between the three circles but rather focus on the native variety and non-native variety of

English.


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Moreover, as with the English language, the Swedish language is part of the

Germanic group of languages and as such has a similar grammatical structure (Svartvik

& Leech 2006: 15, 19). Modal auxiliaries are used in the Swedish language and are

defined as ―verbs that express the speaker‘s attitude to or evaluation of that which he

says‖ (Ljung & Ohlander 1971:102) [ my translation]. The authors continue to indicate

that, although must is included as one of the regular modals (may, should, can, shall,

will, must), there are differencing views as to ―modal-like‖ verbs such as need, usually,

try, let, get. An equivalent form of the emerging modals have (got) to is not found

among the Swedish modal auxiliaries. Aitchison (2013:149) states that when people

learn a new language, they unintentionally impose some of their old sound patterns, and

to some extent even syntax. Yule (2011:191) uses the term crosslinguistic influence or

transfer which is described as ―using sounds, expressions or structures from the L1

when performing in the L2.‖ Additionally, Yule (2011:191) states that if the first

language and the second language have similar features, there can be benefits for the

learner of the second language. From this viewpoint the next section will review

previous studies with a focus on native varieties.

2.6 Previous Studies

Already in 2003, Leech provides evidence to a decline in the use of core modals and a

substantial increase in the use of emerging modals. The evidence is taken from research

using four corpora, Brown, Frown, LOB and F-LOB. These are written corpora, and

each corpus consists of one million words which were collected from 500 text samples

of 2,000 words selected from various text genres ranging from press reportage to

romance and love stories (Lindquist 2009:3). The data in the Brown corpus of American

English and the British LOB corpus originates from 1961. Thirty years later, in 1992,

these corpora were ―cloned‖ creating the Frown and F-LOB Corpora thus making it

feasible to compare the two geographical varieties over time. This study is later used to

support Leech et al. (2009:71-117) who, by combining the written corpora with spoken

corpora, show that the trend of declining core modals and increasing usage of emerging

modals continues.

Leech‘s (2003) research was challenged by Millar (2009) claiming that an

investigation of modals in the TIME corpus shows that the overall frequency of modals

has instead been increasing. The challenge resulted in a reply from Leech (2011) where

further research is presented. The study includes additional corpora making it possible


9

to expand the diachronic study of 2003 and cover a five-date-point series of corpora

from 1901 to 2006. More specifically, Leech (2011:551) shows that the core modal

must in British English has been declining in frequency since about the middle of the

twentieth century, and that this decline has been accelerating. To examine the possibility

of a similar trend in American English, two additional large corpora were added. Even

here, there is evidence that the decline has been accelerating since the 1960s. The new

evidence makes plausible Leech‘s (2003) claim that this decline is becoming a ―general

and long lasting trend‖.

A few years later, Leech (2013) published an additional study examining where

the modals have gone. The most obvious hypothesis given is that the modals as a class

are gradually being encroached upon by the emerging modals. The overall frequency of

core modals is several times that of the emerging modals, but on the whole, the core

modals are declining proportionately faster than the emerging modals are increasing

(Leech 2013:100). Additionally, the decline in American usage of modals is steeper and

approximately one generation in advance of the British decline. The increasing

frequency of the emerging modals, on the other hand, shows no significant difference

between American and British English. Through an analysis of the Diachronic Corpus

of Present-day Spoken English [DCPSE] (Leech 2013:98), the same pattern of decline

is observed in the spoken language.

Together, the frequencies of the core modals and emerging modals reveal an

overall modality deficit. Leech (2013:108) suggests several possible explanations for

this apparent deficiency in written English. One given explanation is the

grammaticalization of lexical expressions (Perkins 1983), and the other is the trend of

colloquialization (Hundt & Mair 1999, Leech et al. 2009:20) or rather as Leech (2013:

108) indicates, a combination of the processes of grammaticalization and

colloquialization. Grammaticalization of the emerging modals in speech is associated

with increasing frequency and eventually leading to competition with the core modals,

which are shown to have been undergoing decline in recent English. Through

colloquialization, the rise in emerging modals is gradually filtering into the written

language.

Furthermore, Leech (2013:111) uses a synchronic corpus of conversation from

the early to mid-1990s to show frequencies of core modals and emerging modals in

British and American English conversation. When analyzing the semantic field of

obligation and necessity, it is evident that the core modal must is less common than the


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competing emerging modals have to and have got to. This is an indication that the

emerging modals are competing with the core modals, particularly in certain semantic

areas.

Finally, a previous study which presents the overuse of the progressive in non-

native English is that of Hundt & Vogel (2011:145-162). Although this study speaks of

the progressive there are parallells to the present study; learners do not pick up newly

grammaticalized forms. Hundt & Vogel (2011:160) conclude that ―learners‘ attention in

class-rooms of the expanding circle [...] is drawn to grammaticality issues and semantic

restrictions of the progressive, making them more likely to overuse the prototype of the

construction and less likely to ‗stretch‘ the progressive to new contexts, such as

combinations with certain stative verbs or new aspectual uses‖. In other words, it is the

prototypical forms that are favoured among non-native users of a language.

3 Material and Method

3.1 Material

This thesis uses a corpus-based approach which according to Krug (2000:21) results in a

scope and reliability which is not otherwise possible. The primary material used is

based on two Swedish Corpora called the SWENC (Swedish English Newspaper

Corpus) and the SESMC (Swedish English Social Media Corpora).

The SWENC corpus consists of articles from The Local, Stockholm News,

Svenskt Näringsliv, and Swedish Wire. These articles were extracted from online

newspapers and news web sites and consist of news articles, debate articles and several

economic, political, art and leisure articles. News reportage is investigated because the

genre of news journalism often is up to date with contemporary usage of language and

therefore any indication of trends are likely to appear in the material (Hundt & Mair,

1999). SWENC was initially compiled in 2013 and contained 164,366 words. This

material has been built upon in 2014 with the same premise as the previous collection,

adding 34,190 words and resulting in a corpus with a total of 198,556 words. All of the

collected articles were published between the years 2009 and 2014.

The SESMC corpus is a combination of the BESC corpus (Blogs in English by

Swedes Corpus) compiled in 2013 and a collection of tweets from 2014. The BESC

corpus consists of 263,369 words and contains blog entries written by Swedes which are

not edited by corporations or organizations. The tweet material consists of 35,793 words


11

obtained by personal tweet entries written by Swedes in English. Herring (2009) states

that Twitter is a new social software phenomenon that is attracting attention from both

the press and all the more, from scholars. Together with the blog material, the tweet

material has been expanded into a social media corpus with a collection of 299,162

words. According to Lindquist (2009: 201), material in discussion forums is more

informal than for example, material in newspapers since texts are written quickly

without editing. The social media corpora SESMC is therefore, a material that almost

looks like spoken language. The reason for using this material is to enable a

comparative analysis between the written and spoken usage of English by Swedes, and

to retrieve more comprehensive results regarding how the modals are used in Sweden.

The following criteria were followed in the collection of material to both the

SWENC and the SESMC corpora in order to create a material that could be comparable

with other recognized corpora and yet at the same time, unique. When uncertain, the

publishers were contacted.

the articles should be written by people whose first language is Swedish

the articles should be written by the Swedish writers themselves

the article should consist of a minimum of 50 words

Furthermore, the British 2006 (BE06) and American 2006 (AE06) corpora (CQP web at

Lancaster) were analyzed. These two corpora give a relevance to previously established

web-based corpora and provide material in which to investigate a longer diachronic

depth to grammaticalization between the native and non-native users of English. Both

the BE06 and AE06 corpora are a one million word corpus of published general written

material. They have the same sampling frame as the BROWN/FROWN and

LOB/FLOB corpora and consist of 500 files of 2000 word samples taken from 15

genres of writing. This thesis uses the broad press genre of BE06 and AE06 which are

comparable in size with the SWENC material. This extracted material consists of

200,721 words in BE06 and 203,571 words in AE06. These different corpora represent

material of written American and British English and English used in Sweden.

3.2 Method

This thesis is a quantitative study, and it involves an analysis of how must, have to and

have got to are used by Swedish writers in terms of frequency. Lindquist (2009: 25-26)

states that a quantitative study uses frequencies and percentages to describe language

and create hypotheses. Moreover, Lindquist (2009: 25-26) indicates that a quantitative


12

study often involves aspects of a qualitative method. For example, this research began

with a collection of relevant information regarding the core and emerging modals. The

modals were then analyzed with the purpose of being able to identify similarities and

differences between them. Additionally, Lindquist (2009:26) states that quantitative

corpus studies should not just present tables and figures, but also include individual

examples from the corpora in order to see the reality behind the figures when making a

presentation of the results. All examples are provided as written in the material with

grammatical and spelling mistakes.

The topic for this thesis developed from the challenge given by Fernebring

(2014) to further investigate the auxiliary modals in relation to language change. The

core modal must and the emerging modals have to, have got to were chosen after a

perusal of various studies such as Leech (2003, 2011, 2013), Millar (2009) and

Tagliamonte (2013) which showed that particularly these modals were undergoing

radical changes. According to Leech (2011:551) the core modal must has been declining

over a period of time and that this decline has been accelerating. At the same time, there

is evidence that the emerging modals are rivalling the core modals. Before being able to

compare this trend with the previous studies, an investigation was made as to the

frequency in which Swedes use must, have to and have got to, in the Swedish material

(see Figure 1). The relevant hits were normalized. Lindquist (2009:42) states that

normalizing is used when comparing frequencies in two corpora or subcorpora of

different sizes. By doing this, it was possible to compare the results of the SWENC

(198,556 words) with the SESMC (299,162 words). Furthermore, through the UCREL

web-based log-likelihood wizard provided by Paul Rayson (Computing Department,

University of Lancaster), a likelihood method was applied. Lindquist (2009:37) explains

that this method shows the likelihood that the differences seen in the figures are based

on real differences in the world and not just to chance. The quantitative analysis in the

SWENC and SESMC corpora were supported by qualitative examples to verify the

findings (see Table 1).

The results of the SWENC material were examined in comparison to the broad

press genre of the BE06 and AE06 corpora (see Figure 2). The BE06 and AE06 corpora

were chosen based on the fact that Leech (2011) used this material to expand the

diachronic study of 2003 as a response to the challenge by Millar (2009) claiming that

the modals have instead been increasing. Additionally, the press genre of the BE06 and

AE06 corpora are relative in size and content to the Swedish corpus. Due to a limitation


13

of publicly available spoken corpora, the results of the SESMC corpus were not

included in this section of the study. This is not considered a hindrance to reliability

since as mentioned earlier, the press genre often uses contemporary language and

therefore any indication of trends are likely to appear in the material (Hundt & Mair,

1999). As with the study between the SWENC and SESMC, the frequencies were

normalized to compare corpora of varying size and calculated for likelihood of

statistical significance. These results were then supported by qualitative findings and

discussed in relation to previous studies.

Finally, the investigation also included examples from the SWENC and SESMC

corpora, in which the modals express deontic, epistemic and/or ambiguous meanings. A

computer program was created to collect all the instances of the modals in context.

Through the usage of this program, it is considered that the collected material is more

objective and reliable. Due to limited time, not all instances were categorized, but rather

251 instances were randomly selected from the total 730 clauses (Appendix). In order

for the material to be as varied as possible between the written and spoken-like

language, 120 tokens of the core modal must were chosen [60 tokens from the SWENC

material and 60 tokens from the SESMC material (11 tweets and 49 blogs)], 120 tokens

of the emerging modal have to were chosen [60 tokens from the SWENC material with

20 from have to, had to, has to, and 60 tokens from the SESMC material with 10 from

have to, had to, has to, taken from the twitter and blog material]. Additionally, all the

samples of the lemma have got to were included from both corpora resulting in 251

clauses. The 251 clauses were analyzed and categorized in instances of deontic and

epistemic meanings according to the definition in Huddleston & Pullum (2013:54).

However, since this analysis was subjective, the results were verified by a native

speaking person. Here there proved to be a 98% similarity, and the 2% difference could

be determined as having ambiguous meaning. Similarly, the epistemic and deontic

meanings were graded and verified. There was a slightly greater number of differences,

but once again these were often between the lower two levels of grading and not within

the dominant form of meaning. Additionally, the total frequencies were statistically

analyzed using the UCREL log-likelihood calculator identifying the significance of the

observed differences.


14

4 Results and Discussion

4.1 Frequency and usage

Frequency tells us a lot about the society in which words are being used; the more

frequent the word, the more it is an established concept (Lindquist (2009:26). Yet, even

though words can be counted separate, in one sense they can be instances of the same

word, just as have to, had to, has to and even hafta. In order to allow for this fact,

Lindquist (2009:27) states that a corpus can be lemmatized. All word forms which are

simply different tenses or varieties of the same word belong to the same lemma. The

modals in Figure 1 take into account lemmatization; must includes the negative forms

must not and mustn‟t, have to includes the past tense had to, the present tense has to and

the future tense will have to, the negative forms not have to and „t have to, plus the

spoken hafta. Additionally, have got to includes „ve got to and the spoken gotta. The

figures are normalized to 200,000 words to enable relative frequency.

Figure 1: The extent to which the modals are used in SWENC and SESMC: per 200 000 words

When comparing the frequencies between the modal must and the emerging modals

have to and have got to in the written and spoken-like language in English by Swedes, it

is possible to make several observations. For instance, the frequency of the lemma must

is greater in the SWENC than SESMC. This indicates that must is being used more in

written form than spoken-like texts. The result is statistically significant at 0.01%

(p<0.0001; critical value = 55.47), which means that mathematically speaking a repeat

of the study 10,000 times would give the same results. At the same time, the frequency

of the lemma have to is shown to have passed must in the SWENC. Moreover, instead

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

SWENC SESMC Total

must

have to

have got to


15

of being less in the SESMC there is an even greater frequency in the spoken-like

material. This is not surprising after having observed the results in Leech et al (2009:71-

117), Millar (2009) and Tagliamonte (2013) who indicate that the emerging modal is

encroaching upon the core modal. The statistical significance of have to in the SESMC

compared to the SWENC is 1% (p<0.01; critical value = 5.17). This indicates that a

repeat of the study 100 times would give similar results. It can also be noticed that

although the lemma have got to is included as an emerging modal (Krug 2000:4), the

low frequency shows that this modal is not being used to any greater degree by Swedes

in English. As a matter of fact, the total frequencies among the three modals show that

must is used 40% of the time, have to is used 58% of the time and have got to is as used

as little as 2%. The analysis looks further at the lemmas must, have to and have got to in

Table 1.

Table 1: Usage of the lemmas must, have to, have got to in terms of frequency: per 200 000 words

Modals SWENC SESMC Total

Must 138 76 214

must not 3 0 3

mustn't 0 0 0

have to 56 59 115

had to 46 78 124

has to 29 17 46

will have to 8 13 21

not have to 5 2 7

't have to 2 1 3

Hafta 0 0 0

have got to 0 2 2

've got to 0 1 1

Gotta 0 8 8

Total 287 257 544

Table 1 differs from Figure 1 in that the total frequencies are not normalized per 200

000 words, but rather added together in order to show the total number of instances in

the Swedish material. Several observations can be made between the must, have to and

have got to, by an analysis of some of the different tenses and negative forms of each

lemma within the material. The frequency figures in Table 1 must show that there are

217 tokens of the modal must. Lindquist (2009:35) describes a token as the number of

instances a particular word or lemma is found in the corpus. It is also evident that must

lacks secondary inflectional form and has no distinct 3rd

person singular agreement


16

(Huddleston & Pullum 2013:29). Must is used in primary form (22) with all persons, for

example singular 1st person (23) or 3

rd person (24) and plural forms (25).

(22) Policies must be clear (primary form) (SWENC, Stockholm News)

(23) I must admit I was a bit intimidated (1st person singular subject) (SESMC, Emily‘s

blog)

(24) She must toughen up a bit (3rd

person singular subject) (SWENC, Stockholm

News)

(25) We must challenge our way of thinking (1st person plural subject) (SWENC,

Stockholm News)

Additionally, Table 1 shows that although the negative forms of must are few, must not

has 3 tokens within the written corpus and the abbreviated form mustn‟t is not

identified. Aitchison (2013:119) confirms that as the grammaticalization process

changes a word phonetically, abbreviations would often be heard in spoken language as

opposed to being used in the written text. This is illustrated by (26) found in the

SWENC corpus.

(26) We must not lower expectations. (SWENC, Stockholm News)

Unlike the modal must, the lemma have to has several different tenses and negative

forms. As stated in Strutt (2009:142) will have to is used for future necessity as (27)

illustrates in the SESMC corpus. It is also evident that will have to has 13 tokens in

SESMC compared to 8 tokens in SWENC indicating that this form is more frequent in

spoken English as opposed to the written language.

(27) But sooner or later a choice will have to be made. (SESMC, Carl Bildt‘s blog)

Even more interesting is the fact that the past tense had to, as seen in (28a), is used

more frequently than any other tense of have to. A total of 124 tokens of had to are

found as opposed to 115 tokens of have to. Additionally, in a comparison of the SESMC

corpus, had to is used all of 32% more than have to in the same corpus (78 against 59

tokens). This suggests that the past tense of have to is the most common form used

within the spoken language by Swedes using English.

(28a) When I was 14 I had ten minutes from school ending to that show being on TV so

I had to run home every day. (SESMC, Ellociraptor‘s tweet)

(28b) *When I was 14 I had ten minutes from school ending to that show being on TV

so I must run home every day. (Example of how must can not be used in past tense)

Futhermore, as shown above in (28b) and previously in (7a) by Huddleston & Pullum

(2013:39) must has a lack of past participle. In a comparison of the lemma have to

without the past tense form it is evident that must is only used 0.07% more than the

emerging modal (217 against 203 tokens). This is supported by Leech (2009:115) who


17

gives evidence that the syntactic feature of the past tense form had to is challenging

must in frequency.

Similarly to the modal must, the negative forms of have to are few within the

SWENC/SESMC corpora and moreover, the newest form hafta does not exist. Even

though a phonetic reduction as described by Aitchision (2013:115) appears from the

forms not have to and „t have to as in (29)-(30), it is possible that hafta is still

stylistically very informal .

(29) We'll not have to wait too long (SESMC, Ida‘s blog)

(30) Didn't have to sit around for very long (SESMC, Johanna1‘s blog)

When looking at the total frequency of the lemma have to it is evident that SWENC has

146 tokens and the SESMC has 170. This is a usage frequency difference of 16% within

the spoken language compared to the written language by Swedes using the English

language. This would support the suggestion by Svartvik & Leech (2006:208) that there

is a change in grammar of English coming from the spoken language which is gradually

spreading into the written language.

Finally, the lemma have got to has a low frequency figure with only 11 tokens.

Although this is not a large number of instances, the 8 tokens of gotta compared to the 2

tokens of have got to and 1 token ‟ve got to within the SESMC indicates a 22% greater

usage of the spoken formation as shown in (31). Leech (2013:108) confirms that

through colloquialization, the rise of the emerging modals is gradually filtering into the

written language, even though there appears to be a time lag.

(31) ladyfriend coming over tonight gotta clean up (SESMC, Tobias Öjerfalk‘s blog)

This study will continue with a comparison of the Swedish material with the American

English-06 and the British English-06 in order to make observations on the frequencies

of the core modal must and the emerging modal have to, have got to, between the two

Standard English varieties and English used as a foreign language by Swedes. Through

a synchronic analysis, similarities and differences can be identified to previous studies

and provide a broader depth to the study. Additionally, since the AE/BE06 corpora are

from approximately 2006 and the SWENC is from 2010, there is a diachronic base

which can give indications of grammaticalization.

4.2 Comparison with previous studies

There has been much research comparing British and American English. Already in

2003, Leech gives evidence from the Brown corpus of American English and the British

LOB corpus to a decline in the use of core modals and a substantial increase in the use


18

of the emerging modals. Later in 2011, Leech expands the research giving evidence not

only of a decline, but that the core modal must in British English has been accelerating

in decline. The British results were then compared with an American corpus confirming

a similar trend and making the evidence more plausible.

This analysis will expand upon previous native studies to include non-native

English users as referred to by Svartvik & Leech (2006:5). Figure 2 illustrates the

expansion using the core modal must and the emerging modals have to and have got to

in the SWENC and the AE06, and BE06 sub-corpora: Press. The use of newspaper

corpora is valid since they provide reasonably comparable data from American and

British English (Lindquist 2009:63). Newspapers are also good sources for innovative

language, since journalistic prose has been shown to be an ―agile‖ (Hundt & Mair 1999)

genre which picks up new trends quickly. Once again, the figures are normalized to

provide relative frequencies and the modals take into account lemmatization.

Figure 2: The extent to which the modals are used in SWENC, AE06 and BE06 Corpora: per 200,000 words

It is possible to make several observations in Figure 2. For instance, the frequency of

the lemma must in the three corpora SWENC, AE06 and BE06 is shown to be lower

than the emerging modals have to. Even Leech (2011:99) reveals that the core modal

must is used less frequently than it was a few decades ago and the emerging modal have

to is one of the strongest advancing modals. One explanation to the lower frequency of

the lemma must is that the core modal is indeed being encroached upon by the emerging

modal have to. This is evident in the SWENC where there is a marginal difference of

3% (146 against 141 tokens) between the two frequencies. Moreover, the differences

between must and have to are greater within the AE06 and BE06 sub-corpora; the AE06

shows an 89% difference (115 against 61 tokens) and the BE06 shows a 45% difference

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

SWENC AE06 BE06

must

have to

have got to


19

(124 against 85 tokens). This would confirm the claim by Leech (2003:100) that the

decline of the core modal is a ―general and long lasting trend‖.

At the same time, there is evidence that contradicts with Leech (2011:99) who

includes have got to as another of the strongest advancing modals. As shown in Figure

2, this is not evident in the SWENC, AE06 and BE06 corpora. In fact, the Swedish

corpus does not have any evidence of the usage of have got to in the written language,

and the American and British corpus reveal only a few tokens. This can be related to the

fact that although the press corpora is an innovative language, it is still a written

language which has not picked up on the more informal spoken variation which was

evident earlier in (29) and (30).

An additional observation in Figure 2 is that the core modal must is shown to be

used more frequently in the SWENC than the AE06 or BE06. It is evident that Swedes

using English use must 131% (141 against 61 tokens) more than the usage in American

English and 66% (141 against 85 tokens) more than the usage in British English. One

reason in which must can be used more in the SWENC is its similar phonetic and

syntactic structure with the Swedish måste which may influence this higher frequency

(32). This substratum phenomenon is discussed by Aitchison (2013:149) who states that

people learning a new language unintentionally impose some of their old sound patterns

and syntax. At the same time, it is also evident that the usage of the must is lower in

AE06 than in BE06 which is confirmed by Leech (2013:100) who states that the decline

in American usage of modals (33) is steeper and approximately one generation in

advance of the British decline (34).

(32) We must then assume that the bank corrects the issues.(SWENC, Stockholm News)

(33) We must act to stop the scourge of unauthorised sites which can blight (BE06)

(34) We must find ways to lower the health care (AE06)

Finally, Figure 2 also gives evidence that the emerging modal have to is more frequent

in the SWENC than the AE06 and BE06. Leech (2013:100) suggests that the frequency

of the emerging modals shows no significant difference between American and British

English and this is evident in the AE06 and BE06. At the same time, have to is more

frequent in the English used by Swedes which shows that together with must, the overall

frequency of modals is greater in English used as a foreign language than English used

by native users.

In order to understand the usage of must and have to, have got to, a further

analysis will be presented of the epistemic and deontic meanings. Identifying the usage


20

of the modals in relation to its meaning provides deeper insight into the

grammaticalization and colloquialization process of non-native users.

4.3 Epistemic and deontic meaning

Aitchison (2013:114) states that grammaticalization covers the whole of language and

this includes not only syntactic change but also semantic change. Words take on new

meanings and live in symbiosis with each other during longer or shorter periods of time

where eventually, the new meaning becomes dominant or falls away. As stated earlier,

the more frequent the word, the more it is an established concept (Lindquist 2009:27).

The modals in Figure 3 once again illustrate the lemmas of the different tenses and

negative forms of must, have to, and have got to. The figures are given in absolute

frequencies.

Figure 3: The extent to which deontic, epistemic or ambiguous meanings are used: per 251 clauses

When comparing the frequencies between the modal must and the emerging modals

have to and have got to in the deontic and epistemic meanings, it is possible to make

several observations. For instance, the total frequency of the deontic meaning is used to

a much greater extent, all of 182% more, than the epistemic meaning (206 against 73

tokens). The result is statistically significant at 0.01% (p<0.0001; critical value =

66.05), which means that mathematically speaking a repeat of the study 10,000 times

would give the same results. Huddleston & Pullum (2013:54) state that the link between

the two families of meanings is that the concepts of necessity and possibility apply to

both. The difference is that deontic modality is concerned with what is necessary (Table

2), whereas epistemic modality deals with what is known or believed to be true based

on the available evidence. This would suggest that when Swedes use must, have to and

have got it, there is a greater usage in meaning referring to what is necessary as opposed

0

50

100

150

200

250

must have to have got to total

deontic

epistemic

ambiguous


21

to what is believed to be true. Additionally, there are few instances of ambiguous

interpretations where the meanings can be used either deontically or epistemically.

Figure 3 further shows that the deontic meaning is expressed 23% more

frequently (110 against 89 tokens) by using the emerging modal have to (35) as opposed

to the core modal must (36). This observation is identified in previous studies by Leech

(2013:111) when analyzing the semantic field of obligation and necessity.

(35) But now I have to run (SESMC, Hilda Sandström‘s blog)

(36) In order to transform one must start with a blank canvas. (SESMC, Nathan‘s blog)

At the same time, the deontic meaning is used interchangeably between modals must

(37), have to (38) and have got to (39). As indicated by Aitchison (2013:116) this

illustrates that grammaticalization is not just a slide from one usage to another, but

rather various stages of overlapping referred to as layering. In the deontic system, the

older modal must (37) exists alongside the newer have to (38) and the newest layer have

got to (39). The following examples illustrate a sense of obligation:

(37) We must get better when it comes to using the...(SWENC, Stockholm News)

(38) But this is a risk scenario that we still have to take seriously (SWENC, Stockholm

News).

(39) OMG. SO good. You have got to try it! (SESMC, Victor‘s blog)

A similar trend is seen in the epistemic system. Figure 3 illustrates the same layering

phenomenon once again between the modals must (40), have to (41), and have got to

(42). There is a sense of whether something is known or believed to be true in each of

the following examples:

(40) She must be crazy like a fool... (SWENC, The Local)

(41) SO PRETTY. There just has to be hidden spells and (SESMC, Ida‘s blog)

(42) crank my sense to 4. and i gotta tell you guys im loving it. (SESMC, Tejbz‘s blog)

Although the frequency of ambiguous meaning (Huddleston & Pullum 2013:55) is low

in this study, layering is evident even here between the different modals. Must (43) has

the possibility of meaning that peace is necessary or that peace is known to be built

upon. Similarly, has to (44) can be interpreted to mean that it is required to be usable or

that it is believed to be usable. Additionally, gotta (45) could either be understood as it

is necessary to love the dog photos or it is certain that they are loved.

(43) that might challenge the very foundations on which peace must be built.(SESMC,

Carl Bildt‘s blog)

(44) Furthermore, it has to be usable. (SWENC, The Local)

(45) You gotta love the dog photos by Elliott Erwitt (SESMC, Nathan‘s blog)


22

Finally, there is evidence of layering when both the core modal and emerging modal are

being used within the same clause. The following example (46) illustrates the

interchangeability in the deontic meaning of have to with a necessity to trust and later,

must with a requirement of a need to know. As stated by Strutt (2009:142) must is used

when obligation is self-imposed, and have to suggests a more external obligation.

(46) We have to trust them, but they must also know that they need some (SWENC, The

Local)

In addition to layering, the study shows overlapping stages of grammaticalization which

form chains, often referred to as clines (Aitchison 2013:117). The deontic and epistemic

system of meaning is further analyzed as to the different ranges of meanings which

Coates (1983:32) describes as interpretations such as ―it is imperative‖ to ―it is

necessary or a requirement that‖. The deontic system in this study includes a range from

obligation to necessity to requirement where obligation is the strongest form. Table 2

shows the variation of meaning in terms of frequency in the SWENC and SESMC

corpora.

Table 2: Usage of deontic meaning in terms of frequency Deontic meaning Must Have to Have got to Total Percent

Obligation 25 1 1 27 13%

Necessity 41 51 6 98 48%

Requirement 23 58 0 81 39%

Total 89 110 7 206 100%

Table 2 shows that in the deontic system, Swedes using the English language have a

greater tendency to use must with necessity and have to with requirement. Hopper &

Traugott (2003:79) indicate that the use of must is thought to be irresistible (something

one can not refuse), whereas have to is resistible (something which can be refused)

under certain circumstances. (47) illustrates a necessity for Europe to have more first

rate univerisities, whereas (48) illustrates a situation where there is a requirement to

spoil children.

(47) Europe must have more first rate universities. (SWENC, Svenskt Närlingsliv)

(48) And sometimes you just have to spoile the kids =) (SESMC, The Swedes‘ blog)

Additionally, have to and have got to are recognized as toned down choices in contrast

to must, without distinguishing differences in meaning nor strength to the choice

between them (Huddleston & Pullum 2013:54). Table 2 illustrates this tendency in both

necessity and requirement where have to has a greater frequency than must (necessity


23

51 against 41 tokens, requirement 58 against 23 tokens) also seen in (49)(50)(51)(52)

respectively.

(49) Bus companies [...] have to spend more on fuel. (SWENC, Stockholm News)

(50) Swedish banks must meet tougher requirements (SWENC, Swedish Wire)

(51) We have to pay a fee to our contact at the Moscow Police (SWENC, Stockholm

News)

(52) We must then assume that the bank corrects the issues. (SWENC, Svenskt

Näringsliv)

The phenomenon of clines is further illustrated in the epistemic system including a

range from certainty to probability to possibility where certainty is the strongest form.

The tendency to use have to and have got to as toned down choices in contrast to must,

without changing the meaning nor strength to the choice as indicated by Huddleston &

Pullum (2013:54) also appears in the meaning of certainty as illustrated in the following

examples:

(53) I must admit that I was a little sceptical (SESMC, Johathan Berg‘s blog)

(54) As the title says im back to business and I have to say I feel a lot (SESMC,

Johathan Berg‘s blog)

(55) All I know is that i gotta keep on keeping on.(SESMC, Jamie Meyer‘s tweet)

Clause (53) illustrates must in the epistemic sense of certainty or need to admit, whereas

(54) and (55) show the same meaning in a toned down manner. Together with the

examples within the deontic system, the results show that in addition to layering, the

overlapping stages of grammaticalization form chains of meaning which illustrate a less

frequent grade of authority and judgment. At the same time it suggests that the modal

system of non-native English is undergoing a grammaticalization process (Tagliamonte

2013:134).

5 Conclusion

The results of this research do not support the hypothesis which argues that the core

modal must is not being challenged by the emerging modals have to and have got to in

the non-native variety of English. Although the study shows that must is being used

frequently by Swedes using the English language, have to is being used more frequently

than must. A more detailed explanation is found in the results of the study‘s research

questions:


24

1. What is the frequency and usage of the English modals must, have to and have

got to in the material?

2. How do the frequencies in the Swedish material compare with the frequencies in

the British and American corpora and to the previous studies?

3. How do the Swedish writers use the modals with regard to epistemic and deontic

meaning?

The results of the first research question into the frequencies and usage of the English

modals must, have to and have got to by Swedes show several distinct findings. One

such finding, noted in Figure 1, is that the emerging modal have to has surpassed the

core modal must. This is a similar trend to the grammaticalization process presented by

Leech et al (2009:99) and suggests that must is even being challenged by its rival have

to in the non-native variety of English. Moreover, one possible reason for the greater

usage of the emerging modal is shown in the evidence that the past tense form had to is

used more frequently than any other form. The modal must can not be used in the past

tense. In a comparison excluding had to, it is seen that the core modal must is used

marginally more frequently than the emerging modal. This can suggest that the

emerging modal is being used more, simply because people need to distinquish between

different tenses, and have to allows for greater variety. Another possible reason for the

greater usage of the emerging modal is that the frequency of have to is greater in the

spoken-like language than in that of the written. Since language change often moves

from the spoken language spreading into the written, it can be suggested that the

emerging modal have to is in a process of colloquialization. This phenomena was also

identified by Leech (2013:108), supporting the theory that a combination of the process

of grammaticalization and colloquialization is leading to competition with the core

modals. Finally, the results show conflicting evidence with the literature in regards to

the frequency of use between the two emerging modals. Leech (2013:111) states that the

core modal must is less common than both the competing emerging modals have to and

have got to. In the Swedish material, the frequency of the newest emerging modal have

got to is very low. One explanation for this could be, as stated in the background

material, that have got to is predominantly British English, and Swedes using English

could be following American features. This could also be a reason as to why the usage

of the emerging modal have to is more frequent.

The second research question, which compares the written Swedish material

with the British and American corpora and previous studies, also shows a couple of


25

interesting findings. For instance, although the emerging modal has surpassed the core

modal in the Swedish corpora, must is being used more frequently by these non-native

speakers than by speakers of the native British or American varieties (Figure 2). This is

not surprising as this is a phenomenon which can be explained in the prototypical and

learnt association to the Swedish form måste (Aitchison 2013:149). As suggested by

Hundt & Vogel (2011:160) this construction of usage may be popular because it is a

more familiar construction to learners of English. An additional finding is that the

emerging modal have to is not only more frequently used than must in the Swedish

material (as previously discussed), but it has surpassed have to in the British and

American corpora. This usage is significant because there is no prior association to the

term have to in the Swedish language, yet it is being used most frequently by Swedes

using English. One suggestion for this use could be colloquialization. For example,

American films and social media (Facebook) have become very popular globally and

Swedes are highly exposed to this media. Grammaticalization in the American Corpus

with the use of have to is one generation in advance of the British who use the modal

have got to.

The results of the third research question regarding the semantic meanings of

must, have to and have got to in the Swedish material, also reveal interesting findings.

In a comparison between the deontic and epistemic, there is a greater frequency of

usage of the deontic meaning (Figure 3). This suggests that these modals are used to a

greater extent when referring to what is required as opposed to what is believed to be

true or probable. Furthermore, it is the emerging modal have to which is used more

frequently in this context. At the same time, the meanings are used interchangeably

between the modals. This illustrates that the older modal must exists alongside the

newer have to and newest layer have got to in stages of overlapping which Aitchison

(2013:116) refers to as layering. Since the meanings are being used interchangeably

between the three modals, and have to is used more often, it can suggest a process of

grammaticalization of semantics in the English used by Swedes. There is even evidence

of one clause (46) when both the core modal and the emerging modal are being used

within the same sentence. Moreover, in addition to layering the results show the usage

of clines which suggests that within the deontic and epistemic meaning, Swedes using

the English language tend to prefer a more toned-down style of language without

compromising the meaning or force of their words. This social feature can also support

the higher frequency of the emerging modal.


26

In conclusion, the aim of this thesis was to examine to what extent Swedish

writers, writing in English, use the modals must, have to and have got to. The results

show that the core modal must is being used more frequently in the non-native variety

of English than in the native standard American and British varieties. At the same time,

the core modal has been surpassed by the emerging modal have to despite the

prototypical måste found in the Swedish language. Additionally, even if the more

colloquial gotta is not very frequent, this can be explained by the limitations in the

chosen genre or the possibility that this form of language is more prominent in the

British variety and that Swedes, when using the English language, are using the

American variety. Furthermore, there is a greater usage of the toned-down form of

obligation or necessity used interchangeably between must, have to and have got to

which suggests that Swedes using the English language tend to prefer a more toned-

down style of language.

Lastly, some aspects of the thesis limitations and possibilities for further study

should be mentioned. Although the sizes of SWEN and SESMC corpora could be

deemed as being relatively small, they are respectable and comparative to sub-corpora

of similar genre. The combined quantitative and qualitative methodology has provided

deeper insight into understanding how Swedes use the modals. One limitation of the

study is the lack of previous Swedish material which could have deepened the

understanding of grammaticalization within the non-native variety of language.

However, the SWENC corpus of 2010 was compared with the AE/BE2006 providing

two periods of time in which the modals could be analyzed, and a longer diachronic

depth in the native varieties is seen by previous studies. Another limitation is the

subjective method in which the deontic and epistemic meanings were analyzed. The

authenticity was raised by including one native speaker to this section of the research,

but the validity could be further increased with additional investigation. Furthermore,

since this study has expanded the scope of research into changes in the modal

auxiliaries, it would therefore be interesting to continue with an investigation of

additional declining modals, such as would and may. An additional further study could

be related to collocation since words go hand in hand. The frequency patterns revealed

in such a study could lead to an analysis of gender or politeness behaviours within the

non-native variety of English.


27

References

Primary sources

Blogs in English by Swedes Corpus (‗BESC‘) compiled 2013 by Oscar Svensson and

extended 2014 by Alexander Willstedt, Teresa Rilling and Therese Larsson,

Linnaeus University. [Unpublished]

Corpus of English Tweets by Swedes (―CETS‖) compiled 2014 by Alexander Willstedt,

Teresa Rilling, Therese Larsson, Linnaeus University (Unpublished)

Swedish in English Social Media Corpora (―SESMC‖) compiled of the BESC and

CETS corpora [Unpublished]

Swedish in English Newspapers Corpus (‗SWENC‘) compiled 2013 by Elias

Gustafsson, Felix Fernebring, Jenny Gustafsson, Petra Gartsjö, Petra Örlegård,

Sanna Eriksson, and extended 2014 by Alexander Willstedt, Teresa Rilling and

Therese Larsson Linnaeus University. [Unpublished]

The British English 2006 Corpus (―BE06‖) (original version) maintained by Andrew

Hardie, Corpus Query Processor at Lancaster https://cqpweb.lancs.ac.uk/be2006/

[accessed 2014-12-06]

The American English 2006 Corpus (―AE06‖) (original version) maintained by Andrew

Hardie, Corpus Query Processor at Lancaster https://cqpweb.lancs.ac.uk/ame06/

[accessed 2014-12-06]

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https://cqpweb.lancs.ac.uk/ame06/


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Blackwell

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Gleerups

Krug M.G. 2000. Emerging English Modals – A Corpus-Based Study of

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Leech, G.&M. Hundet, C. Mair, N. Smith. 2009. Change in Contemporary English:

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Leech, G. 2011. The modals ARE declining – Reply to Neil Millar‟s “Modal verbs in

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Linguistics 14:2 (2009), 191-220

Leech, G. 2013. Where have all the modals gone? An essay on the declining frequency

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Amsterdam: John Benjamins

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Edition, New York: Cambridge University

Press


30

Appendix

Epistemic, Deontic or Ambiguous meanings

of must, have to, have got to

Modal Corpus Clause Deontic Epistemic Ambiguous

Must SWENC

The process led to an EU directive which must

be implemented by all member States. obligation

Must SWENC

for many people on the labour market I think.

We must get better when it comes to using the obligation

Must SWENC

carrier path and find itself at the bottom of the

waiting list. Therefore we must encourage

more necessity

Must SWENC

which traffic data that operators must save,

and how it shall be protected during the time

of storage. obligation

Must SWENC

apartments coming up. But other actors like

(the mining company) LKAB must also take

its necessity

Must SWENC

―It's not nearly the same good loan terms as

before the crisis. Now, everyone must count

with more necessity

Must SWENC

frustrated condition. But at the same time there

is an understanding that something must be

done: necessity

Must SWENC

We must then assume that the bank corrects

the issues. The Managing Director and the requirement

Must SWENC

Ireland and our responsibility is limited. (...)

Judgement must be based on each individual

case, but obligation

Must SWENC Salander, she must toughen up a bit. necessity

Must SWENC

We must remember that Europe had

experienced only one year of peace after a 30

year war with requirement

Must SWENC

products that might be used by private

individuals, other than food, must be labelled

for the country obligation

Must SWENC

where we employ as many women as men,

and this ratio must be reflected in our

managerial necessity

Must SWENC

competition for their European counterparts.

EU research policy must become much more

effective. obligation

Must SWENC

into their own hands. We have to trust them,

but they must also know that they need some necessity

Must SWENC

music for their own use. Therefore, also the

storage capacity of mobile telephones must be

taxed in requirement

Must SWENC

But at the same time he underlined that this is

a risk that journalists often must take to find

out the requirement certainty ambiguous

Must SWENC

early mornings must have been a burden to the

health of the 53 year old philosopher who was

probability

Must SWENC

with a hundred percent commercial system

where artists must survive on a free market. requirement certainty Ambiguous


31

Must SWENC

The supervisory role must be clearly separated

from the ECB:s monetary policy role. It‘s also

vital obligation

Must SWENC

easy and attractive must be put in place,

among such the same rights on supervisory

boards, said obligation

Must SWENC

There is only one way to manage the debt

crisis and ensure future prosperity in Europe—

we must obligation

Must SWENC

These are the issues that must be addressed

going forward that can impact our ability in

putting obligation

Must SWENC

Simultaneously, strong measures must be

taken to remove trade obstacles in more

traditional trade obligation

Must SWENC "She must be crazy like a fool..."

probability

Must SWENC

him to shreds. She pretended to be tender but

it must have, at least in part, been a bit of an

act

probability

Must SWENC

Swedish banks must meet tougher

requirements necessity

Must SWENC

is not valid, instead all music rights must be

bought from the publishers directly. obligation

Must SWENC

rewritten then they must raise the issue with

the counter part‖, he says to daily Svenska necessity

Must SWENC

Collins, who also warned that a supervisory

mechanism placed with the ECB must not

impair the necessity

Must SWENC

One strong reason for the move to the US is

the age. Next summer he is 67 and then must

step necessity

Must SWENC

―It‘s up to the Navy if they think anything

must be done to the torpedoes, but I don‘t

think the necessity

Must SWENC

free trade are in constant flux and must never

be taken for granted. Mr Bildttherefore necessity

Must SWENC

Member states, including Sweden, must take

the initiative at home – and stimulate greater necessity

Must SWENC

Thirdly, Europe must have more first rate

universities. The EU therefore must also focus necessity

Must SWENC

currents must be taken seriously and we must

understand what is at stake –European

freedoms necessity

Must SWENC

At the same time, there must be a balance in

the amount of information provided in the necessity

Must SWENC

blocked must be blocked. Copyright has

become a commodity‖, Fredriksson says. necessity

Must SWENC

Only those due of higher wages shall receive

it, ―rigid‖ regulations on working hours must

go necessity

Must SWENC

and job skills must be judged higher than

length of service when there are layoffs. necessity

Must SWENC

world‘s most competitive one, we must build

on our strong points: the single market,

openness obligation

Must SWENC

development of the European market and

combating all forms of protectionism must

therefore obligation

Must SWENC

must not lose this opportunity. Our success

will depend on on our ability to define and obligation


32

Must SWENC

These signals must be taken seriously. Still,

most European citizens did vote for political

parties obligation

Must SWENC

must now be taken as a primary task for all

MEPs: Establishing a research and innovation

policy obligation

Must SWENC

This report identifies three guidelines that

must lead efforts in establishing such a

European obligation

Must SWENC

plating issue must be resolved by all member

states, but should be monitored by the obligation

Must SWENC

of this kind involves many aspects that

standard taxi dispatchers lack. Samres must

ensure obligation

Must SWENC

personal data processing all comply with the

Swedish laws, but that separate agreements

must obligation

Must SWENC

corporations, but it must also address the

individual and small businesses,‖ he said. obligation

Must SWENC

Collective labour agreements for well over

three million Swedish employees expire and

must be obligation

Must SWENC

First, Europe must invest more resources in

R&D. Several years ago, all EU member states obligation

Must SWENC

To win that contest, Sweden must be an open

and inviting country. requirement

Must SWENC

must be seen as positive. But reforms are also

necessitysary! requirement

Must SWENC

Second, all resources invested in R&D must

be used more efficiently than today. This

requirementes requirement

Must SWENC

have different perspectives on the general

issues, but I believe member states must have

the requirement

Must SWENC

RELATED STORY: Ten Swedish must-read

books requirement

Must SWENC

is not valid, instead all music rights must be

bought from the publishers directly. requirement

Must SWENC

on gifts, inheritance and wealth has been

abolished must also be seen as an advantage

when

certainty

Must SWENC

But it must have been hard for him to imagine

the scale of attention and commotion that

probability

Must Twitters

We must step up prevention & support to

survivors, incl necessity

Must Twitters

―Though we travel the world over to find the

beautiful, we must carry it with us, or we find

it not.‖ requirement

Must Twitters

The fact that your body doesn't fall asleep the

second you want to must be some sort of

design flaw probability

Must Twitters

Great Britain has the most tv presenters per

capita. I've watched British tv I know this

must be true. certainty

Must Twitters

No worries, sometimes adding the #sarcasm

tag is must ;-) necessity

Must Twitters

what! females in the team! The person must

have thought @maaretp to be an exception,

probability

Must Twitters

Oh yes you absolutely and positively must

come to @nordictestdays requirement


33

Must Twitters mmm.. they must soon.. necessity

Must Twitters

Unpacking vids must be the most pointless

thing ever shown on YouTube.

possibility

Must Twitters Help to stop Ebola must come within weeks necessity

Must Twitters

Great Britain has the most tv presenters per

capita. I've watched British tv I know this

must be true.

certainty

Must Blogs

but i must have made a lillion sketches before

I was happy with

probability

Must Blogs

this was incredible and I must admit that I am

very weak for the weird

certainty

Must Blogs I must admit that I was a little sceptical

certainty

Must Blogs

I must admit that since I got a new camera,

blogging is a lot more fun!

certainty

Must Blogs

that might challenge the very foundations on

which peace must be built. necessity certainty Ambiguous

Must Blogs

there will be discussions on the step that must

be taken now to achieve requirement

Must Blogs

return to the rule of the competing warlords

must be avoided. necessity certainty Ambiguous

Must Blogs

they don't really meet the standards that must

be achieved these days. requirement

Must Blogs

I guess you have not missed the new Volvo

commercial with Zlatan . I must say that I love

it,

certainty

Must Blogs

beautiful home that belongs to sweet Sofia and

Nils. I must say that it

certainty

Must Blogs

exercise that I have a little love-hate for. I do

not like it really, it must be that it is so heavy

probability

Must Blogs

must strike a balance between assisting the

law enforcement and necessity

Must Blogs It must be nice to go about your business not

certainty

Must Blogs

them you must look here. Unfortunately I

didn´t have the time to do requirement possibility

Must Blogs

the cold and horible winter is coming. But I

must say that the colors

certainty

Must Blogs

fall for these type of shoe but I must admit –

the model is awesome. And requirement certainty ambiguous

Must Blogs

Today I must have set some sort of record

because I've spent almost 11hrs in school probability

Must Blogs

subway tiles on the walls. A double sink is a

must, as is a shower. Considering my crap necessity

Must Blogs

In order to transform one must start with a

blank canvas. requirement

Must Blogs A must for a muddlehead like me! necessity

Must Blogs

I must admit I was a bit intimidated by the size

of it at first

certainty

Must Blogs

I must get rid of something old. It's not always

ONE in and ONE out but necessity

Must Blogs

And, sadly I must say that in my lifetime I can

not remember a time when it‘s felt more

certainty

Must Blogs

Anyway, featured in this look are 5 of my fall

must- necessity

Must Blogs

leader Stefan Lofven must tread carefully

between reassuring the electorate and

engaging necessity

Must Blogs

A blue shirt - a must-have always. This in

cotton is from Isabel Marant. necessity


34

Must Blogs

I must get rid of something old. It‘s not always

ONE in and ONE out but necessity

Must Blogs

and digitalised every day I must give a tribute

toOliver Gustav. necessity certainty ambiguous

Must Blogs must to reach 12.5%. necessity

Must Blogs

Cover yourself: Insurance is a must on any

road trip, so read the small print and necessity

Must Blogs

THE absolute must have! Also I'm eyeing

those metallic sandals, metallics requirement

Must Blogs

actually, not least the ploughing competition

where you must plough as requirement

Must Blogs

I got my To Die for bikini a week ago. It was

really super nice, I must say that the bottom

was

certainty

Must Blogs

I bought those with the taste Chocolate chip

cookie dough. I must say

certainty

Must Blogs

drink is sweetened with and I‘m ambssadour

there so I guess I must be familiar to the

probability

Must Blogs

They are from SOC that is stadiums own

brand, they are quite comfortable but I must

certainty

Must Blogs

breathtaking and overwhelming and sure must

be a miracle, created by nature itself.

certainty

Must Blogs

and I can only imagine how cramped that must

be IRL although it

probability

Must Blogs

BF3 handily, BF3 still must have taken some

of the potential customers.

possibility

Must Blogs

but I must say I'm a bit worried about what I

interpret as a lukewarm hype

certainty

Must Blogs

It must have been around 2007, I guess, and

between these

Possibility

Must Blogs

Snap! must have had a pretty good run, three

of the four singles they put out in 1990

certainty

Must Blogs

I have read a bit of the American version, and

I must say that

certainty

Must Blogs

but as you can see further down I must have

done something wrong because probability

Must Blogs

I must say that I am very impressed by this

house that is certainty

Must Blogs

Which presently takes a bit longer than I

would prefer. I also must add that, certainty

Must Blogs

The Killing Field doesn‘t quite convey this.

They must have calculated possibility

Must Blogs Valhalla must have been vanishingly few. possibility

Must Blogs

exercise that I have a little love-hate for. I do

not like it really, it must be that it is so heavy probability

Have to Blogs

And sometimes you just have to spoile the

kids =) requirement

Have to Blogs

have to be a apprenticeships (think that's

what's it called) although I requirement probability ambiguous

Have to Blogs

from Copenhagen and Stockholm Fashion

Week. But now I have to run out in necessity

Have to Blogs

The only thing you have to do is write a

comment and tell me what your requirement

Have to Blogs

tournament. I just got his pics and I have to

say that its nice to have

certainty

Have to Blogs

but I have to say that it has changed! I just

love working my body weight

certainty

Have to Blogs

As the title says im back to business and I

have to say I feel a lot

certainty


35

Have to Blogs

Starladder. There is 15 games and you usually

have to win like 11 or 12 to requirement

Have to Blogs

luncheon we all agreed that we have to tear

down that invisible wall that necessity

Have to Blogs

Started taking a class in guitar playing. Pretty

slacky. all i have to do requirement

Have to Twitters

all the things you‘ve never told honey you

don‘t have to own them necessity

Have to Twitters

Why do I have to put myself through this all

the time? necessity

Have to Twitters

I have to send an e-mail to the official gmail

account requirement

Have to Twitters

Actually, you know what? I have NOTHING I

have to do until next Friday. requirement

Have to Twitters People have to be at the heart of our response. necessity certainty ambiguous

Have to Twitters

everyone says follow your heart but then i

have to go home necessity

Have to Twitters

On the otherhand the only thing you have to

work with if N is given to you requirement

Have to Twitters I have to switch team of hunters. requirement

Have to Twitters Folks you just have to read this necessity

Have to Twitters

Oh wait just have to walk around the entire

freaking necessity

Had to Blogs

few behind the scenes photos that I had to

show you. necessity

Had to Blogs

car would I pick if I had to use it for the next 2

months. requirement

Had to Blogs So this gets last, but if I had to pick a car for requirement

Had to Blogs If I had to rate Oscar necessity

Had to Blogs

Today the weather was terrible so our ski

room had to necessity

Had to Blogs

Stockholm so I had to drive back to the airport

the next day to get it :(. necessity

Had to Blogs

the oven though, first I took it out too early

and then we had to put it necessity

Had to Blogs

After 3 small accidents with my poor nails so I

had to cut them down … necessity

Had to Blogs

I just had to let this top be mine when I first

saw it at Zara. Love the necessity

Had to Blogs

The only thing I had to do was trust her and do

exactly as she said . necessity

Had to Blogs

A was shown to a ―gentleman‘s room‖ where

he had to do his thing, necessity

Had to Twitters

I´m so sorry we had to cancel our show at Red

Rocks. necessity

Had to Twitters Too f**king cute....had to share. necessity

Had to Twitters

Never before has the aid community had to

tackle 4 level-3 emergencies, simultaneously: requirement

Had to Twitters

my voice sounds like crap today & I had

to call the bank & necessity

Had to Twitters

And I had to develope my time frame and I

was like "can you explain how, how detail

should it be?" necessity

Had to Twitters

Idk, I had to explain to a thirteen year old

cisgirl that her period does not come just once

per day. necessity

Had to Twitters

Had a scary nightmare based on Annabelle.

Had another where I'd forgotten an entire requirement


36

essay I now had to write.

Had to Twitters

When I was 14 I had ten minutes from school

ending to that show being on TV so I had to

run home every day. necessity

Had to Twitters

DRESS YOUR TECH / 65, had to download

two of these lovely desktop backgrounds

today! requirement

Has to Blogs

when the decision has to be made I will make

a statement, requirement

Has to Blogs

But clear is that there has to be a broadly

based political agreement necessity

Has to Blogs

Some say that the team that got put in the loser

bracket has to face requirement certainty ambiguous

Has to Blogs

to a man for gambling, and when Russel has to

go to prison for drunk requirement probability ambiguous

Has to Blogs

Surely the bride has to have a crown, and to

make it a little more necessity

Has to Blogs Damn that it has to be so hard to take pictures

certainty

Has to Blogs

Perhaps this is the time it‘ll finally happen!

One has to keep requirement

Has to Blogs

Somebody has to keep an eye on these

organisations from a quality standpoint, necessity

Has to Blogs

Heading out for a little secret meeting that has

to do with the move this morning.

probability

Has to Blogs

and so sick of anything that has to do with

water. possibility

Has to Blogs

Read more on what Britt has to say on this

television program that was a requirement certainty ambiguous

Has to Blogs

Oh god, I keep thinking of more things that

has to be mentioned… necessity

Has to Blogs

natural seeing they make money off Blu-Ray

sales (whereas Microsoft has to pay a license requirement

Has to Blogs lot that has to get done before that. necessity

Has to Blogs

If you are wondering what the

bathroom/skincare/spa picture above has to

possibility

Has to Blogs

SO PRETTY. There just has to be hidden

spells and

certainty

Has to Blogs

To read more about what Jokkmokk has to

offer besides the winter market, check

probability

Has to Blogs

At Christmas I want my own glogg. And the

glogg has to be requirement

Has to Blogs

fun projects something else has to go, a lesson

to remember, necessity

Has to Twitters

Release outside scandinavia has to wait

because requirement probability ambiguous

Have to SWENC

Now they will have to wait at least another

year before we requirement

Have to SWENC

―This don't feel amusing. I think we have to sit

and have a proper discussion afterwords.‖ necessity

Have to SWENC

opposition‖ no longer can afford to go their

own way, but have to horse-trade with the

coalition requirement

Have to SWENC

they not only have to comply with the party

congress and keep the party purists happy,

while they at requirement

Have to SWENC

Bus companies risk getting damaged vehicles

and have to spend more on fuel. Companies

that work necessity

Have to SWENC We have to pay a fee to our contact at the requirement


37

Moscow Police, and we may also discuss our

Have to SWENC

it is obvious that Swedish and other tax payers

shall not have to pay because Greeks choose to requirement

Have to SWENC

countries will see a recovery. But this is a risk

scenario that we still have to take seriously.‖ obligation

Have to SWENC

Unusual debate: Does Lucia have to be a

female? requirement

Have to SWENC

‖All businesses have to follow the rules, but if

these were made simpler—just think of how

much necessity certainty ambiguous

Have to SWENC

"I'll have to go in and check so no one in

Dubai has woken up and decided to make a

butter knife, necessity

Have to SWENC

You have to build capacity in how you deal

with your own resources, and the international requirement

Have to SWENC

We have to trust them, but they must also

know that they need requirement

Have to SWENC

may not have such a long wish list, but finding

work online doesn't have to be a dream. Social requirement

Have to SWENC

Due to his ―tax planning‖ he did not have to

pay the taxes he as finance minister had levied

on requirement

Have to SWENC

"We have to take steps that we deem are

necessitysary to ensure in the long term a

sustainable and necessity

Have to SWENC

"Which means that if you call in to report a

rape, a burglary or an assault, people have to

wait that requirement probability ambiguous

Have to SWENC "Alex, I just have to add something." requirement

Have to SWENC

"Women are allowed to dress lightly for the

summer, but men have to dress as usual,"

Karlsvärd necessity

Have to SWENC "So you have to fight for the small stuff." requirement

Had to SWENC

Today the manufacturer of home and

professional appliances had to send home 850 necessity

Had to SWENC

Diligence then suggested that IKEA had to let

the matter become a criminal case requirement

Had to SWENC

Malmö Aviation had to cancell around 30

flights which affected requirement

Had to SWENC

Many Thai people had to go back home with

debts on the loans necessity

Had to SWENC

Early every morning he had to walk from his

house in Stockholm requirement

Had to SWENC Here I decided that I had to leave. necessity

Had to SWENC

company that recently had to give back state

funding requirement

Had to SWENC

She had not understood that you had to bring

your own laptop and that's understandable: necessity

Had to SWENC their minds, I had to change companies." necessity

Had to SWENC

He also knew that he had to attract those in his

own party who thought he was not left-wing

enough, necessity

Had to SWENC party had to broaden its electoral appeal. requirement

Had to SWENC

In the 1980s, minister of justice Ove Rainer

had to resign after it was exposed that he requirement

Had to SWENC

"This was before iPhones and iPads and we

had to pen actual postcards to our parents,"

Stoltenberg necessity


38

Had to SWENC

"It had to be a place where you could test

things on a higher level," he says of his

decision to take requirement

Had to SWENC

Overall, the police said they were not worried

that the case, which had to redone after a lay

judge necessity

Had to SWENC

Swedish transsexuals who had to accept

sterilization to change gender legally on

Monday requirement

Had to SWENC

the requirement that she be infertile. Lundberg

felt she had to go through corrective surgery

and necessity

Had to SWENC

Sweden, saying he had to fight the small

battles for gender equality in the workplace. necessity

Had to SWENC

"We had an unemployment rate of over 25 per

cent, so we had to find solutions," Magus

Nilsen, requirement

Had to SWENC

All of them have worked at the infection clinic

and had to go at requirement

Has to SWENC and the situation has to be, and will be, solved requirement

Has to SWENC

you really want to have a long-term and

sustainable pension system it has to be both

economically requirement

Has to SWENC

Today one has to show at least 6 months of

employment to be a member. requirement

Has to SWENC

There has to be a train every hour, or every

second hour, necessity possibility Ambiguous

Has to SWENC Unesco now has to discuss whether or not the necessity

Has to SWENC

becomes so wild that the owner of the

establishment finally has to turn off the power. necessity

Has to SWENC

We are subject to legislation and it has to be

applied equally for all. requirement

Has to SWENC

Risk needs to be properly defined and this

concept has to be applied requirement

Has to SWENC There has to be a link with the subject- requirement certainty Ambiguous

Has to SWENC Sweden has to catch up with its needs. requirement

Has to SWENC

the legislation has to be modernized so

younger entrepreneurs can requirement

Has to SWENC Furthermore, it has to be usable. requirement certainty Ambiguous

Has to SWENC There has to be insight, requirement

Has to SWENC and there has to be a good value system. requirement

Has to SWENC the Green Party has to speak to the electorate necessity

Has to SWENC

likelihood of surviving childbirth in

Afghanistan has to increase." necessity

Has to SWENC Sometimes it has to do with the distance to

possibility

Has to SWENC voice of the people has to be more inclusive necessity

Has to SWENC will do with the money if the state has to pay requirement

Has to SWENC

Nowadays it is the EU medicines agency

EMEA that has to clear all medicines requirement

Have got

to Blogs

that for some time now, the abs have got to

come through soon.

probability

Have got

to Blogs OMG. SO good. You have got to try it! obligation

Gotta Blogs

crank my sense to 4. and i gotta tell you guys

im loving it.

certainty

Gotta Blogs

Well im going to vacuum… ladyfriend coming

over tonight gotta clean up. necessity


39

Gotta Blogs

You gotta love the dog photos by Elliott

Erwitt necessity certainty Ambiguous

Gotta Blogs

I cancelled dance practice today because of

my mouth but I still gotta necessity

Gotta Twitters All I know is that i gotta keep on keeping on.. certainty

Gotta Twitters

Hold down the fort, I gotta go help some kid

who just came through a wormhole! necessity

Gotta Blogs GOTTA LOVE MORNINGS necessity

Gotta Blogs

Now they‘re famous. Gotta lova a sucess

story! necessity

‗ve got

to Blogs

which model we like the most, and we‘ve got

to say Certainty

we have to trust them, but they must also...

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