HALMSTAD HÖGSKOLA

School of Teacher Education (LUT)

English for Students in Teacher Training

Supervisor: Stuart Foster

Term Paper, 15 credits

Spring 2010

Two Sides of the Same Coin

- A study of EFL-teachers‟ knowledge regarding the divergences between British and

American English; and the challenges which arise from having more than one

accepted variety of English in EFL teaching.

Linda Jensen

"The Americans are identical to the British in all respects except, of course,

language."

Oscar Wilde

Abstract

Institution: Halmstad University/School of Teacher Education (LUT)

Course: C-level paper, 15 credits

Term: Spring 2010

Title: Two Sides of the Same Coin - A study of EFL-teachers knowledge

regarding the divergences between British and American English; and

the challenges which arise from having more than one accepted variety

of English in EFL teaching.

Pages: 41

Writer: Linda Jensen

Purpose: The purpose of this essay is to ascertain if Swedish EFL teachers have

sufficient knowledge regarding the differences between BrE and AmE,

the two major varieties of English. Furthermore, I aim to examine what

challenges are created when two models of English, BrE and AmE, are

accepted in upper secondary schools in Sweden.

Method: A quantitative web-based survey.

Material: Questionnaire filled in by 59 EFL teachers in upper secondary schools in

Halland, Sweden.

Main results: Upper secondary EFL teachers in Halland, Sweden do appear to have a

basic knowledge of the differences between BrE and AmE and as such a

majority placed themselves in the correct category. However, there is a

lack of consistency and all the teachers mixed the two varieties to some

extent. The challenges that arise from having two accepted varieties in

Swedish schools are amongst other things the question of the consistency

rule, dealing with the value system associated with British and American

English and the question of whether Mid-Atlantic English should be

accepted as a third educational standard.

Keywords: British English, American English, Mid-Atlantic English, divergence,

EFL, consistency, challenges, value system.

Table of Contents

1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Aim ................................................................................................................................................ 2

1.2 Scope ............................................................................................................................................. 2

1.3 Structure ........................................................................................................................................ 3

1.4 Literature review ........................................................................................................................... 3

2. Historic Background............................................................................................................................ 7

2.1 British English ............................................................................................................................... 9

2.2 American English .......................................................................................................................... 9

2.3 Mid-Atlantic English ................................................................................................................... 10

2.4 Differences between British English and American English ...................................................... 11

2.4.1 Spelling ................................................................................................................................. 11

2.4.2 Lexis ..................................................................................................................................... 13

2.4.3 Idiomatic Expressions .......................................................................................................... 16

2.4.4 Pronunciation........................................................................................................................ 17

2.4.5 Stress .................................................................................................................................... 18

2.4.6 Grammar ............................................................................................................................... 20

2.4.7 Punctuation ........................................................................................................................... 24

3. Methods and Material ........................................................................................................................ 25

3.1 Population .................................................................................................................................... 25

3.2 The test ........................................................................................................................................ 26

3.3 Validity and Reliability ............................................................................................................... 27

3.3.1 The Pilot ............................................................................................................................... 28

3.3.2 Response rate ........................................................................................................................ 28

4. Results and Analysis ......................................................................................................................... 30

5. Challenges ......................................................................................................................................... 34

5.1 The Value System ....................................................................................................................... 34

5.2 The Consistency-rule ................................................................................................................... 35

5.3 Accepting Mid-Atlantic English? ................................................................................................ 36

6. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 37

6.1 Future .......................................................................................................................................... 37

References ............................................................................................................................................. 39

Appendices

Appendix 1. Questionnaire Teachers

Appendix 2. Letter of Transmittal Teachers

Appendix 3. Letter of Transmittal Pilot Study

Appendix 4. Questionnaire Pilot Study

Appendix 5. Individual Answers and Results

Appendix 6. Questionnaire Options

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1. Introduction

In the educational establishments of Sweden, English has been the primary foreign language

for roughly 50 years and the norm in the Swedish educational system was for a long time that

of British English. Language teachers were trained in “Received Pronunciation”1 and school

textbooks were oriented towards standard British English. But as a result of Hollywood and

the American youth culture, American English gained ground in Swedish schools and British

English was no longer the only alternative. As a consequence an educated form of General

American2 came to be an accepted model in Sweden (Mobärg, 1998, p. 249-250). This

intrusion of American English led to a number of problems, such as for example, British

English being premiered as more educated, more cultured, and more beautiful (Tottie, 2002,

p. 1) as well as the insertion of the “consistency rule”. Nowadays, most teachers in Swedish

schools accept both varieties and an increasing number of pupils speak American English or

Mid-Atlantic English (Söderlund & Modiano, 2002, p.147). Even if British English normally

no longer is premiered as the educational standard by English teachers in Sweden, many

teachers do, however, still demand consistency from their pupils; “My students are allowed to

use either American or British spelling, but I advise them not to mix the forms” (Participant

no. 6). The existence of linguistic differences between British English and American English

is widely acknowledged but, one important aspect when it comes to EFL-teaching is the

question whether the teachers have sufficient knowledge of the differences between the two

major varieties. Another important aspect is what the challenges are of having more than one

accepted variety in English language teaching. These are the two aspects I have examined in

this study.

Research question(s): Do EFL teachers in Halland, Sweden have sufficient knowledge with

regards to the differences between BrE and AmE; and what challenges are created in EFL

teaching as a result of there being two accepted models of English in Swedish upper

secondary schools.

1 Received Pronunciation (RP) is a term for the accent generally associated with educated British English and the

pronunciation model for the teaching of English to foreign learners (McArthur, 2005, p. 497). 2 General American (GA) is a tem sometimes used to refer to „a form of U.S. speech without marked dialectal or

regional characteristics‟ (McArthur, 2005, p. 249).

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1.1 Aim

The purpose of this essay is to ascertain if EFL teachers in Halland have sufficient knowledge

of the differences between the two major varieties of English, BrE and AmE. Furthermore, I

aim to examine what challenges that are created when two models of English, BrE and AmE,

are accepted in Swedish upper secondary schools.

1.2 Scope

English is the native language of almost 400 million people around the world and as a result

many different varieties has emerged, two of the foremost being British English and

American English. I have chosen to work with British English and American English as these

two varieties often function as a reference norm for other smaller varieties and as they are

often contrasted and compared (McArthur, 2005, p. 31). For practical reasons I have decided

to focus my attention on a few of the differences between British English and American

English with regards to lexis, spelling, punctuation, stress, grammar and pronunciation. Even

though there are additional differences of interest in each of these categories a limitation was

necessary. Because my investigation is focused on the general differences between the two

Explanation of Terms

There is a general vagueness and ambiguity to the terms British English and American

English and they are used differently by different people (McArthur, 2005, p. 31). In this

essay the terms are used to describe two national varieties, which include regional and

other sub varieties. Thus,

British English [BrE] – the English used in Great Britain.

American English [AmE] – the English used in the United States of America and

Canada1.

Mid-Atlantic English [MAE] – a linguistic convergence of BrE and AmE which blends

features from both varieties without either one being predominant.

EFL – English as a Foreign Language

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varieties I am referring to the standard forms of British and American English, thus regional

and social dialects are left out.

1.3 Structure

In the first chapter you will find an introduction to my essay. In this chapter you will also find

my research aim and scope together with my literature review. Chapter two deals with the

historic background of the English language but, also the characteristics of British English,

American English and Mid-Atlantic English. This chapter also provides information

regarding some of the differences between British English and American English. One

chapter (3) contains information on the subject of method and material. Chapter four offers a

systematic view of my results and analysis. The challenges are investigated in the fifth

chapter. Chapter six is devoted to a discussion. In the last chapter (7), conclusions are offered

along with suggestions on future research.

1.4 Literature review

In this chapter I will present an account of the literature I have used in my essay. The

literature will be presented in a chronological order, starting with the oldest publication first.

With regards to the literature concerning the differences between BrE and AmE, one can

quickly establish that there is an abundance of it. Some scholars choose to focus on specific

differences, such as pronunciation, and others aim to present a general idea of the differences.

In my essay I have tried to consult works from both camps.

When researching the background of the English language I used the website Minority Ethnic

English: English as a Global Language (n.d.). The site is provided by The British Library and

educates us on the history of the English language. Amongst other things the site provides us

with information concerning the development of American English.

In my work, regarding the challenges of having more than one variety of English in schools, I

consulted an article by Morton Benson titled Differences between American English and

British English: a Challenge to TESOL (Jun., 1989). The article was published in TESOL

Quarterly, which is a journal whose target group is teachers of English to speakers of other

languages. The article argues that TESOL educational programs need to focus more attention

to the differences between the standard varieties of British and American English.

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I also used Made in America in my background research. The book was published in 1994

and written by Bill Bryson. Bryson is an American author who amongst other things has

written articles for English newspapers The Times and The Independent. In Made in America

we are educated on the informal history of the Americans and their language.

International English: a Guide to the Varieties of Standard English (1994) was also made use

of in my essay. The publication served an important role in my investigation regarding the

differences between British and American English. The book was written by Peter Trudgill,

who is a professor of English language and linguistics at the University of Lausanne, and Jean

Hannah, who is a freelance editor and writing consultant. The publication includes

information regarding different varieties of English and provides a systematic overview of the

divergences between the main varieties.

Another primary source of information with regards to the divergences between BrE and

AmE was Marko Modiano‟s A Mid-Atlantic Handbook: American and British English.

Modiano has taught English for more than 15 years and is currently a lecturer in English at

University College Gävle-Sandviken. In his publication from 1996 he presents the differences

between BrE and AmE from a Mid-Atlantic English perspective.

During my study I often used Engelsk Universitetsgrammatik (1996) by Olof Sager and Jan

Svartvik as a book of reference. Svartvik is a professor emeritus of English and is a well

renowned author of several books on the English language. Prior to his death Sager was a

university professor at Lund‟s University and has written several textbooks. Engelsk

Universitesgrammatik is a book written for university students and its purpose is to increase

the students‟ knowledge of English grammar.

In my essay I also refer to some of the papers in the book The Major Varieties of English:

Papers from MAVEN 97 (1998) by Hans Lindquist, Staffan Klintborg, Magnus Levin and

Maria Estling (Eds.). The book addresses some vital questions regarding the major varieties

of English and their development in different parts of the world. All of the papers in the book

were presented at MAVEN 97, an international conference held at Växjö University, Sweden

20-22 November 1997.

With regards to the reliability and validity of using a web-based survey I consulted an article

in The Journal of American Medical Informatics Association (JAMIA) titled When to Use

Web-based Surveys. The article was written by Jeremy C. Wyatt and published online in

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2000. The article addresses the benefits and problems of using web-based surveys. Wyatt is

currently the Director of the Health Informatics Centre and eHealth Research Group at the

University of Dundee in Australia.

I have also used the article Word-specific phonetics (2001) when I dealt with the issue of

pronunciation. The article is written by Janet B. Pierrehumbert, a Professor of Linguistics at

Northwestern University, Illinois. The focus of the article is on word-specific phonetics and

allophones but my primary interest in the article was her description of the intervocalic /t/,

also known by some scholars as the tap or flap.

With regards to the value system connected to BrE and AmE I consulted a journal article by

Marko Modiano called Ideology and the ELT Practitioner (2001). The article discusses the

value system and ideology connected to the two major forms of English.

A few of the papers in Studies in Mid-Atlantic English (2002), edited by Marko Modiano was

reviewed as well. As previously mentioned Modiano is a lecturer in English at University

College Gävle-Sandviken. This book is number 7 in a series of publications published by the

Institution of Humanities and Social science at Gävle University. The publication deal with

matters such as, for example, „Prepositional variations in British and American English‟ and

„RP or GA? On Swedish school students‟ choice of English pronunciation‟.

One of my key literary sources on the subject of differences between the two major varieties

was Gunnel Tottie‟s An Introduction to American English. The book was published in 2002

by Gunnel Tottie who is a Professor of English at the University of Zürich. In the publication

she presents the general differences from an American perspective.

In my research I have also used David Crystal‟s book English as a Global Language (2003).

The publication provides us with an account of the rise of English as a global language, and

explores the history, current state and future of English. Crystal, known as “the world

authority on the English language” is a prominent linguist, academic and author. He is

currently working from his home in Wales as a writer, editor and broadcaster.

Further into researching the background of the English language I consulted a website

maintained by Suzanne Kemmer at Rice University. The website, A Brief History of English,

with Chronology (2001-2005) provides information regarding the history of English. Suzanne

Kemmer is an Associate Professor of Linguistics at Rice University in Houston, Texas.

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In my essay, I also looked into the work of Rönnerdal & Johansson, published in 2005,

entitled Introducing English Pronunciation: Advice for Teachers and Learners (British

Version). Rönnerdal teaches at the English Department at Uppsala University and has worked

extensively for many years with producing material for pronunciation and intonation material.

Johansson has a PhD in linguistics and is currently working as an English Professor at the

University of Oslo, Norway. The publication is printed in two versions, one British and one

American. I have referred to the British edition as that was the one I had in my possession.

The publication‟s focal point is teaching British pronunciation but has included comparisons

with American pronunciation.

The Concise Companion to the English Language (2005) by Tom McArthur was also used in

my essay, often taking on the role of a reference book. The publication is a single-volume

source of information regarding most aspects of the English language.

George Yule‟s work titled The Study of Language (2006) was also used in my essay. The

book offers an introduction to linguistics starting with the basics. Yule has taught Linguistics

at the University of Edinburgh, Hawaii, Minnesota and Louisiana State. He is also the author

of several books in the linguistic field.

The work of Elly van Gelderen was also put to use in my research regarding the history of the

English language. The book, titled A History of the English Language (2006) is focused on

the internal changes in the English language and offers a history of the English language from

pre-Old English to present day English. Van Gelderen is presently working as a teacher at

Arizona State University where she teaches the history of the English language and English

grammar.

Furthermore, I used a publication by Donna M. Mertens titled Research and Evaluation in

Education and Psychology (2010). Mertens is a professor in the Department of Educational

Foundations and Research at Gallaudet University in Washington DC and in the text she

offers an explanation of quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods in detail. The book also

offers a step-by-step overview of the research process.

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2. Historic Background

The English language began when Germanic tribes and their languages reached the shores of

the British Isles in AD449. The tribes; Frisians, Angles, Saxons and Jutes, had their origins in

Northern Europe and their occupation of the British Isles led to a spread of their language

across the country (van Gelderen, 2006, p. 2-3). Isolated from continental Germanic, the

language diverged and developed into what is known as Old English or Anglo-Saxon. During

the late 8th

century, new waves of invasion followed and many Scandinavians settled around

England. As a result, the Anglo-Saxon language was heavily influenced by the language of

the Nordic settlers (Kemmer, 2001-2005).

In 1066, the Norman invasion brought new linguistic influences to the British Isles. The

Normans used French and Latin during their rule over Britain and the English language was

strongly influenced by both these languages. Thousands of words were adopted into the

English language and the grammar changed radically (Kemmer, 2001-2005). Staying within

the British Isles, English remained a local language for just over a thousand years but, in the

early 1600s, the language spread outside Britain with the first English settlements in North

America (Crystal, 2003, p. 30).

The first permanent English settlement in North America was in 1607; it was an expedition

from Britain to Chesapeake Bay by order of James I. The settlement was named “Jamestown”

and the area came to be known as “Virginia”. The settlement proved to be a success and

further settlements followed along the coast and nearby islands at a rapid pace. In November

of 1620, the Puritans arrived in the New World. Unable to reach Virginia due to bad weather,

they landed in Cape Cod Bay and established a settlement in what is now known as Plymouth,

Massachusetts (Crystal, 2003, p. 30-32). The British colonists brought the English language

with them to their new-found land, but quickly found themselves in an unusual situation

(Bryson, p. 23). Perhaps owing to a lack of daily contact with Britain, and conditions special

to American life, English began to diverge in new directions (Ibid, p. 27-28). Confronted by a

whole new world, the colonists were forced to alter their vocabulary. Bryson (1994, p.23)

states, “As early as 1662, they were using pond, which in England designated a small artificial

pool, to describe large and wholly natural bodies of water, as in Walden Pond”. Many

topographic English words were discarded in the New World; words such as moor, heath and

mead were replaced by new terms which the colonists formed by borrowing from other

languages. When confronted with new objects, landscapes and wildlife, the early colonists

often created new compounds using two older words: bullfrog, copperhead and bluegrass are

8

examples of words created in this manner. The new terms proved to be useful in a land

consisting of a large number of non-native speakers, given that they had a directness and

comprehensibility which the British equivalent frequently lacked (Bryson, 1994, p. 23-26).

There were, however, still holes in the American lexicon that needed to be filled and the

colonists did so by asking the local Indians what word they used. Some words, such as skunk

and woodchuck, were easily assimilated into the English language whilst others had to be

transformed before any Englishmen felt comfortable in using them (Ibid, p. 29-30). In most

cases however, the colonists tenaciously stuck to the British forms and words of the English

language. The pronunciation of the r sound after vowels in words such as letter, nurse and

north is one remnant from British colonial English that still exists in America today, but has

been lost in most dialects in Great Britain (Robinson, n.d.). The population movements across

America that followed and a continuing flow of immigrants from different parts of the world

led to a spread of the language with mixed dialects and pronunciation (Crystal, 2003, p. 33).

After achieving independence from Great Britain in 1776, the „correct rules‟ regarding the

English language became more and more vague and the concept of Standard English

emerged, both in Great Britain and America. In The American Spelling Book (1786) and An

American Dictionary of the English Language (1828), by Noah Webster, spelling conventions

were officially proposed for the first time. The two publications were a success and spellings

such as center and color [BrE: centre and colour] were established. These publications were

the first step towards academic acceptance of British English and American English as

different units (Robinson, n.d.).

During the next 300 years, shiploads of immigrants with diverse linguistic backgrounds

arrived in America and so, consequently, people speaking different kinds of English lived

next to each other and the regional dialects began to mix (Bryson, 1994, p. 33-35). This

massive in-flux of non-English people also played an important role in America‟s diversion

from the standard branch of British English (Ibid.). Within a few generations, most immigrant

families, through assimilation, had learned to speak English and, as a result, English

underwent an immense growth as a native language (Crystal, 2003, p. 35).

In the meantime, the British Empire was expanding radically across the continents and,

through the mouths of colonists English spread to all four corners of the globe. During the

16th

century, British English gained footing in Africa, India, Australia and New Zealand

(Robinson, n.d.). What started out as a small Germanic accent spoken by a small part of

9

Britain became, over centuries, a language spoken by billions of people in many parts of the

world (van Gelderen, 2006, p. 3).

2.1 British English

When the English language became separated by the Atlantic Ocean, it started to develop in

different directions. In Britain, the language lost many of its older features and contemporary

AmE is, in many ways, closer to the language spoken by Shakespeare than the English used

by speakers of BrE today (Modiano, 1996, p. 9-10). The general inclination of BrE is that it is

slowly adapting towards American standards, especially with regards to vocabulary and

spelling (Modiano, 1996, p. 18, 107). However, there are still certain characteristics that are

considered to be completely British and which show little or no movement towards AmE.

These features are not regarded as extraordinary by speakers of BrE but, in America, they

often come across as odd. The vowel sound /a:/ in words such as last and laugh is one such

example (Modiano, 1996, p. 12). Another distinctive British characteristic is the intrusive /r/.

Many speakers of BrE add /r/ to certain words, even if there is no r in the spelling, if the word

or sound that follows begins with vowel. Thus law and order is pronounced /ˈlɔ:r ən ˈɔ:də/,

drawing /ˈdrɔ:rɪŋ/ and so forth (Rönnerdal & Johansson, 2005, p. 58). A third feature can be

found in the spelling of words such as favour and litre where BrE often use –our and – re.3 A

fourth example of typical BrE is the consonant /l/, which can occur in two different forms,

clear and dark. In BrE the clear /l/ is used before vowels and the dark /l/ in other positions.

The word little for example include both /l/ sounds, the first /l/ being clear and the last dark4

(Rönnerdal & Johanson, 2005, p. 55).

2.2 American English

English has been spoken in America for more than 350 years and, during its diversion from

BrE, it has created several of its own characteristics. However, the predisposition of AmE has

been to retain the older features of the language, which is often the case with language groups

that are geographically separated from their mother country. Consequently, several of the

characteristics of AmE can be traced back to British colonial English (Modiano, 1996, p. 9-

3 The American equivalents would be favor and liter.

4 This is only indicated in the transcription if a narrow, or phonetic transcription is used. Clear - /l/

Dark - [ɫ]

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10). The pronunciation of the post-vocalic /r/ is an example of such a trait; the feature has

remained in use in America but completely disappeared in most British accents. So, in

America, words such as card, board, year and tar are generally pronounced with an audible

[r].The simplification of endings such as -or in words like harbor and humor is one example

of a feature created by Americans when breaking free from the British standard and is a

further example of an American characteristic (Tottie, 2002, p. 9-10). The pronunciation of

the intervocalic /t/ is one final example of a prominent feature in AmE (Tottie, 2002, p. 16-

17). In a falling stress context, the intervocalic /t/ is usually pronounced as a voiced flap5

(Pierrehumbert, 2001, p. 3) so, in words such as bitter, Betty, butter, batter and fatter the /t/

sound tend to sound like a /d/ and thus words such as bidder and bitter become homophones

(Tottie, 2002, p. 16-17).

2.3 Mid-Atlantic English

MAE is an international form of the English language, a linguistic convergence which blends

features from both BrE and AmE. Characteristics which are overtly British or American are

avoided and the language is used in a practical manner, as a cross-cultural communicative

tool (Modiano, 2002, p. 22). McArthur (1992, cited in Melchers, 1998, p. 263) defines the

linguistic concept of MAE is as “a term for kinds of English, especially accents, that have

features drawn from both North AmE and BrE”. Mastery of MAE presupposes an

implementation of it as a communicative strategy, as well as an understanding of the

differences between BrE and AmE (Modiano, 1998, p. 245) Thus, a speaker of MAE attempts

to use lexical items, pronunciation and spelling which are well-known to the interlocutor and

so consequently, one orders French Fries rather than chips when in an American restaurant

(Modiano, 1996, p. 12). According to Modiano (1996, p. 5) “/.../ an increasing number of

native speakers are mixing features of AmE and BrE and, furthermore, many, if not most

second language speakers in Europe and elsewhere have begun to speak a mixture, sometimes

referred to as „Mid-Atlantic English‟”. The standard of most European English-language

curricula has been to accept either BrE or AmE with the reservation that the speaker has to be

consistent. However, Melchers (1998, p. 263, 266) found during her investigation of teachers‟

attitudes to varieties of English that Swedish teachers both used and accepted a „mixed‟ type

of English.

5 Some scholars refer to it as a tap.

11

2.4 Differences between British English and American English

As previously mentioned, there are certain features in BrE and AmE that, to native speakers

as well as to second language speakers, come across as being clearly British or American.

These features differ depending on variety and the differences can be found all across the

language. Even though many of the differences between the two types of English are

relatively small, there are a few striking differences (Modiano, 1996).

2.4.1 Spelling

There are hundreds of spelling differences between BrE and AmE and many of these exist

largely because of American lexicographer Noah Webster. After America gained

independence from Great Britain in 1776, Webster felt that it was time for America to stop

looking to Britain for a linguistic model. In 1783 Webster published his Spelling Book which

standardised American spelling (Tottie, 2002, p. 9).

Many of the contemporary spelling differences between BrE and AmE can be systematically

accounted for and divided into categories of spelling divergence. The most well-known

difference is the use of -u in the British spelling of words such as colour, honour and flavour.

In AmE the words would be spelt color, honor and flavor. Another difference if the use of –ce

in BrE and –se in AmE which can be found in words such as defence, pretence and offence.

The corresponding American spellings are defense, pretense and offense. The category –re/-er

is another systematic difference, in words such as centre, litre and fibre the British have kept

their French influenced spelling, whereas the Americans changed theirs to center, liter and

fiber. The use of double –l rather than single –l is another divergence. In words such as

travelled, cancelled and councillor speakers of BrE use double consonants where the

Americans use singular, traveled, canceled and councilor (Modiano, 1996, p. 108). Also,

words which end in –logue in BrE tend to end in –log in AmE, thus the words catalogue,

dialogue and prologue are spelt catalog, dialog and prolog in AmE (Tottie, 2002, p. 10-12).

In addition to these differences certain words exist in two forms in BrE but only in one form

in AmE, for example,

12

BrE AmE

licence (noun) license

license (verb) license

practice (noun) practice

practise (verb) practice

(MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced learners, 2006, p. 821, 1104)

Although many of the spelling differences can be sorted into systematic categories, this is not

the case with all divergences between British and American spelling (see Table 2.1) (Tottie,

2002, p. 10-12).

Table 2.1 Some miscellaneous differences between British and American spellings

British American

baulk balk

cosy cozy

cheque6 check

draught draft

kerb (noun) curb7 (noun)

sorbet sherbet8

tyre tire

yoghurt yogurt

(Tottie, 2002, p. 12)

6 This word refers specifically to a bank cheque and not the general verb/noun “check” as in Check your work.

7 In BrE the word curb is a verb meaning to control or limit something unwanted, for example, The Government

should act to curb tax evasion. It can also function as a noun meaning a limit on something unwanted, for

example, You must try to put a curb on your bad temper (Cambridge University Press). 8 In Britain “sherbet” is “a powder with a FIZZY taste that is eaten as a sweet” (MacMillan, p.1310).

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The current trend is that British spelling is changing towards American standards. However,

this is not the case with all the dissimilarities, for example the British use of –u in colour and

similar words, as well as the spelling –re in words like centre show no tendency of adapting

to the American system (Modiano, 1996, p. 107-108). There are cases when both spellings are

accepted in either system, but there are also situations where only the standard form is

considered correct. For example, the British spelling of tyre would be considered misspelt in

AmE since it should be spelt tire according to the American standard.

2.4.2 Lexis

Many of the most noticeable differences between BrE and AmE have to do with vocabulary

and there are literally thousands of words that differ in one sense or the other. The differences

can, for example, be related to meaning, style or usage and, while some words are

acknowledged in both forms of English, others are completely unknown. These vocabulary

differences are attributable to several factors and examples of such include the British

colonists‟ adaptation of the British vocabulary and their creation of new words; the

technological and cultural developments that have taken place since the diversion of the two

forms, and the influence of other languages (Trudgill & Hannah, 1994, p. 87-88).

It is not unusual for words that are used in one variety of English to be borrowed by the other.

The highest quantity of borrowing is from AmE to BrE, although the opposite also occurs.

Examples of words borrowed from AmE are cafeteria, teenager and radio which are now in

common usage in Britain (Trudgill & Hannah, 1994, p. 87-88). Even if many American

lexemes are becoming standardised in Britain, there are still substantial differences in

vocabulary between the two varieties (Modiano, 1996, p. 18-21). In order to deal with these

differences a classification based on form has been made. The vocabulary differences have

been divided into four main types.

14

Type 1: Words which are recognised in both BrE and AmE, but have

slightly or significantly different meaning9, e.g.

Word BrE meaning AmE meaning

pavement „a pedestrian walkway‟ „the street itself, the area

of the street where the

vehicles pass‟

braces „a piece of clothing consisting „a wire apparatus used to

of elastic straps drawn over the make teeth straight‟

shoulders and attached to the

top of the trousers, a wire apparatus

used to make teeth straight‟

nervy „nervous‟ „bold, full of nerve‟

bonnet „the lid over the engine „an old-fashioned hat

compartment of a car, an old worn by women‟

fashioned hat worn by women‟

caravan „a home which is pulled by a car‟ „a single-file line of

vehicles or animals which

travels over roads of

rough terrain‟

boot „rear baggage compartment „a high shoe which covers

of a car, a high shoe which the ankle‟

covers the ankle‟

rubber „eraser‟ „condom‟

9 The meaning of the words, both British and American, has been found in Modiano, 1996, p. 23-92.

15

Type 2: Words which are clearly British words and do not feature in

American English, e.g.

BrE only Corresponds to AmE

trousers pants

aubergine eggplant

flat apartment

nappy diaper

dustbin garbage can

undertaker mortician

Type 3: Words which are clearly American words and do not feature in

British English, e.g.

AmE only Corresponds to BrE

janitor caretaker

vacation holiday

cookie biscuit

teller cashier

freeway/highway motorway

drapes curtains

Type 4: Expressions which are almost, but not quite, identical, e.g.

AmE BrE

math maths

driver’s license driving licence

16

drunk driving drink-driving

airplane aeroplane

backtalk backchat

jello jelly

mom mum

As previously mentioned, more and more American features and terminology are becoming

common usage in Britain and a gradual convergence of the two varieties is taking place.

However, there are still countless words which, used in the other variety may cause

confusion. In order to avoid communication problems, it is important to be able to distinguish

between the two vocabularies (Modiano, 1996, p. 21).

2.4.3 Idiomatic Expressions

With regards to idioms, there are a few divergences between BrE and AmE worth mentioning.

Some idioms have small lexical differences but, with essentially the same meaning, for

example:

BrE AmE

A home from home A home away from home

Leave well alone Leave well enough alone

Blow one’s own trumpet Blow one’s own horn

Sweep under the carpet Sweep under the rug

(McArthur, 2005, p. 36)

Other idioms denote different things, for example the word pissed, which in BrE means drunk

but, in AmE means angry (Farlex, Inc., 2010).

Another idiomatic category consists of made-up words, for example, the words twaddle is a

British word for nonsense, an American word is hogwash (Ibid.).

17

A fourth category of idiomatic differences are idioms which are not normally used in the

other variety, for example, A day late and a dollar short (AmE), All hat, no cattle (AmE), At

a drop of a dime (AmE). British examples are All talk and no trousers, At the end of your

tether, and At a loose end (King & Flynn, 2010).

2.4.4 Pronunciation

With regards to the differences between AmE and BrE, the most prominent feature is that of

pronunciation (Modiano, 1996, p. 12). However, when one attempts to describe these

differences, there are a few complications. First is the matter of transcription; there are several

different ways of transcribing spoken English and which one is chosen often depends on

tradition and where, in the world, the interlocutors happen to be (Tottie, 2002, p. 13). I have

chosen to work with the International Phonetics Alphabet [IPA] as it is used by Wells in

Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (2008) and by Rönnerdal and Johansson in Introducing

English Pronunciation: Advice for Teachers and Learners (2005). Secondly, there is the

dilemma that we are dealing with a broad range of varieties of language (Tottie, 2002, p. 12),

in the United Kingdom alone we are dealing with hundreds of accents and dialects which are

all part of the English language (Modiano, 1996, p. 12). In order to be able to make a

workable overview pertaining to the differences an idealization of the two English forms had

to be made.

The pronunciation differences that exist between BrE and AmE may be obvious to native

speakers but, they are not always clearly distinguishable by the second language speaker

(Modiano, 1996, p. 9). There are many pronunciation differences between BrE and AmE and

some of them will be dealt with in this chapter.

One of the most prominent dissimilarities is the difference in the pronunciation of words like

half, fast and bath, where BrE uses /a:/10

AmE uses /æ/ (Tottie, 2002, p. 17). Another

noticeable difference is the reduction or absence of the post vocalic /r/ in BrE, words such as

bigger, car, figure and tar are pronounced without the /r/ whereas it is pronounced by

speakers of AmE (see Table 2.2) (Modiano, 1996, p.15).

10

It is important to note that this difference, although existent in RP and southern dialects of BrE, is non-existent

in the north of Britain where the pronunciation of words such as fast and bath are /æ/. But, since I have delimited

my essay to deal with BrE and AmE, without taking regional dialects and accents into consideration, this will not

be further analysed.

18

Table 2.2 The use of post-vocalic /r/

British English American English

bigger /ˈbɪgə/ /ˈbɪgər/ or /ˈbɪgr/

car /ka:/ /ka:r/

figure /ˈfɪgə/ /ˈfɪgjər/

tar /ta:/ /ta:r/

The intervocalic /t/ is another prominent difference; in BrE, it is pronounced as a voiceless

stop whereas in AmE it is pronounced as a voiced flap. So, in words such as water and fatal

the intervocalic /t/ would be pronounced as a voiced alveolar flap /ɾ/11

in AmE but as a

voiceless /t/ in BrE. Hence, the word pretty would be pronounced /ˈprɪti/ in BrE and /ˈprɪɾi/ in

AmE (Tottie, 2002, p. 16). The word pretty in AmE is also at times affected by a sound

change known as metathesis, where two sounds in a word simply switch positions. Pretty is

thus pronounced as /ˈpirɾi/ rather than /ˈprɪɾi/ (Yule, 2006, p. 189).

Even if the pronunciation of some words, like fast and dance12

tell us which variety of

English is being used, there are numerous words which have the same manner of

pronunciation and, consequently, there is more to the identification of the form than simply

pronunciation (Modiano, 1996, p. 9). Modiano (p. 9) further states, “The recognition of a

specific form of the English language is often determined by listening to tonal quality, stress

and various characteristic differences in pronunciation”.

2.4.5 Stress

Stress variation and intonation13

differences are other discrepancies between BrE and AmE.

With regards to stress, a systematic difference is found in French loanwords where Americans

tend to stress the final syllable but speakers of BrE put the stress elsewhere (Tottie, 2002, p.

19). For example:

11

I have chosen the narrow phonetic symbol /ɾ/ to represent the alveolar flap as this is most known. However,

some dictionaries, for example Longman, use the /t̬/ symbol to indicate the flap. 12

In BrE the vowel sound is pronounced /a:/ whilst it is pronounced /æ/ in AmE. 13

For limitation reasons I have decided not to include the differences in intonation.

19

British English American English

attaché [əˈtæʃeɪ] [æɾəˈʃeɪ]

ballet [ˈbæleɪ] [bæˈleɪ]

café [ˈkæfeɪ] [kəˈfeɪ]

(Tottie, 2002, p. 19)

Another methodical difference is that a number of verbs that end in – ate are stressed at the

ending in BrE but at the first syllable in AmE. For example

British English American English

donate [deʊˈneɪt] [ˈdoʊneɪt]

migrate [maɪˈgreɪt] [ˈmaɪgreɪt]

vacate [veɪˈkeɪt] [ˈveɪkeɪt]

(Tottie, 2002, p. 21)

A number of four syllable words which end in – ary, –ery or –ory also have a stress diversity

in the two varieties. They are stressed on the first syllable in AmE and on the second syllable

in BrE, for example

British English American English

ancillary [ænˈsɪləri] [ˈænsəleri]

capillary [kæˈpɪlərɪ] [ˈkæpɪlærɪ]

laboratory [ləˈbɒrətəri] [ˈlæbərəˌtɔri]

It is, however, important to note that most words with these endings are stressed on the first

syllable in both BrE and AmE (Tottie, 2002, p. 21).

Furthermore, there are a number of words with first syllable stress in AmE which are stressed

elsewhere in BrE, examples of such words are

20

British English American English

address [əˈdres] [ˈædres]

inquiry [ɪnˈkwaɪəri] [ˈɪnkwəri]

magazine [mægəˈzi:n] [ˈmægəzi:n]

(Trudgill & Hannah, 1994, p. 54)

As expected the stress differences between the two varieties can, to some extent, be accounted

for systematically. However, this is not the case with all the variations (see Table 2.3).

Table 2.3 Some miscellaneous stress variations between British and American English

British English American English

advertisement [ədˈvɜtɪsmənt] [ædvərˈtaɪzment]

alumin(i)um [æləˈmɪnjəm] [əˈlumɪnəm]

garage [ˈgæra:ʒ] [gəˈra:ʒ]

premier [ˈpremɪa] [prɪˈmir]

(Tottie, 2002, p. 20)

2.4.6 Grammar

The differences between AmE and BrE are fewer with regards to grammar than, for example,

vocabulary, for the reason that grammar does not have to change to fit or reflect a change in

reality (Tottie, 2002, p. 146). The dissimilarities that do exist can be derived from, for

example, the preservation of the settlers‟ different dialects and the influence that other

languages have had on English in America. As the current trend is for BrE to be influenced by

AmE, grammatical features that used to be regarded as typical American is now used in

Britain (Tottie, 2002, p. 147). Grammatical differences are often more subtle than lexical ones

and they seldom impede communications, but it is, nevertheless, advisable to stick to one

form throughout a text. Although less attention in general is given to the grammatical

21

differences between the two varieties, there are, nonetheless, many grammatical constructions

which are characteristic for one variety only, and several which, although fully acceptable in

one variety, are considered ungrammatical in the other (Modiano, 1996, p. 124-126).

Definite Article

In AmE, the definite article is used in places where it does not occur in BrE (Modiano, 1996,

p. 126). For example, Americans tend to use the definite article with the words university and

hospital whilst speakers of BrE normally do not, for example „Carrie is in hospital‟ [BrE] as

opposed to „Carrie is in the hospital‟ [AmE] (Tottie, 2002, p. 148). It should, however, be

noted that the use or omission of the definite article is dependent on the subjects role at the

institution, thus one would say “She teaches at the university” and “She works as a nurse at

the hospital” in both varieties (Svartvik & Sager, 1996, p. 169). However, there are also

words and phrases which, in AmE, would require a definite article but, in BrE, are used

without; examples of such are „members of staff‟ and „on average‟ [BrE], the American

equivalents would be „members of the staff‟ and „on the average‟ (Modiano, 1996, p. 126).

Verb forms

A recognized structural difference between BrE and AmE is the dissimilarity in certain verb

forms. In BrE, there are a several irregular verbs which have a –t inflicted ending where the

tendency in AmE is to conform these verbs to the regular –ed structure (see Table 2.4).

Table 2.4 Verb forms (morphology)

British [t] American [ed]

Infinitive Past Past part. Infinitive Past Past part.

burn burnt burnt burn burned burned

dwell dwelt dwelt dwell dwelled dwelled

leap leapt leapt leap leaped leaped

22

The use of the –t inflection versus the standard –ed is a subtle difference which often goes

unnoticed in speech, but in writing indicates which variety is being used (Modiano, 1996, p.

125).

Prepositions

There are many examples of different prepositional usage in BrE and AmE. Although both

forms are mostly understood on either side of the Atlantic, there are some constructions that

might come across as odd or even ungrammatical. For example,

BrE ‟he was in Paris at the weekend‟, „I live in High Street‟

AmE ‟he was in Paris on the weekend‟, „I live on Main Street‟

In some cases, Americans require a preposition, but speakers of BrE do not, a week from

tomorrow [AmE] and a week tomorrow [BrE]. Some prepositions differ in form depending on

variety; for example, many British prepositions are used with an –s which is left out in AmE,

examples of such prepositions include: (British preposition first) towards-toward and

amongst-among. Another prepositional divergence is that while the Americans add the vowel

a to the proposition round, speakers of BrE exclude it. Thus, the difference „there is a house

round the corner‟ [BrE] and „there is a house around the corner‟ [AmE] (Modiano, 1996, p.

126-127).

Subject/Verb agreement

There is also a difference in how verb agreements with collective nouns are treated in BrE and

AmE (Tottie, 2002, p. 149). Collective nouns such as, for example, businesses, official

agencies and organisations, are sometimes considered plural in BrE, thus the verb are is often

used. In AmE they are treated as singular and so the verb is is normally used. A speaker of

BrE would say „the government are considering the offer‟ whilst an American would say „the

government is considering the offer‟. However, it is important to note that the plural form

point towards reference to the individuals and not the organisation as a whole (Modiano,

1996, p. 127-128). The use of the plural verb form with collective nouns is, however, an area

23

of some debate. Even though the tradition is for speakers of British English to use the plural

verb with collective nouns grammarians nowadays view the singular form as correct (BBC).

Exceptions to the rule of subject/verb agreement are police and staff which are two collective

nouns which take plural agreement in AmE as well, „staff are required to wash their hands‟

(Tottie, 2002, p. 150).

Tag questions

The usage of tag questions differ in BrE and AmE, for example, are tag questions which

follow a statement made by the same speaker used five times as often in BrE as in AmE.

Although tag questions are used in AmE, they are in general used less frequently. So, an

American would most likely exclude the tag question in the sentence „you will help him,

won’t you‟, whereas a speaker of BrE would not. In AmE tag questions used by a different

speaker to show surprise or interest normally has a noun-verb order but, in BrE the opposite

word order is typically used, for example:

AmE Harry just sold his new car. – He did?

BrE Harry has just sold his new car. – Has he (really)?

(Tottie, 2002, p. 163-164).

Aspect and Tense

Another divergence between BrE and AmE is the use of aspect and tense. In general

Americans tend to use the progressive form14

, more frequently than speaker of BrE. However,

the perfect aspect15

, is more commonly used in Britain compared to America. In spoken

English, Americans tend to use past tense where speakers of BrE would use the present

perfect, predominantly in sentences which include the time adverbs just, ever, already and yet

(Tottie, 2002, p. 161).

BrE Have you already exercised?

AmE Did you exercise already?

14

The progressive form shows that an action is ongoing and not completed, for example I am reading. 15

The perfect aspect is used to indicate that an action has (recently) been completed, for example I have eaten.

24

2.4.7 Punctuation

There are some basic divergences in punctuation between BrE and AmE; however, the

general trend is the adaptation of BrE towards American standards.

Many compound nouns that are spelled with a hyphen in BrE are two separate words in AmE,

for example coal-face (BrE) – coal face (AmE), oil-painting (BrE) – oil painting (AmE),

blood-pressure (BrE) – blood pressure (AmE). Another difference is the use of the hyphen in

spelling, for example, the British word co-operation versus the American cooperation

(Modiano, 1996, p. 129-130).

The comma use is another divergence between the two varieties. The major difference is

using comma with listings. There is a comma in AmE in the second to last item; the flag is

red, white, and blue. In BrE the comma is excluded, the flag is red, white and blue (Modiano,

1996, p. 130).

25

3. Methods and Material

The aim of my survey was to establish if English teachers in upper secondary schools in

Halland, Sweden, have sufficient knowledge of the differences between BrE and AmE. My

initial plan was to work with a sample and conduct personal interviews which were based on a

questionnaire. However, all of the teachers whom I contacted felt that, during this time of

year, they lacked the time to sit down for an interview. Therefore, I made the decision to

create a web-based survey which I e-mailed to the whole target population. Based on the

nature of my research topic, I felt that it would function just as well and also allow for me to

increase the number of participants in the study. The other advantages of using web-based

surveys include reduced costs, faster responses, automated data collection, and access to

larger samples (Converse, Wolfe, Huang, & Oswald, 2008, referred to in Mertens, 2010, p.

178), which were all good incentives for using this method.

3.1 Population

The target of my survey was EFL teachers in upper secondary schools in Halland, Sweden.

Because my survey was web-based, I decided to use the entire population rather than just a

sample, the reason being that the answer rate is normally lower in online surveys than in

interviews (Dillman, 2007; Shih & Fan, 2008, referred to in Mertens, 2010, p. 178). The

teacher population and participants can be found in Table 3.1.

59 teachers participated in the survey of which two had had no teacher training in the subject

and one who did not normally teach English. 36 of the participating teachers had lived or

worked in an English speaking country prior to my survey16

.

16

This variable has not been taken into account in my analysis due to limitation reasons.

26

Table 3.1 Teacher population and participants

City (number of upper

secondary schools)

Number of teachers

sent to

Returned e-mails17

Participants

Kungsbacka (5) 38 5 19

Varberg (6) 33 - 11

Falkenberg (2) 22 3 6

Halmstad (10)18

59 3 20

Laholm (1) 14 2 2

Hylte (1) 1 - 1

Total 167 13 59

3.2 The test

The questionnaire consisted of 19 items (see Appendix 1), most of which were formulated as

probability questions. The questions were constructed as multiple choice questions and thus

the participants were asked to choose one option. In the questionnaire, the teachers were

asked which spelling, word and grammatical form they were most likely to teach their pupils

given the choice of one British and one American option19

. The reason for me formulating the

question in such a manner was that I did not want the teachers to feel as though they were

being tested, and so I reduced “the level of threat of knowledge” (Mertens, 2010, p. 197). The

teachers were then asked to choose which variety of English they would say that they teach

and if they had had teacher training in the subject. This allowed me to investigate the

teachers‟ consistency and also if they taught the pupils the same variety of English as they

stated. The final question in the questionnaire allowed the teachers to comment in case

something in the questionnaire was perceived as ambiguous or if they felt they wanted to

comment on their choices. Amongst the differences between BrE and AmE, there were two

categories which I chose not to test; figurative speech, because it is such a massive and highly

fluid topic, and pronunciation, as it would be difficult to assess in a questionnaire, and also a

meeting with all participants or a sample would be a large and onerous undertaking. Prior to

participation, the teachers were informed in a letter of transmittal via e-mail (see Appendix 2)

17

E-mails which were returned to me without reaching the intended respondent, the e-mail address was incorrect

or non-existent. 18

One Upper secondary school in Halmstad declined participation in my survey. So, out of the ten schools, nine

participated in the survey. 19

The British and American options can be found in Appendix 6.

27

that the survey was anonymous and that their answers would be used for statistical purposes

only. In the letter, which was written in Swedish, I informed the intended respondents of who

I am and for what reason I have contacted them and what my population was. The letter also

contained instructions as to how the questions were formulated along with a link to the actual

survey. I also notified them of the fact that the essay will be filed at the Halmstad University

library and as such they are welcome to borrow it if they are interested in my findings. To

create my survey I used the website http://www.freeonlinesurveys.com/ which allows me to

compare one person‟s answers against the group result as well as view the responses

individually. The site also offers protection against duplicate responses and has a privacy

policy.

3.3 Validity and Reliability

In my essay I have strived for high reliability which means that I have strived for a

consistency in my measurements, as such the study should be able to be repeated with the

same results. By using a web-based questionnaire I have ensured that all my questions were

asked in the exact same manner and that the respondents answered the questionnaire under

similar circumstances. Furthermore, I have attempted to minimise the observer´s paradox by

being critical in my analysis of the data, and by being aware of my own effect on the data

collected. I have also increased the survey‟s precision by using a web-based survey which

records the data automatically. Based on these factors I believe my survey will have a fairly

high reliability, but having a high reliability is not a guarantee for high validity.

I also attempted to attain a high validity, which implies that there should be a good correlation

between my theoretical framework and my method. This was done by asking questions that

are relevant to my research aim and by constructing the questions as probability questions

rather than knowledge question I minimized the likelihood of the teachers seeking the

answers in dictionaries or from other teachers. However, no guarantee can be made with

regards to how the questions were answered. According to Wyatt (2000) there are simple

errors in a web-based survey that may reduce the validity of the data; examples of such are

“participants' not scrolling down to see a whole page of questions or list of options in a list

box and not understanding how to correct a mistaken response”. However, an increase of the

validity was made by preparing and performing a pilot test of the questionnaire. I also tried to

28

improve the validity by having a good overview of the theoretical field with regards to my

research area.

3.3.1 The Pilot

Prior to my survey I did a small pilot test with 12 English teacher students at Halmstad

University. I chose to do the pilot on teacher students of English because they are similar to

my target group. Prior to the pilot test I sent a letter of transmittal (see Appendix 3) with

instructions and a link to a web-based questionnaire (see Appendix 4). In the letter I also

informed the pilot population that the pilot survey would be used to improve my questionnaire

and that the data collected would not be showed as part of my result. I also notified them that

the pilot was anonymous and how to provide me with feedback. As previously mentioned, the

test was designed to improve my questionnaire and make it as unambiguous as possible, and

therefore I allowed for comments under each question in the questionnaire. I also encouraged

the participants in the pilot to provide me with feedback regarding any ambiguity or if they

feel that further response options were needed. After the pilot data was collected I checked the

responses, read the comments and did a brief analysis. For my pilot test I used the website

http://www.surveymonkey.com but during the actual pilot I discovered that the design was

too basic and that it lacked some basic tools needed, such as for example, to ability to upload

pictures. So, I change websites to http://www.freeonlinesurvey.com, which operated much

better. I also found that questions 1 and 2 needed reformulating because some of the

respondents were afraid that they were reading the question wrong; based on their feedback I

also added some questions on grammar and also one regarding whether or not they have ever

lived or worked in an English speaking country. I did not include the data from the test group

in my results as my target group are English teachers, not students, and also because the

questionnaire was altered after the pilot (Mertens, 2010, p. 191).

3.3.2 Response rate

One ingredient that affects validity is the response rate of a survey. It is said that in order to

make generalisations a response rate of approximately 80% is required. It is, however, not

always necessary. For example, if the examined group is “homogeneous with respect to a key

variable” (Wyatt, 2000) a low response rate is a smaller problem (Ibid.). Seeing as this is the

case with my population I do not believe that the validity of my survey has been lessened by

29

my low response rate, which was 38%. I think the low response rate can be accounted for by

the fact that web-based surveys generally have a lower response rate (Dillman, 2007; Shih &

Fan, 2008, referred to in Mertens, 2010, p. 178). Another important factor that may have had

a negative effect on the response rate is the timing of my survey, April and May is a

demanding time for English teachers as the national exams in English are taking place. The

low response rate may also be caused by a trend of continuing lower responses in surveys

(Kolar & Kolar, 2008, referred to in Mertens, 2010, p. 180).

30

4. Results and Analysis

The individual answers from the questionnaires (see Appendix 5) showed that three of the

teachers would say that the variety they use in their teaching is Wholly American. The result

showed that, in two of these cases the teachers had chosen the American option 93% of the

time20

. However, the last teacher (participant no. 18) only had 79% accuracy. Ten of the

teachers identified themselves as teachers of Mainly American. The results of the survey

indicate that to be a correct assessment as the participants who had chosen Mainly American

had chosen the American option on an average of 69% of the time (see Table 4.1).

Table 4.1 Teacher performance (mean value)

Which variety of English

would you say you teach?

Number of

Teachers

Approximate

Percentage of

Correct items

Wholly American 3 88% items in AmE

Mainly American 10 69% items in AmE

A mixture of both 16 51% items in AmE

49% items in BrE

Mainly British 28 67% items in BrE

Wholly British 2 68% items in BrE

Total 59

16 of the teachers accurately placed themselves in the category of A mixture of both with a

mean of 51% items in AmE and 49% items in BrE (see Table 4.1). Some of the participants

did, however, have a considerable imbalance towards either BrE (79%-21%) or AmE (86%-

14%).

The individual answers also show that 28 of the participants declared their teaching to be

Mainly British. However, many of them had only picked the British option around 50% of the

time and one of the participants (no. 10) had as low as 43% accuracy. Nevertheless, the mean

value of their performance stands at around 67% (see Table 4.1). Two of the participants

claimed to be using Wholly British in their teaching, one of which (no. 25) had only picked

20

I have decided to let a 93% accuracy pass for Wholly American with the motivation that the only time they

picked the British option was when they had to choose between teller (AmE) and cashier (BrE) and since

„cashier‟ sometimes functions as a synonym for „teller‟ in America I found it acceptable.

31

the British option in as little as 57% of the questions and the second one (no. 28) reached no

higher than a 79% accuracy21

.

When we look at the result we can also see that there seem to be a preference towards BrE as

51% placed themselves as teachers of that variety, either as Mainly British or Wholly British.

Only 22% of the total population placed themselves as teachers of AmE. 27% of the teacher

population asked placed themselves as teachers of a mixture (see Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1 Teacher Preference

In addition, the results of the study show that the teachers who identified themselves to be

teachers of AmE (Wholly American plus Mainly American) teach the American form

approximately 86% of the time. The equivalent number for the teachers who identified

themselves as teachers of BrE (Wholly British plus Mainly British) was 67%. The disparity

between the two groups and the low score for teachers of BrE may be a result of a lack of

knowledge, but may just as well be a result of American features becoming more and more

prominent in BrE. This finding may also be an effect of the fact that teachers sometimes

choose to teach what is perceived as the simpler form (AmE),

I often inform the students of both forms, I accept both forms and sometimes recommend weaker

students to choose the simplified form, i.e. American English (in most cases) (Participant no.

32).

21

Participant no. 28 lacks teacher training in the English subject.

51%

22%

27%

BrE

AmE

A mix

32

It is important to note is that none of the teachers in my survey was 100% consistent in their

usage of English. Several of the participants were, nonetheless, attentive to their own

inconsistency and commented on it. Many of those who identified themselves as teachers of

BrE were also aware of the influence of Americanisms22

,

It is, of course, impossible to avoid Americanisms, in spite of the fact that I speak British

English and stick to British grammar and vocabulary (Participant no. 1).

Even though all the teachers were inconsistent in their own usage several of them stated that

they expected consistency from their pupils,

I tell my students to either choose American or British English and stick to it. No mixing! I know

it's easy to mix the varieties (especially since most of our input today is American English) but

it's also important to know that there is a difference (Participant no. 44).

Many of the teachers also stated that they often inform and discuss both the British and the

American form with their pupils,

In many of the above cases I would discuss both alternatives with my students (Participant no.

17).

Several of the teachers also expressed the fact that both varieties were accepted in their

classroom and that both were taught,

I teach both BrE and AmE and let the students choose which spellings they want. I accept both

/…/ (Participant no. 20).

One of the participants even expressed that she accepts a mixing of both varieties,

The most important thing, I think, is correctness. Whether or not the pupil uses British or

American English is not that important and I do not try to change things if they are correct in

some way or another (Participant no. 52).

I think the analysis and results of my study demonstrates that a majority of the English

teachers in Halland appear to have a basic knowledge of the differences between the two

major varieties of English and, as such, placed themselves successfully in the correct variety

of English (see Figure 4.2).

22

”A usage or custom peculiar to, or common in, the US” (McArthur, 2005, p.36). These words or constructions

often infiltrate British English.

33

Figure 4.2 Overview

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Wholly AmE Mainly AmE A mixture of both

Mainly BrE Wholly BrE

Variety claimed to be used in teaching

Variety actually used in questionnaire

34

5. Challenges

BrE was, for many years and in most countries, regarded as the sole model for learners of

English. AmE, although spoken by millions of people, was considered an inferior dialect and

was not accepted in most schools outside North America (Benson, 1989, p. 351). Today,

AmE along with BrE, is recognized as a valid model for learners of English and AmE has

risen in status, not only amongst learners of English, but educators as well (Ibid.). Today,

more and more teachers have widened their perspectives and both varieties are now allowed

in the Swedish classroom (Modiano, 1998, p. 241-242). As a result, several new challenges

have arisen in EFL teaching and the educational settings of Sweden. I will attempt to deal

with a few of them in this chapter. One such challenge is the in-built value system connected

to BrE and AmE (Modiano, 2001). Another challenge is the demand for consistency that

emerged in Swedish schools when it was stated that AmE, along with BrE, should be

considered a valid model for learners of English. The third and final challenge I will address

in this essay is the increased usage of MAE amongst pupils in Europe (Söderlund & Modiano,

1998, p. 147), a challenge which is closely connected with the issue of consistency.

5.1 The Value System

Ever since it made its entry into the educational establishments, AmE has been viewed as the

less educated and less cultured variety (Tottie, 2002, p. 1). BrE was proclaimed that as the

useful and beautiful variety and as a result BrE was promoted by a majority of the teachers.

According to Modiano (2001, p.168) this value system is still connected to BrE and AmE

although it often no longer is explicitly declared. He states

/.../ while proponents of AmE usually have little to say about BrE, many EFL practitioners who

are adamant in their support of BrE often make a point of instilling in the minds of the learners

the notion that AmE is less valued. This is done by the simple act of assuming that BrE is the

most expedient standard, a practice which, by default, establishes AmE as a less appropriate

choice.

In the past, many educators in Europe have promoted a pro-British view of the language and

even if the validity of this position has been challenge during the last couple of years, research

still indicates a teacher preference towards BrE (Lindquist, Klintborg, Levin & Estling, 1998),

which was also indicated in my research findings.

35

Although none of the participants in my study stated that one variety was promoted over the

other, it was expressed that AmE was the simplified form of the two varieties and, as such, it

was often recommended to weaker students. Even if the tradition of upholding BrE as the

educational standard and the higher valued variety has lost some ground in Sweden (Modiano,

2002, p. 10), that comment indicates that there is, in fact, still a value system connected to

BrE and AmE (Modiano, 2001). In an educational setting where two varieties are to be

accepted one major challenge is the elimination of a system which values one variety over the

other.

5.2 The Consistency-rule

The second challenge in having two accepted varieties lies in the demand for consistency. As

shown in my results, most teachers accept both varieties of English, but a majority of them

demand that their pupils are consistent in their usage. Thus, they are proposing an idea of a

„separate but equal‟ policy (Modiano, 1998, p. 244). Thus positioning AmE as an accepted

variety, but only as long as the user is consistent. The first difficulty with demanding such a

consistency occurs when correcting pupils. When the educator points out the perceived

„errors‟ in mixing, he or she may be wrong. Identifying aspects such as, for example,

grammar or lexis, as exclusively American or British is an extremely difficult task (Ibid, p.

246) and, as my findings illustrated, consistency is difficult to obtain even for the educator.

According to Modiano (1998, p. 241-242), a demand for consistency may also lead to

discrimination as pupils may be coerced into avoiding American traits by educators who

prefer BrE. Another problem with demanding consistency is that it eliminates the possibility

of a third „standard‟, one which is a mix, based on features from both BrE and AmE

(Söderlund & Modiano, 1998, p. 147). The insertion of a consistency-rule in the educational

establishments of Sweden is a consequence that has emerged from having two accepted

varieties, and the question is whether such a demand is valid. If the educational setting of

Sweden declares it to be so, then the real challenge of EFL teaching lies in solving the conflict

between the pupils‟ exposure to AmE through media and their exposure to BrE via

educational instruction (Virtanen & Lindgrén, 1998, p. 273). If the teachers, on the other

hand, discard the rule of consistency, then the challenge lies in accepting a third educational

standard, namely one which is a mix between BrE and AmE.

36

5.3 Accepting Mid-Atlantic English?

Research indicates that it has become increasingly difficult for Europeans to separate the two

major varieties of English and, as interest in American traits has increased, a fusion of the two

major varieties have occurred (Modiano, 1998, p. 241-244). In the educational establishments

of Sweden, some teachers are attempting to suppress this development of „Euro-English‟23

,

which is chiefly done by demanding consistency. According to Modiano (1998, p. 241) BrE is

undergoing a process of Americanization and, as a result, MAE is becoming more and more

common, amongst native speakers as well as second language speakers. The results of my

survey show that all of the participants used, to different extents, a mixed variety of English in

their teaching. It also showed that several of the teachers were aware of the fact that they used

English from both sides of the Atlantic and that they accepted a mixed form from their pupils

as well. This phenomenon is supported by Melchers (1998, p. 263, 266) whose research

indicated that many Swedish teachers both use and accept a mixed type of English. However,

a majority of the teachers in my survey did state that they demanded consistency and that

mixing was not allowed. The challenge then lies in deciding what the educational standard of

English in Swedish schools should be. What constitutes “good” English?

23

„Euro-English‟ is a term used by some scholars for MAE.

37

6. Conclusion

In my investigation, it has been shown that the EFL-teachers appear to have a basic

knowledge regarding the differences between BrE and AmE24

. However, their knowledge

does appear to be far from sufficient, based on the fact that they demand consistency from

their pupils, yet they are unable to achieve it themselves. Several teachers even displayed a

less than basic knowledge regarding these very differences and were unable to place

themselves in the appropriate variety. There was also a tendency amongst the teachers to mix

the two varieties, teaching what Modiano (1996) calls Mid-Atlantic English [MAE]. My

investigation also showed a teacher preference towards British English with as many as 51%

claiming to be teachers of this variety. I think that, if both AmE and BrE are recognised as

valid models for learners of English in Sweden, then EFL teachers need to be thoroughly

educated in both models and in the differences between them during their time in the teacher

program. This is supported in Benson (1989, p. 351-353) who further states that instructors at

the teacher program in English also need to put emphasis on the fact that features that are

special to one variety are not to be considered “incorrect”.

It was also demonstrated in this essay that new challenges have arisen with the acceptance of

two varieties. Examples of such challenges are the value system associated with the two

varieties, validating the demand for consistency and deciding on an educational standard. I

believe that the educational establishment in Sweden needs to move away from its purists

ideas. Language is not static or something that can be kept separate; it is constantly

developing and borrowing traits from other languages and as a result there are going to

emerge new varieties, such as, for example, MAE. This is supported in the theoretical

fieldwork that I have come across during my research and thus a new approach to the learning

and using of English is required. To conclude, there is an increased usage of both AmE and

MAE and, as such, a revision of EFL teaching needs to be done.

6.1 Future

Because my survey was so limited I think it would be of interest to do a more comprehensive

study so, that more general conclusions regarding EFL-teachers knowledge of the differences

between BrE and AmE can be drawn. It would also be of interest to do a more in dept study

24

As the population of my survey was rather small, 59 participants, it is important to note that no conclusions

can be drawn outside the presented data.

38

concerning the supposed merger of the two languages. Another fascinating research topic

would be an investigation into the attitudes towards MAE amongst EFL-teachers.

39

References

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Questionnaire filled in by 59 EFL teachers in upper secondary schools in Halland, Sweden.

Secondary sources:

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Retrieved 06.04.2010, from BBC Skillswise,

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eet3.shtml

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to TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 23(2), 351-355. Retrieved from the database ERIC.

Bryson, B. (1994). Made in America. London: Secker & Warburg.

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from Cambridge Dictionaries online,

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Rice University, http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words04/history/index.html

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from http://www.usingenglish.com/reference/idioms/a.html

Lindquist, H., Klintborg, S., Levin, M., & Estling, M. (Eds.). (1998). The Major Varieties of

English: Papers from MAVEN Växjö 20-22 November 1997. Växjö: Växjö Universitet.

McArthur, T. (2005). Oxford: Concise Companion to the English Language. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

40

Melchers, G. (1998). “Fair ladies, Dancing Queens”: A Study of Mid-Atlantic accents. In H.

Lindquist., S. Klintborg., M. Levin. & M. Estling (Eds.), The Major Varieties of English:

Papers from MAVEN 1997, Växjö 20-22 November 1997 (p. 242-248). Växjö: Växjö

Universitet.

Mertens, D.M. (2010). Research and evaluation in education and psychology: integrating

diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Los Angeles: Sage.

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Major Varieties of English: Papers from MAVEN 1997, Växjö 20-22 November 1997 (p. 249-

262). Växjö: Växjö Universitet.

Modiano, M. (1996). A Mid-Atlantic Handbook: American and British English. Lund:

Studentlitteratur.

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Lindquist., S. Klintborg., M. Levin. & M. Estling (Eds.), The Major Varieties of English:

Papers from MAVEN 1997, Växjö 20-22 November 1997 (p. 242-248). Växjö: Växjö

Universitet.

Modiano, M. (2001). Ideology and the ELT practitioner. International Journal of Applied

Linguistics, 11(2), 159-173. Retrieved from the database ERIC.

Modiano, M. (Ed.). (2002). Studies in Mid-Atlantic English. Gävle: Högskolan i Gävle.

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Northwestern University, http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~kyoon/pdf/exemplar.theory/LP7-

WoodsHole.pdf

Robinson, J. (n.d.). Minority Ethnic English: English as a Global Language. Retrieved

18.02.2006, from The British Library, http://www.bl.uk/learning/langlit/sounds/case-

studies/minority-ethnic/

Rundell, M. (Ed.) & Fox, G. (Ed.). (2002). MacMillan English Dictionary for Advanced

Learners. London: MacMillan.

Rönnerdal, G. & Johansson, S. (2005). Introducing American Pronunciation: Advice for

Teachers and Learners. Lund: Studentlitteratur.

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Svartvik, J. & Sager, O. (1996). Engelsk Universitetsgrammatik. Stockholm: Almqvist &

Wiksell.

Söderlund, M. & Modiano, M. (2002). Swedish Upper Secondary School Students and their

Attitudes Towards AmE, BrE, and Mid-Atlantic English. In M. Modiano (Ed.), Studies in

Mid-Atlantic English (p. 147-171). Gävle: Högskolan I Gävle.

Tottie, G. (2002). An Introduction to American English. Malden: Blackwell Publishing.

Trudgill, P. & Hannah, J. (1994). International English: a Guide to the Varieties of Standard

English. London: Edward Arnold.

Virtanen, T., Lindgren, S-A. (1998). British or American English? Investigating what EFL

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The Major Varieties of English: Papers from MAVEN 1997, Växjö 20-22 November 1997 (p.

273-281). Växjö: Växjö Universitet.

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Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Appendix 1 Questionnaire Teachers

Questionnaire Teachers

Thank you for agreeing to participate in my survey for my C-essay in linguistics. All your answers are anonymous and will be kept in the strictest confidence. They are used for statistical purposes only. All the material will be analysed by me alone or together with my mentor.

1) Which English spelling of the Swedish word ’mysig’ are you most likely to teach your pupils?

Cosy

Cozy

2) Which English spelling of the Swedish word ‘försvar’ are you most likely to teach your pupils?

Defence

Defense

3) Which English spelling of the Swedish word ‘mittpunkt’ are you most likely to teach your pupils?

Center

Centre

4) Which English word are you most likely to teach your pupils for the piece of clothing on the picture?

Trousers

Pants

5) Which English word are you most likely to teach your pupils for the vegetable on the picture?

Eggplant

Aubergine

6) Which English word are you most likely to teach your pupils as a translation of the Swedish word ‘kassör/kassörska’?

Teller

Cashier

7) Which English word are you most likely to teach your pupils as a translation of the Swedish word ‘vaktmästare’?

Janitor

Caretaker

8) Which English expression are you most likely to teach your pupils as a translation of the Swedish expression 'körkort'?

Driving licence

Driver's license

9) Which English expression are you most likely to teach your pupils as a translation of the Swedish expression 'matte'?

Maths

Math

10) Imagine that a pupil from your class called Carrie has had an accident and is now a patient in Varberg’s hospital and you want to let the pupils know what has happened to her. Which of the following forms would you use to explain this?

Carrie is in hospital

Carrie is in the hospital

11) Are you more likely to teach your pupils that the three verb forms of the verb burn is:

burn, burned, burned, OR

burn, burnt, burnt

12) Are you more likely to teach your pupils to say:

A week from tomorrow, OR

A week tomorrow

13) Are you more likely to teach your pupils to say:

There is a house round the corner, OR

There is a house around the corner

14) Are you more likely to teach your pupils to say:

the government are considering the offer, OR

the government is considering the offer

15) What variety of English would you say that you teach?

Wholly American

Mainly American

A mixture of both

Mainly British

Wholly British

16) Have you ever lived or worked in an English speaking country?

Yes

No

17) Please describe how you see your job:

I am a specialist dedicated English teacher

I sometimes teach English but I have not had teacher training in the subject

I do not normally teach English

18) I teach English in:

Kungsbacka

Varberg

Hylte

Falkenberg

Halmstad

Laholm

19) Comments:

Appendix 2 Letter of Transmittal

Varberg 10-04-18

Till dig som undervisar i engelska på gymnasienivå i Halland.

Hej,

Mitt namn är Linda Jensen och jag läser till lärare på högskolan i Halmstad. Jag håller för närvarande på att

skriva min c-uppsats i engelska med inriktning mot lingvistik och behöver din hjälp. Jag håller på att gör en

kvantitativ undersökning av vilken variant av engelska som lärs ut i gymnasieskolorna i Hallands län och hoppas

att du kan ta dig tid att genomföra min enkät. Enkäten tar ca 10 minuter att genomföra och den är helt anonym.

Jag förstår att ni som lärare har mycket att göra i synnerhet under denna tid på året, men jag hoppas och är

beroende av att ni kan finna tiden någonstans.

Efter avslutat arbete kommer min uppsats att arkiveras på Halmstad Högskola, där den går att låna på biblioteket,

om Ni är intresserade av att läsa om vad jag kommit fram till med hjälp av Era svar. Jag är oerhört tacksam för

de engelsklärare som frivilligt ställer upp i denna undersökning.

När det gäller själva enkäten så är den utformad i Multiple Choice format vilket innebär att ni bara kan välja ett

svarsalternativ, välj det som är mest troligt. Om ni har några kommentarer angående era val kan ni dem under

fråga 18.

Vid ytterligare frågor om uppsatsen är ni välkomna att ringa mig på tel. xxxx-xxxxx

För att genomföra själva enkäten klickar ni på länken nedan eller klistrar in den i er webbläsare. Undersökningen

kommer att vara öppen till söndagen den 25/4 2010 kl. 23.00.

http://FreeOnlineSurveys.com/rendersurvey.asp?sid=kia1r0kzqwq8yk5743445

Stort tack för Er tid och engagemang.

Vänligen

Linda Jensen

Lärarprogrammet i Halmstad

Appendix 3 Letter of Transmittal - Pilot study

Varberg 10-04-13

Teacher questionnaire – Pilot study

Hej Alla,

Stort tack för att ni ställer upp och deltar i min pilotstudie inför min c-uppsats i engelska. Alla

era svar plus era kommentarer registreras anonymt och kommer bara att användas för att göra

min enkät bättre, de kommer alltså inte att användas som underlag i själva uppsatsen.

Materialet och feedbacken kommer bara att ses av mig och eventuellt av min handledare.

Eftersom jag bara har ett s.k. basic account hos Surveymonkey kan jag inte lägga in bilder

och enkäten kan bara bestå av max 10 frågor, så jag var därför tvungen att ta bort ett par av

mina frågor. Det är även därför som det står ”(OBS!!! Ska vara en bild på ett par byxor här)”.

När det gäller själva enkäten så är den utformad i Multiple Choice format vilket innebär att ni

bara kan välja ett svarsalternativ. Om ni har några kommentarer angående ert val eller om

något med frågan är oklart kan ni skriva det i kommentars-fältet under varje fråga. Feedback

på enkäten i helhet eller feedback på frågorna som inte får plats i kommentars-fältet får ni

gärna skicka till mig på xxxx eller xxxx.

Nu till själva enkäten, klicka på länken eller klistra in den i er webbläsare för att komma till

undersökningen. När du har svarat på alla frågorna klickar du på ”DONE”.

http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/X8TZGHH

Tack igen,

Linda Jensen

Appendix 4 Teacher Questionnaire - Pilot Study

Teacher questionnaire

1. Which spelling of the Swedish word ’däck’ are you most likely to teach your pupils?

Tire

Tyre

Comments

2. Which spelling of the Swedish word ‘försvar’ are you most likely to teach your

pupils?

Defence

Defense

Comments

3. Which English word are you most likely to teach your pupils for the piece of clothing

on the picture?

(OBS!!! Här ska det vara en bild på ett par byxor)

Pants

Trousers

Comments

4. Which English word are you most likely to teach your pupils as a translation of the

Swedish word ‘vaktmästare’?

Caretaker

Janitor

Comments

5. Imagine a pupil from your class called Carrie has had an accident and is now a

patient in Varberg’s hospital and you want to let the pupils know what has happened to

her. Which of the following forms would you use to explain this?

Carrie is in hospital

Carrie is in the hospital

Comments

6. Are you more likely to teach your pupils that the three verb forms of the irregular

verb burn is

burn, burned, burned, OR

burn, burnt, burnt

Comments

7. Are you more likely to teach your pupils to say

A week from tomorrow, OR

A week tomorrow

Comments

8. Are you more likely to teach your pupils to say

the government are considering the offer, OR

the government is considering the offer

Comments

9. What variety of English would you say that you teach?

Wholly American

Mainly American

An equal mix of both

Mainly British

Wholly British

Comments

10. Please describe how you see your job:

I am a specialist dedicated English teacher

I sometimes teach English but I lack teacher training in the subject

I do not normally teach English

Comments

Appendix 5 Individual answers and results

Participant

no.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Question 1 cosy or cozy BrE AmE BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE

Question 2

defence or

defense

BrE AmE BrE BrE BrE AmE BrE

Question 3

center or

centre

BrE AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE AmE

Question 4

trousers or

pants

BrE AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 5

eggplant or

aubergine

BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE BrE BrE

Question 6

teller or

cashier

BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 7

janitor or

caretaker

BrE BrE AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 8

driving

licence or

driver’s

license

BrE AmE BrE AmE AmE BrE BrE

Question 9

maths or

math

BrE AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 10

usage of the

definite

article

BrE AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE AmE

Question 11 -ed or -t BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 12

prepositional

usage (from)

AmE AmE AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE

Question 13

round or

around

AmE AmE BrE BrE AmE AmE AmE

Question 14 are or is AmE AmE AmE BrE BrE AmE AmE

Question 15

claimed

variety of

English

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

AmE

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

A mix Mainly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

Correct

items,

percentage

79%

BrE

79%

AmE

79%

BrE

86%

BrE

71%

BrE

29%

AmE

71%

BrE

57%

BrE

Participant

no.

8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Question 1 cosy or cozy BrE BrE BrE AmE AmE BrE AmE

Question 2

defence or

defense

BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 3

center or

centre

BrE BrE AmE AmE AmE BrE BrE

Question 4

trousers or

pants

BrE BrE BrE AmE AmE BrE AmE

Question 5

eggplant or

aubergine

BrE BrE BrE BrE AmE AmE BrE

Question 6

teller or

cashier

BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 7

janitor or

caretaker

AmE BrE AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE

Question 8

driving

licence or

driver’s

license

BrE BrE BrE

AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 9

maths or

math

BrE BrE AmE BrE AmE BrE AmE

Question 10

usage of the

definite

article

BrE BrE AmE

BrE AmE AmE AmE

Question 11 -ed or -t BrE BrE AmE AmE BrE BrE BrE

Question 12

prepositional

usage (from)

AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 13

round or

around

AmE AmE AmE AmE BrE AmE AmE

Question 14 are or is AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 15

claimed

variety of

English

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

A mix Mainly

AmE

A mix A mix

Correct

items,

percentage

71%

BrE

79%

BrE

43%

BrE

43%

BrE

57%

AmE

71%

AmE

50%

BrE

50%

AmE

36%

BrE

64%

AmE

Participant

no.

15 16 17 18 19 20 21

Question 1 cosy or cozy BrE BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE BrE

Question 2

defence or

defense

AmE AmE AmE BrE BrE BrE AmE

Question 3

center or

centre

AmE BrE BrE AmE BrE AmE BrE

Question 4

trousers or

pants

AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 5

eggplant or

aubergine

BrE BrE BrE AmE AmE BrE BrE

Question 6

teller or

cashier

BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 7

janitor or

caretaker

AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE BrE BrE

Question 8

driving

licence or

driver’s

license

AmE BrE BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE

Question 9

maths or

math

AmE BrE BrE AmE BrE AmE BrE

Question 10

usage of the

definite

article

AmE BrE AmE AmE BrE BrE BrE

Question 11 -ed or -t BrE BrE BrE AmE BrE AmE BrE

Question 12

prepositional

usage (from)

AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 13

round or

around

AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 14 are or is AmE AmE AmE AmE BrE AmE AmE

Question 15

claimed

variety of

English

Mainly

AmE

Mainly

BrE

A mix Wholly

AmE

Mainly

BrE

A mix Mainly

BrE

Correct

items,

percentage

71%

AmE

71%

BrE

43%

BrE

57%

AmE

79%

AmE

64%

BrE

43%

BrE

57%

AME

57%

BrE

Participant

no.

22 23 24 25 26 27 28

Question 1 cosy or cozy BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE AmE BrE

Question 2

defence or

defense

BrE AmE AmE AmE AmE BrE BrE

Question 3

center or

centre

AmE AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 4

trousers or

pants

BrE AmE AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 5

eggplant or

aubergine

AmE BrE AmE AmE BrE BrE BrE

Question 6

teller or

cashier

BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 7

janitor or

caretaker

AmE AmE AmE BrE BrE AmE BrE

Question 8

driving

licence or

driver’s

license

BrE AmE AmE AmE AmE BrE BrE

Question 9

maths or

math

BrE BrE AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 10

usage of the

definite

article

BrE AmE AmE BrE BrE AmE BrE

Question 11 -ed or -t BrE AmE AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 12

prepositional

usage (from)

BrE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 13

round or

around

AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 14 are or is AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 15

claimed

variety of

English

A mix Mainly

AmE

Mainly

AmE

Wholly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

Wholly

BrE

Correct

items,

percentage

64%

BrE

36%

AmE

71%

AmE

79%

AmE

57%

BrE

57%

BrE

57%

BrE

79%

BrE

Participant

no.

29 30 31 32 33 34 35

Question 1 cosy or cozy AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 2

defence or

defense

BrE AmE BrE AmE BrE BrE BrE

Question 3

center or

centre

AmE AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 4

trousers or

pants

AmE BrE BrE BrE AmE BrE BrE

Question 5

eggplant or

aubergine

AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 6

teller or

cashier

BrE BrE BrE BrE AmE BrE BrE

Question 7

janitor or

caretaker

AmE BrE AmE AmE BrE BrE BrE

Question 8

driving

licence or

driver’s

license

AmE AmE AmE AmE BrE BrE BrE

Question 9

maths or

math

BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 10

usage of the

definite

article

BrE AmE AmE BrE AmE BrE BrE

Question 11 -ed or -t BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 12

prepositional

usage (from)

AmE AmE AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE

Question 13

round or

around

AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 14 are or is AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE BrE AmE

Question 15

claimed

variety of

English

Mainly

AmE

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

Correct

items,

percentage

64%

AmE

50%

BrE

57%

BrE

64%

BrE

57%

BrE

86%

BrE

79%

BrE

Participant

no.

36 37 38 39 40 41 42

Question 1 cosy or cozy BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE AmE BrE

Question 2

defence or

defense

BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE AmE AmE

Question 3

center or

centre

BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE AmE BrE

Question 4

trousers or

pants

BrE AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE BrE

Question 5

eggplant or

aubergine

BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE AmE BrE

Question 6

teller or

cashier

BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 7

janitor or

caretaker

BrE AmE AmE BrE AmE AmE BrE

Question 8

driving

licence or

driver’s

license

AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE AmE BrE

Question 9

maths or

math

BrE AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE BrE

Question 10

usage of the

definite

article

BrE BrE BrE AmE AmE AmE BrE

Question 11 -ed or -t BrE BrE BrE BrE AmE AmE BrE

Question 12

prepositional

usage (from)

AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 13

round or

around

AmE AmE BrE BrE AmE AmE AmE

Question 14 are or is AmE AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE BrE

Question 15

claimed

variety of

English

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

AmE

Mainly

BrE

A mix Wholly

AmE

Wholly

AmE

A mix

Correct

items,

percentage

71%

BrE

71%

AmE

79%

BrE

57%

BrE

43%

AmE

93%

AmE

93%

AmE

79%

BrE

21%

AmE

Participant

no.

43 44 45 46 47 48 49

Question 1 cosy or cozy AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 2

defence or

defense

BrE BrE BrE AmE BrE BrE BrE

Question 3

center or

centre

BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE AmE BrE

Question 4

trousers or

pants

BrE BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE BrE

Question 5

eggplant or

aubergine

BrE AmE BrE AmE BrE AmE AmE

Question 6

teller or

cashier

BrE BrE AmE BrE BrE BrE AmE

Question 7

janitor or

caretaker

BrE AmE BrE AmE BrE AmE BrE

Question 8

driving

licence or

driver’s

license

AmE AmE BrE AmE AmE BrE BrE

Question 9

maths or

math

BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 10

usage of the

definite

article

BrE AmE BrE AmE BrE AmE AmE

Question 11 -ed or -t BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 12

prepositional

usage (from)

AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 13

round or

around

AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 14 are or is BrE AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 15

claimed

variety of

English

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

A mix A mix Mainly

BrE

A mix A mix

Correct

items,

percentage

71%

BrE

50%

BrE

71%

BrE

29%

AmE

43%

BrE

57%

AmE

71%

BrE

43%

BrE

57%

AmE

57%

BrE

43%

AmE

Participant

no.

50 51 52 53 54 55 56

Question 1 cosy or cozy BrE BrE BrE AmE AmE AmE BrE

Question 2

defence or

defense

AmE AmE BrE AmE AmE BrE AmE

Question 3

center or

centre

BrE BrE BrE BrE AmE AmE BrE

Question 4

trousers or

pants

BrE BrE BrE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 5

eggplant or

aubergine

BrE AmE BrE AmE BrE AmE AmE

Question 6

teller or

cashier

BrE AmE BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE

Question 7

janitor or

caretaker

BrE BrE BrE AmE BrE AmE AmE

Question 8

driving

licence or

driver’s

license

AmE BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE AmE

Question 9

maths or

math

BrE BrE BrE BrE BrE AmE AmE

Question 10

usage of the

definite

article

AmE AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 11 -ed or -t BrE BrE AmE BrE BrE AmE AmE

Question 12

prepositional

usage (from)

AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 13

round or

around

AmE AmE AmE BrE AmE AmE AmE

Question 14 are or is AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE AmE

Question 15

claimed

variety of

English

Mainly

BrE

A mix Mainly

BrE

Mainly

AmE

Mainly

AmE

A mix A mix

Correct

items,

percentage

57%

BrE

50%

BrE

50%

AmE

64%

BrE

57%

AmE

57%

AmE

14%

BrE

86%

AmE

21%

BrE

79%

AmE

Participant

no.

57 58 59

Question 1 cosy or cozy BrE AmE AmE

Question 2

defence or

defense

BrE BrE BrE

Question 3

center or

centre

BrE BrE BrE

Question 4

trousers or

pants

BrE BrE AmE

Question 5

eggplant or

aubergine

BrE AmE AmE

Question 6

teller or

cashier

BrE BrE BrE

Question 7

janitor or

caretaker

BrE BrE AmE

Question 8

driving

licence or

driver’s

license

BrE AmE BrE

Question 9

maths or

math

BrE BrE AmE

Question 10

usage of the

definite

article

BrE BrE AmE

Question 11 -ed or -t BrE BrE AmE

Question 12

prepositional

usage (from)

BrE BrE AmE

Question 13

round or

around

AmE AmE AmE

Question 14 are or is AmE AmE AmE

Question 15

claimed

variety of

English

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

BrE

Mainly

AmE

Correct

items,

percentage

79%

BrE

64%

BrE

71%

AmE

Appendix 6 Questionnaire - British and American options

Question

BrE AmE

#1 Which English spelling of the

Swedish word ‘mysig’ Are you most

likely to teach your pupils?

cosy

cozy

#2 Which English spelling of the

Swedish word ‘försvar’ are you most

likely to teach your pupils?

Defence

defense

#3 Which English spelling of the

Swedish word ‘mittpunkt’ are you

most likely to teach your pupils?

centre

center

#4 Which English word are you most

likely to teach your pupils for the piece

of clothing on the picture?

trousers

pants

#5 Which English word are you most

likely to teach your pupils for the

vegetable on the picture?

aubergine

eggplant

#6 Which English word are you most

likely to teach your pupils as a

translation of the Swedish word

‘kassör/kassörska’?

cashier

teller

#7 Which English word are you most

likely to teach your pupils as a

translation of the Swedish word

‘vaktmästare’?

caretaker

janitor

#8 Which English expression are you

most likely to teach your pupils as a

translation of the Swedish expression

'körkort'?

driving licence

driver’s license

# 9 Which English expression are you

most likely to teach your pupils as a

translation of the Swedish expression

'matte'?

maths

math

# 10 Imagine that a pupil from your

class called Carrie has had an accident

and is now a patient in Varberg’s

hospital and you want to let the pupils

know what has happened to her.

Which of the following forms would

you use to explain this?

Carrie is in hospital

Carrie is in the hospital

#11 Are you more likely to teach your

pupils that the three verb forms of the

verb burn is:

burn, burnt, burnt

burn, burned, burned

# 12 Are you more likely to teach your

pupils to say:

A week tomorrow

A week from tomorrow

#13 Are you more likely to teach your

pupils to say:

There is a house round the

corner

There is a house around

the corner

#14 Are you more likely to teach your

pupils to say:

The government are

considering the offer

The government is

considering the offer