wb iczm guidelines

GUIDELINES FORINTEGRATED COASTAL

ZONE MANAGEMENT

Environmentally Sustainable Development Studies and Monographs Series No. 9The World Bank, Washington, D.C.

Jan C. Post and Carl G. Lundin, Editors

© 1996 The International Bankfor Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

All rights reservedManufactured in the United States of America

First Printing August 1996

The judgments expressed do not necessarily reflect the view of the Board of Directors of the World Bankor the governments they represent.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Foreword v

Acknowledgments vi

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER 1

Issues in Coastal Zone Management: What Is the Coastal Zone? 3The Value of Coastal Resources 3Growth in Coastal Populations 4A New Challenge 4

CHAPTER 2

Principles of Integrated Coastal Zone Management 5

CHAPTER 3

Guidelines for Development of ICZM Programs 7Triggering the Need for ICZM 7Who Gives the Go-Ahead? 7Who Does What? Roles and Responsibilities

in the Coastal Zone 8Formulation of the Plan 10Program Implementation 12Monitoring, Evaluation, and Enforcement 12ICZM and National Development Plans, Funding Considerations,

and International Aspects 13

References 15

Contents

iii

Foreword

In both developed and developing countries thecoastal zone is likely to undergo the most pro-found change in the near future. Already morethan 60 percent of the world’s population liveswithin 60 km of the coast. By the turn of the cen-tury two-thirds of the population (3.7 billion) indeveloping countries is expected to occupy thecoast. Consequently, unless careful environmen-tal management and planning are instituted, se-vere conflicts over coastal space and resourceutilization are likely, and the degradation of natu-ral resources will close development options.

Recognizing these threats, the 1992 United Na-tions Conference on Environment and Develop-ment (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro recommendedthat Guidelines on Integrated Coastal Zone Man-agement (ICZM) be drafted to minimize conflictsand to provide for optimal sustainable resourceuse. In response to this request the “NoordwijkGuidelines” on ICZM were presented at the 1993World Coast Conference in Noordwijk, The

Netherlands, of which the present guidelines arean expansion and update.

A published paper, “Africa: A Framework forIntegrated Coastal Zone Management,” identifiedICZM as one of the main tools for the implemen-tation of investment projects. Increasingly, thegovernments of borrowing countries includecoastal zone planning needs in Bank loans suchas the Sustainable Coastal Resource DevelopmentProject in China (under preparation), and theThailand Coastal Resources Management Project.

These guidelines are a conceptual presentationof how Integrated Coastal Zone Managementmay be applied to contribute to the evolving prac-tice of environmentally sustainable development.

Ismail SerageldinVice President

Environmentally Sustainable DevelopmentThe World Bank

v

These guidelines have been prepared from con-tributions by a number of consultants, primarilyProfessor Robert W. Knecht, University of Dela-ware; Dr. Chua Thia-Eng, Coastal ManagementCenter, Philippines; and Dr. Olof Linden, regionalcoordinator for the Swedish Agency for ResearchCooperation with Developing Countries’ MarineSciences Program (SAREC). The guidelines havebeen developed in consultation with United Na-tions Environment Programme (UNEP), Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO), and The World Conservation Union (IUCN),and were supported by a Trust Fund from the Swed-ish International Development Authority. Contribu-tors to the Technical Workshop on Coastal ZoneManagement Guidelines, held at the World Bank inNovember 1992, are also acknowledged.

This volume was edited by Alicia Hetzner andVirginia Hitchcock, and desktopped by JimCantrell. Joyce Petruzzelli designed the cover.

Acknowledgments

vi

1

Introduction

Coastal zones throughout the worldhave historically been among themost heavily exploited areas because of

their rich resources. In coastal countries todayan estimated half of the total populations live incoastal zones, and migration from inland areasto the coast is increasing. Not surprisingly, thereis also a sharp conflict between the need for im-mediate consumption or use of coastal resourcesand the need to ensure the long-term supply ofthose resources. In many countries this conflicthas already reached a critical stage, with largeparts of the coastal zone polluted from local orupland sources, fisheries severely degraded or de-stroyed, wetlands drained, coral reefs dynamitedand beaches long since ruined for human enjoy-ment. If these coastal resources are to be main-tained and restored, effective action is urgentlyneeded. To answer this need, a management sys-tem has been designed: Integrated Coastal ZoneManagement (ICZM).

ICZM is a process of governance and consistsof the legal and institutional framework neces-sary to ensure that development and managementplans for coastal zones are integrated with envi-ronmental (including social) goals and are madewith the participation of those affected. The pur-pose of ICZM is to maximize the benefits pro-vided by the coastal zone and to minimize theconflicts and harmful effects of activities uponeach other, on resources and on the environment.It starts with an analytical process to set objec-

tives for the development and management of thecoastal zone. ICZM should ensure that the pro-cess of setting objectives, planning and implemen-tation involves as broad a spectrum of interestgroups as possible, that the best possible compro-mise between the different interests is found, andthat a balance is achieved in the overall use of thecountry’s coastal zones.

Coastal zone management as a formal govern-mental activity was first undertaken in the UnitedStates in 1972 with the enactment by the U.S.Congress of the Coastal Zone Management Act.Results of the U.S. effort are generally thought tobe positive.

A number of other nations initiated coastalmanagement efforts of one type or another in thelate 1970s and early 1980s. In fact, terms such ascoastal zone management, coastal resource man-agement, and coastal area management have beenused virtually interchangeably to describe suchefforts. Many of these programs, however, dealtwith a single sector—say, coastal erosion orshoreland use. Most did not attempt to deal com-prehensively with the entire coastal zone and itsfull range of resources.

Beginning in the mid-1980s, as the difficultiesinherent in using a single sector approach in at-tempting to manage something as complex as thecoastal zone became more apparent, the conceptof Integrated Coastal Zone Management cameinto being. ICZM differs from the earlier form ofCZM in that it attempts a more comprehensive

1

Guidelines for Integrated Coastal Zone Management2

approach—taking account of all of the sectoralactivities that affect the coastal zone and its re-sources and dealing with economic and social is-sues as well as environmental/ecological con-cerns. The goal, of course, is to harmonize theseactivities in such a way that all of them are con-sistent with and support a broader set of over-arching national goals for the coastal zone.

Encouragement for coastal nations to developtheir own integrated coastal zone managementinfrastructures emerged during the preparationfor the United Nations Conference on Environ-ment and Development (UNCED) that culmi-nated in the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro,Brazil in June 1992. The Agenda 21 Action Planadopted at Rio by all nations assigns a prominentrole to ICZM in the oceans part of the document(chapter 17). The Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change (a scientific body) and the Inter-governmental Negotiating Committee on GlobalClimate Change (a negotiating and policy body)have also recently endorsed ICZM and urged that

it be begun as early as possible to increase pre-paredness to deal with the potentially far-reach-ing impact of climate change upon the coastalzone.

At the onset several caveats are necessary withregard to these guidelines. First, a single set ofguidelines cannot fit all situations. Although aneffort has been made to reflect varying govern-mental, economic, and environmental contexts,obviously all of the countless possibilities cannotbe included. Second, given the governmentalnature of ICZM, these guidelines have been pre-pared from a governmental/public policy per-spective. This means that they emphasize insti-tutional, policy, legal, and regulatory aspects and,to a lesser extent, economic and ecological fac-tors.

It is likely that other, specialized sectoral andissue-specific guidelines will be developed laterby other agencies such as for fisheries, agricul-ture, forestry, port construction, pollution, andtourism.

3

Issues in Coastal Zone Management:What Is the Coastal Zone?

The coastal zone is the interface wherethe land meets the ocean, encompass-ing shoreline environments as well as ad-

jacent coastal waters. Its components can includeriver deltas, coastal plains, wetlands, beaches anddunes, reefs, mangrove forests, lagoons, and othercoastal features. The limits of the coastal zoneare often arbitrarily defined, differing widelyamong nations, and are often based on jurisdic-tional limits or demarcated by reasons of admin-istrative ease. It has often been argued that thecoastal zone should include the land area fromthe watershed to the sea, which theoreticallywould make sense as this is the zone where bio-physical interactions are strongest. For planningpurposes this definition is often quite impracti-cal, however, as huge areas containing wholecountries would fall under this definition.

For practical planning purposes, the coastalzone is a special area, endowed with special char-acteristics, whose boundaries are often deter-mined by the specific problems to be tackled. Itscharacteristics are:

• It is a dynamic area with frequently changingbiological, chemical, and geological attributes.

• It includes highly productive and biologicallydiverse ecosystems that offer crucial nurseryhabitats for many marine species.

• Coastal zone features such as coral reefs, man-grove forests, and beach and dune systemsserve as critical natural defenses againststorms, flooding, and erosion.

• Coastal ecosystems may act to moderate theimpacts of pollution originating from land (forexample, wetlands absorbing excess nutrients,sediments, human waste).

• The coast attracts vast human settlements dueto its proximity to ocean’s living and nonliv-ing resources, as well as marine transporta-tion and recreation.

The Value of Coastal Resources

Coastal resource systems are valuable naturalendowments that need to be managed for presentand future generations. Coastal zones offer physi-cal and biological opportunities for human use,and ICZM tries to find the optimum balance be-tween these uses based on a given set of objec-tives. Concern is growing in particular about thedestruction of natural coastal ecosystems by thedemands placed upon them by population andeconomic growth. These natural ecosystems haveconsiderable value for sustainable extractive andnonextractive use which is often undervalued incomparison with other often non-sustainableuses. These guidelines therefore emphasize natu-ral coastal ecosystems and sustainable use of thecoastal zone with maximum preservation of en-vironmental quality.

In nature the coastal system maintains an eco-logical balance that accounts for shoreline stabil-ity, beach replenishment, and nutrient generationand recycling, all of which are of great ecological

3

Chapter 1


and socioeconomic importance. These natural sys-tems are under increasing threat from unmanagedhuman activities such as pollution, habitat destruc-tion, and overexploitation of resources.

In coastal rural areas fishing of nearshore wa-ters and farming of coastal lowlands are the majoreconomic activities supplying fish and agriculturalproducts for subsistence of the inhabitants andurban centers. Activities that add further value tocoastal resources include recreation and tourism,which have become major sources of domestic andforeign exchange earnings in many coastal nations.

The intrinsic economic value of coastal re-sources represents a “capital” investment for hu-mankind by nature. The goods and services de-rived from them are the “interest” generated bythe investment. Hence, the destruction of the re-source base means depletion of the “capital” andtherefore less interest and the ultimate exhaus-tion of what nature has freely provided.

Growth in Coastal Populations

Population growth in the coastal zone is a majorconcern. The world population is expected togrow at an exponential rate from 5.8 billion in 1995to 8.5 billion by the year 2025. It is projected toreach 11 billion in a century’s time, with 95 per-cent of the growth occurring in developing coun-tries. More than 50 percent of the world popula-tion is already concentrated within 60 km of thecoast while there is considerable migration ofpopulation to the coast from inland areas. In de-veloping countries, by the turn of this centurytwo-thirds of the population (3.7 billion) is ex-pected to live along the coast.

This growth will exacerbate already severecoastal-use conflicts in terms of land and waterspace and resource utilization. The negative im-pacts of increased human settlement and indus-trial development are also more acutely felt in thecoastal zone since it is at the receiving end of land-and water-based pollution. Compounding theproblem, the coastal zone is often subject to over-lapping governance of local, provincial and cen-tral governments resulting in interagency conflictsand unclear policy concerning resource develop-ment and management and environmental pro-tection. In many countries, large parts of thecoastal zone area are privately owned. Stabiliz-ing population through family planning programsas an integral part of ICZM, therefore, is of cru-

cial importance for the maintenance of the qual-ity and productivity of the coastal zone, as indeedof the rest of the planet.

Increased coastal resource use conflicts will in-evitably intensify social and economic develop-ment problems. Problems of multiple jurisdictionand competition between users of resources with-out the benefit of a conflict resolution mechanism,inadequate regulations for protecting resources,and the lack of nationally or locally adapted coastalpolicies for informed decisionmaking, will trans-late into a loss of capability for future sustainabledevelopment. As the resource base is depleted,conflicts may reach alarming dimensions to thepoint of threatening human life and public order.

A New Challenge

Storm surges caused by typhoons, cyclones, hur-ricanes, and coastal storms are familiar naturalphenomena that periodically inundate somecoastal regions. Recently, the international scien-tific community has recognized as real the con-cern over human-induced global warming of theatmosphere, leading to climate changes and sealevel rise. The latter will in particular affect low-lying coastal regions. Further, an increase in meansea surface temperatures may increase the fre-quency of hurricanes as well as expand the areaof their influence.

The global scientific community is predictingan acceleration in sea level rise associated withatmospheric warming. The coastal zones andtheir human settlements may not only be affectedby changes in sea level, temperature, rainfall,humidity, winds and, perhaps, storm frequency,but also by changes in groundwater level, salin-ity, ocean circulation, sediment flux, and stormand erosion patterns. An ICZM system in placecould prepare for such an eventuality and mini-mize resource and human losses. It can also bedesigned to safeguard the natural systems thatprovide protection from high seas by managingindiscriminate development activities that putgreater numbers of people and property at risk.

Environmentally sound responses to reducethe vulnerability of coastal communities andcoastal resources to global climate and sea levelchanges require long lead times for planning pur-poses. Thus, even though the effects of some ofthese changes may be decades away, now is thetime to consider appropriate action.

5

Coastal nations should be in a positionto develop an ICZM structure that isuniquely suited to that nation—to the na-

ture of its coastal areas, its institutional and gov-ernmental arrangements, and its traditions andcultures and economic conditions. Nonetheless,some currently accepted principles and charac-teristics associated with the ICZM concept areuseful to describe.

ICZM focuses on three operational objectives:• Strengthening sectoral management, for in-

stance through training, legislation, and staff-ing

• Preserving and protecting the productivity andbiological diversity of coastal ecosystems,mainly through prevention of habitat destruc-tion, pollution, and overexploitation

• Promoting rational development and sustain-able utilization of coastal resources.

ICZM’s distinguishing characteristics are that it:• Moves beyond traditional approaches, which

tend to be sectorally oriented (each dealingwith a single factor) and fragmented in char-acter and seeks to manage the coastal zone asa whole using an ecosystem approach wherepossible.

• Is an analytical process that advises govern-ments on priorities, trade-offs, problems, andsolutions.

• Is a dynamic and continuous process of ad-ministering the use, development, and protec-tion of the coastal zone and its resources to-wards democratically agreed objectives.

• Employs a multidisciplinary, holistic systemsperspective, which recognizes the interconnec-tions between coastal systems and uses.

• Maintains a balance between protection ofvaluable ecosystems and development ofcoast-dependent economies. It sets prioritiesfor uses, taking account of the need to mini-mize the impact on the environment, to miti-gate and restore if necessary, and to seek themost appropriate siting of facilities. These arethe activities contained in Environmental Im-pact Assessments.

• Operates within established geographic lim-its, as defined by governing bodies, that usu-ally include all coastal resources.

• Seeks the input of all important stakeholdersto establish policies for the equitable alloca-tion of space and resources in the coastal zone.An appropriate governance structure is essen-tial for such decisionmaking and oversight.

• Is an evolutionary process, often requiring it-erative solutions to complex economic, social,environmental, legal, and regulatory issues.

• Integrates sectoral and environmental needs.ICZM should be implemented through spe-cific legal and institutional arrangements atappropriate levels of the government and thecommunity.

• Provides a mechanism to reduce or resolveconflicts that may occur, involving resource al-location or use of specific sites as well as theapproval of permits and licenses.

Principles of IntegratedCoastal Zone Management

5

Chapter 2


• Promotes awareness at all levels of govern-ment and community about the concepts ofsustainable development and the significanceof environmental protection. It is proactive(incorporating a development planning ele-ment) rather than reactive (waiting for devel-opment proposals before taking action).ICZM also embraces certain general principles

in the course of developing the program by agiven nation. Note that most of the principleslisted here are among the recommendations con-tained in UNCED’s Agenda 21 action program.These include the following principles:

• Precautionary• Polluter pays• Proper resource accounting• Transboundary responsibility• Intergenerational equity.

A key part of the formulation of an ICZM pro-gram is the development of the specific policiesand goals that are to be the central objectives ofthe ICZM program in question. Clearly, there willbe a close relationship between the kinds ofcoastal problems that trigger the need for anICZM program and the policies and goals selectedfor that program.

While all phases of the process of formulatingan ICZM program should be “transparent,” it isof the utmost importance that the policy and goalsetting aspects be fully open and easily accessibleto the affected coastal stakeholders and the inter-ested public. Open public meetings that allow fordetailed discussion and questions, supported byclear and understandable documentation, shouldbe a part of the deliberations that lead to the se-lection of policies and goals.

The means adopted to achieve the selectedgoals and policies will include new and strength-ened regulatory programs, zonation schemes forpartitioning the coastal zone into areas for par-ticular uses and activities, new management pro-grams tailored for particular resources (for ex-ample,, coral reefs, mangroves) or particular sites(a given bay or estuary), action programs aimedat correcting and/or restoring degraded coastalresources (damaged wetlands, for example) orsolving coastal problems (coastal erosion), and ac-tion programs targeted at stimulating new typesof economic development in the coastal zone.

Some of the management actions selected will

involve strengthening of institutional arrange-ments and empowerment of local authorities;reiterating customary rights and strengtheningcommunity organization; developing sustainablelivelihoods as alternative employment; enforcingregulatory measures to control new entrants tocoastal zone fisheries; curtailing destructive fish-ing practices; and promoting awareness of theconcepts and practice of sustainable developmentat all levels of government and in the affectedcommunities.

An important part of the ICZM process is tobuild understanding and a strong political alli-ance among the various concerned sectors of thecoastal communities. Adoption of strong regula-tory measures such as those involving the “pol-luter pays” and “precautionary” principles, theimplementation of user fees, limiting access to andexploitation of (mostly living) resources, the im-position of Environmental Impact Assessmentrequirements, and other mitigating measures willrequire convincing justification. Public educationand community mobilization will be required toreduce resistance from some of the potentially af-fected interest groups.

All the policies, goals, and management ac-tions that will come to make up an ICZM pro-gram are not necessarily decided upon and putin place during the initial program formulationstage. Indeed, ICZM is meant to be a dynamicprocess—one that is designed to be as proactiveas possible within the limits of the data and in-formation available at the time the program isdeveloped. But unanticipated events inevitablyoccur: new coastal resources are discovered, newuses of the coastal zone are proposed, urgentproblems and coastal resource depletion suddenlyemerge. ICZM, fundamentally, is a process andas such it can deal on a reactive basis as well.Hence, new (or revised) policies and new (or re-vised) goals can be set by the body overseeingthe ICZM program to deal with such unexpecteddevelopments as they occur.

Finally, it is important that the plan formula-tion process be completed in a reasonably shorttime. The energy and momentum generated inthe early stages of initiating the plan should notbe lost. Stakeholders and government agenciescan lose interest if the plan formulation processis overly extended.

7

Any one of a number of problems cantrigger the need for a more effective,better integrated approach to the man-

agement of a given coastal area, that is, for ICZM.Typically, some major crisis or event precipitatesaction by awakening the stakeholders to the ur-gency of a problem or condition. Governmentsthen become involved and seek ways to remedythe problem. Unfortunately, given human nature,a decision to embark upon a major managementstrengthening and improvement effort such as theICZM process is seldom undertaken in advanceof the appearance of major problems and/or con-flicts, in spite of the fact that the problems arelikely to be more tractable and the solutions lesscostly at an earlier stage. Many coastal problemsare not calamities but creeping disasters such as pol-lution, erosion and disappearance of biodiversity.

Triggering the Need for ICZM

Below are a few different kinds of coastal prob-lems, or opportunities, that can trigger the ICZMprogram:

• Desire to increase the economic benefits flow-ing from the use of coastal zone resources

• Serious resource depletion problems• Increasing pollution of the coastal and ocean

environment• Loss of or damage to productive coastal eco-

systems• Increasing losses of life and property from

natural coastal hazards and disasters

Guidelines for Developmentof ICZM Programs

• Perceived economic opportunities associatedwith new forms of development in the coastalzone

• Conflicts of interest among user groups.These “triggering” conditions do not have to

be present throughout a nation’s coastal zone.Indeed, more typically coastal resource depletionor environmental problems first occur at a par-ticular location and the first recognition of theseriousness of the problem may be by local stake-holders or local government officials in that area.To the extent that local governments are preparedto address the problems in the coastal zone, thiscan start the ICZM process before the nationalgovernment gets involved, through the draftingof an initial concept paper, for instance.

Who Gives the Go-Ahead?

In virtually all governments formal approvals arerequired to initiate new programs, especiallythose requiring significant realignments of insti-tutional responsibilities, the establishment of neworganizations or the expenditure of importantsums of money. Generally speaking, a conceptpaper or “decision document” is prepared whichlays out the need for the new program (the prob-lems to be addressed), spells out what it is in-tended to accomplish, indicates how the programwill be developed and by whom, and shows howmuch time and money will be required. At thisstage, since the document is only requesting ap-proval to develop an ICZM plan, it will not be spe-

7

Chapter 3


coastal zone and its resources (stakeholders), andfor the general public. The key to success is in-volvement of all parties and demonstration thatthe ICZM program is in the long term interest ofas large a number of people as possible.

The Interagency Coordinating Mechanism

Several institutional approaches are possible toperform this task, including the:

• National planning agency• Formal establishment of an interagency or

interministerial council• Creation of a special coordinating commission

or committee• Formal designation (by the chief executive or

the legislature) of one of the line agencies orministries to act as “lead agency” and to over-see an interagency coordination process.The main purpose of the coordination mecha-

nism is to:• Promote and strengthen interagency and in-

ter-sectoral collaboration• Reduce interagency rivalry and conflicts• Minimize duplication of functions of line agen-

cies• Provide a forum for conflict resolution among

sectors• Monitor and evaluate the progress of ICZM

projects and programs• Implement actions resulting from the evalua-

tion exercise.The interagency coordination entity oversees

the implementation and operation of the ICZMprogram and has general management and sup-port responsibilities, particularly with respect to:

• Coordination of planning• Establishment of zonation schemes and imple-

mentation of other management actions• Environmental impact assessments• Human resources development• Transnational issues• Budget coordination• Political accountability.

These are functions that are normally beyondthe management responsibilities of individual lineagencies.

National (Central) Government

While the initial impetus to adopt an ICZM pro-gram can come from various sources, the activesupport of the national government is crucial to

cific regarding the final design of the ICZM pro-gram itself but rather will specify the approachto be undertaken in the development of such aplan. The detailed structure of the ICZM programwill be decided during the course of the develop-ment of the plan itself. Ideally, the preparation ofthe concept paper should be a collaborative ef-fort among the government agencies (local andnational) that will be participants in the ICZMplan development process and later, in the ICZMprogram itself. Coastal stakeholder groupsshould also be invited to review the proposal atan early stage. It is important that all of the af-fected groups be identified early and be invitedinto the process from the very beginning of thework.

The decision to accept the recommendationscontained in the concept paper and to proceedwith the development of an ICZM program for agiven coastal area needs to be taken by the gov-ernment agency(s) having responsibility for theplanning and management of the coastal areas inquestion. If the coastal areas of an entire nationare involved, this will be either a sectoral agency(fisheries, natural resources, environment) actingon behalf of the national government, the nationalplanning office, or a still higher office dependingon the assignment of responsibilities within thenational government itself. At this point regionalefforts or international assistance can play a cata-lytic role.

Who Does What? Roles and Responsibilitiesin the Coastal Zone

Much of the coastal zone and the adjacent oceanand most of their resources are usually underpublic ownership. Therefore, programs to man-age those resources and areas are operated bygovernments for the benefit of their people. Typi-cally, particular government ministries, depart-ments, and/or agencies are responsible for par-ticular resources or uses. However, in some coun-tries much of the coastal zone is privately ownedand attempts by the government to get involvedin the management of private lands can be asource of conflict. The military can also be amajor player in ICZM issues, given its often ex-tensive control of key coastal areas.

In an ICZM program, important roles will con-tinue to exist for specialized agencies at both thenational and local governmental levels, for re-search institutions, for users and owners of the

9

the eventual success of the effort. Furthermore,the national government usually provides thefunding to launch the program but sometimes itwill be externally funded. The expertise and da-tabases for coastal resource and environmentalinformation and some or all of the existing man-agement and regulatory authority usually restswith individual departments of the national gov-ernment.

State Government

In large federally organized countries such asAustralia, Brazil and India, the responsibility forthe management of a particular coastal zone of-ten rests with the “state” governments and isfunded by them. In these cases it may be the stategovernment which initiates and manages theICZM process.

Line Agencies and Ministries

In most cases, the line agencies or ministries withspecialized sectoral missions are at present man-aging coastal resources. These agencies gener-ally possess the best data and expertise in thenation in their particular fields (for example, fish-eries management, control of coastal erosion,management of offshore oil and gas operations,etc.) and will, therefore, be essential participantsin the ICZM process.

Local Governments

In nations having several levels of government,the local level is the one which is “closest” to thecoastal zone and its problems and opportunities.The local government and community are likelyto be most concerned and most affected by theecological and economic health and productivityof the coastal zone and most impacted by poordevelopment and/or environmental degradation.Many of the “stakeholders” in the coastal zoneare constituents of the local government. Clearlythen, local/provincial governments must also befully involved and committed to the ICZM process.

Research Institutions

A sound ICZM program must be based on gooddata and information. If appropriate capabilitiesare not present within government agencies, uni-versities or research institutions can often assist

in the collection and analysis of data concerningcoastal resources, environmental degradation,mitigation strategies, new economic developmentpossibilities and the like.

Coastal Stakeholders

Coastal stakeholders are individuals or groups ofindividuals involved in activities which take placein the coastal zone. In many cases, the economicsurvival of such stakeholders depends upon thecontinued health and productivity of the coastalzone. Coastal stakeholders also include individu-als or groups who place a high value on the aes-thetic, touristic, and recreational value of thecoastal area. It is important, therefore, that coastalstakeholders become intimately involved in thedevelopment and implementation of the ICZMprocess to the point that they feel an “ownership”in the process. Much of the drive and momen-tum necessary to initiate and sustain an ICZMprocess must come from this group. The stake-holders must help generate the “political will” totake action among the government policymakers.

General Public

Putting an effective ICZM program in place usu-ally requires some change in the way certain gov-ernment agencies do business and change in theway certain resources are managed. Thesechanges could be controversial especially amongcertain stakeholders who may see reduced in-comes if the new program is adopted. A well-informed public supporting the changes called forin the ICZM program can be an effective coun-terbalance to such narrowly-based opposition.

Once the formal approval to develop an ICZMplan is received, a team is formed to undertakethe work. Such a team should be multidisciplin-ary and include experts in coastal management,regional planning, resource economics, environ-mental management, and ecology. Other special-ists are needed but can generally be borrowedfrom sectoral government agencies (for example,fisheries experts, specialists in coastal erosion,coastal engineers, lawyers specializing in envi-ronmental legislation, etc.). A typical ICZM co-ordinating body could include:

Lead agency: President’s or prime minister’s of-fice or powerful line ministry (not necessarilythe environment ministry/department) orpossibly a separate agency

Participating ministries: Treasury, fisheries, agri-

Guidelines for Development of ICZM Programs


culture, transportation/ports, urban develop-ment, physical planning, forestry, environ-ment, oil and gas, navy/military/coast guard,tourism, energy

Local governments: Town or city authority, pub-lic works company, district, state or depart-ment

Stakeholders: Fisherfolk, businesses, hotels, agri-culture organizations, park or reserve manag-ers, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) ofvarious types.

Formulation of the Plan

The overall effort in developing, implementing,and then operating an ICZM program can be ac-complished in different ways. An example isgiven below.

Step 1: Initiating the Effort

• Recognize the need for improved managementthrough consultative meetings with key agen-cies and stakeholders.

• Prepare a concept paper outlining the needfor ICZM.

• Approve development of an ICZM program.• Create a team to formulate the ICZM plan

through review of institutional capabilities.

Step 2: Formulating the ICZM Plan

• Assemble necessary information and data onthe physical, economic, and social character-istics of the coastal zone.

• Prepare a plan for public participation in theICZM process.

• Analyze and assess management problems(causes, effects, solutions).

• Set priorities to tackle problems and take intoconsideration the technical, financial, andstaffpower feasibility.

• Analyze feasibility of new economic develop-ment opportunities.

• Consider coastal zone management bound-aries and formulate recommendations.

• Consider new management measures, zona-tion schemes, and strengthened regulatoryprograms.

• Analyze and assess institutional capacities;develop options for the interagency coordinat-ing mechanism.

• Develop recommendations for policies, goals,

and projects to include in the ICZM manage-ment program.

• Design appropriate monitoring and evalua-tion systems.

• Establish timetable, approach, and division oflabor.

Step 3: Formal Adoption by the Government of theICZM Program

• Establish the interagency coordinating mecha-nism.

•Approve staffing and organizational changesthat may be required.

• Adopt policies, goals, new management mea-sures, and initial projects.

• Enact, probably by legislation, coastal zonemanagement boundaries and, if possible atthis stage, a zoning scheme.

• Approve the funding allocation for the ICZMprogram.

Step 4: Operational Phase

The ICZM program becomes operationalwhen:

• An interagency coordinating body begins over-sight of ICZM process and programs.

• New or revised management programs comeinto effect.

• Individual sectoral line agencies continue toperform their regulatory and management re-sponsibilities but now as a part of the ICZMprogram.

• Specific projects are designed and undertakenin connection with new economic opportuni-ties in the coastal zone.

• New management mechanisms are enforcedby appropriate authority.

• A monitoring and evaluation program is initi-ated.Some of the more important steps listed above

are discussed in greater detail below.

Creation of Plan Formulation Team

To the extent possible, the plan formulation teamshould be composed of in-country staff secondedfrom key government agencies having importantmanagement roles regarding coastal resourcesand the coastal zone. All of the key agencies, lo-cal and national, should be represented. Ideally,the team should be directed by someone repre-senting a higher policy level in the central gov-

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ernment (for example, the national planning of-fice, the national development office, thePresident’s or Prime Minister’s office).

Issues such as legal authority, technical com-petence, enforcement mechanisms, and access tofunds should be assessed and addressed.

Assembly of Necessary Data and Information

An effective ICZM program must be based uponadequate information with respect to the physi-cal, economic, social, ecological and governmen-tal aspects of the coastal region in question. Someof this data and information may be available inexisting country profiles, national environmen-tal action plans, national development plans, spe-cialized resource inventories, and the like.Sources of such information include governmentagencies (national, regional, and local), universi-ties and other research institutions, resource-re-lated private sector firms, and, in some cases, rel-evant international organizations. A new initia-tive to collect primary data should only be un-dertaken in those relatively few cases where dataof fundamental importance to the ICZM programdevelopment process are lacking.

The list below indicates the kind of informa-tion that is required in the formulation of an ICZMprogram. All of this information does not needto be in hand before the analysis and assessmentwork begins. Indeed, as the ICZM programprogresses, some of the information and data gapscan be filled on the following issues:

• Management issues that triggered the decisionto formulate the ICZM program

• Potential for new economic development ac-tivities in the coastal zone

• Roles, responsibilities, effectiveness, and le-gal authority of the institutions currently man-aging coastal resources and uses

• Nature and characteristics of the broader po-litical, economic, and cultural contexts withinwhich coastal zone activities are conducted.As the plan formulation process proceeds, infor-

mation and data of the following types are needed:

Coastal Resource Base

• Existing coastal resources (beaches, wetlands,estuaries, mangroves)

• Present use of coastal resources (fishing, rec-

reation, mining)• Present status of coastal resources (including

qualitative assessments of water, soil, air eco-systems)

• Potential for present and future use.

Social Organization in the Coastal Zone

• Existence and character of human settlements(villages, towns)

• Economic basis for human settlements• Existence of indigenous peoples and their tra-

ditional coastal activities• Social issues.

Existing Environmentand Resource-Related Programs

• Environmental regulatory programs• Fisheries management programs, other re-

source management programs• Protected area programs• Beach/erosion management programs• Pollution control programs• Other environmental management programs.

Institutional, Legal, and Financial Capacity

• Relevant national-level institutions• Relevant regional/provincial-level institutions• Relevant local institutions• Survey of legal authorities relative to coastal

and ocean activities• Existing capacity building efforts, including

those funded by external sources.

Determination of the Management Area

One of the key decisions in formulating an ICZMprogram is the size of the area to be managed.Ideally, the management zone should include allof the coastal resources of interest and all of theactivities that are capable of affecting the resourcesand waters of the coastal zone. Such an approachcould give rise to a zone that extends inland tothe upper reaches of the coastal watersheds andseaward to the limit of national jurisdiction—gen-erally, the limit of the territorial sea (12 nauticalmiles). With regard to the inland limit of the man-agement zone, many governments have found itmore practical to use an existing administrativeor political subdivision boundary rather than the



watershed boundary. Such an approach may relyon other activities in the upper parts of coastalwatersheds such as watershed management, ero-sion control or pesticide reduction programs tosafeguard the coastal zone against poor qualityrunoff. Similarly, although important marine re-sources of economic interest to the coastal nationmay exist within its 200-mile Exclusive EconomicZone (EEZ), nations typically find devices to co-ordinate ocean resource activities with coastalmanagement efforts (for example, fishing andoffshore oil and gas activities) other than bybroadening the coastal management zone to theouter limits of the EEZ.

Role of the Nongovernmental Sector

In countries where government power is limited,especially in remote coastal areas, the private sec-tor and local communities may have a major rolein managing coastal resources. In many caseslong term planning and sustainability is not theprimary interest of the private sector. Throughcreating incentives for sustainable managementthe government can help the private sector andlocal communities maintain long term develop-ment objectives. This will usually require estab-lishment and legal protection for property rights,appropriate fiscal measures and coastal resourcetenure systems that ensure long term benefits tothe users and owners. The government can thenconcentrate its scarce resources on the implemen-tation and enforcement of existing rules andnewly formulated management regimes.

Assessment of New Economic DevelopmentPossibilities in the Coastal Zone

Especially in developing countries, this importantpart of the analysis will review and assess neweconomic development possibilities in the coastalzone. Priorities should be set based upon clearlydesigned studies of markets and potential de-mand, analyses of costs of production and com-petitive aspects, and related issues. The impactsand risks of proposed development projects onthe coastal and marine environment need to beaddressed in terms of both possible mitigating ac-tions and their associated costs.

Program Implementation

Initiating the ICZM Process in Stages

Given the time usually necessary to obtain therequired executive and legislative approvals,some parts of the ICZM program may start tofunction earlier than others. Major legislative ini-tiatives are not always required. In some coun-tries a decree or administrative rule is sufficient.Besides, the data base development and inven-tory work can be done in advance of legislation.Existing zoning and land use management sys-tems can often be used on an interim basis to di-rect land use in the coastal zone.

ICZM in Operation

With the necessary formal approvals by govern-mental policy bodies and the enactment of re-quired legislation, the ICZM program is formallyestablished and the implementation begins. Mostnations will not have opted for the creation of a“super” coastal agency into which all coastal andocean related activities have been placed.

The chances for effective implementation ofan ICZM program are enhanced if:

• High visibility improvements can be achievedat an early stage of the program.

• The policies to be followed by the programare clearly and unambiguously spelled out.

• The goals of the overall program and the sub-goals of various elements of the program areclearly articulated and expressed in quantita-tive, measurable terms.

• The institutions involved in the ICZM programare given clear assignments of responsibilityand are held accountable.

• Adequate human and financial resources aremade available for implementation of the pro-gram.

• The public has been made fully aware of theICZM program and its goals and policies andsupports the overall effort.

• Adequate resources and support are given tomonitoring, evaluation, and enforcement ac-tivities.

Monitoring, Evaluation, and Enforcement

Monitoring and Evaluation

The results of the ICZM program should be sub-ject to regular monitoring and evaluation as a way

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of continually improving the process. It is espe-cially important, therefore, that the goals of theoverall ICZM effort and the goals and objectivesof individual management and/or action projectsbe specified as clearly and as quantitatively aspossible; otherwise assessments as to how wellthey are being achieved are difficult.

The monitoring procedure should include:identification of expected performance, assess-ment and/or measurement of the actual perfor-mance of the program, establishment of perfor-mance variances (for example, shortcomings orexcesses), and procedure for communicating vari-ances that exceed preestablished limits to the ap-propriate management or enforcing and imple-menting authorities.

Enforcement

Enforcement of existing rules and regulations isone of the most difficult aspects of governmentin developed and developing countries alike. Thegoal should be to have rules that are generallyaccepted by most parts of society and that can beenforced. Chances for this are dependent on theknowledge level of the public and the credibilityof government programs. Strong and objectiveenforcement is often required, however, whenparties are clearly benefiting economically frombreaking the rules.

ICZM and National Development Plans,Funding Considerations,and International Aspects

ICZM programs have implications for pre-exist-ing national plans and programs as well as inter-national jurisdictions.

Incorporating the ICZM Programin the National Development Plan

From an economic development perspective theultimate objective of the ICZM program is that itwill become an integral part of economic devel-opment plans both at the national and local level.Achieving this objective will require the supportof policymakers and planning and line agency of-ficials. Most national and local government pro-grams are formulated through their respectiveplanning agencies such as a town and countryplanning department, an economic developmentunit, or a national economic development author-

ity, all of which tend to have cross-departmentalfunctions.

Funding Considerations

Large sums of new funding are generally not re-quired to put an ICZM program in place. Thedevelopment of an ICZM plan can often be ac-complished primarily by staff delegated from ex-isting agencies, provided that the appropriateprofessional disciplines and experience are rep-resented. However, some new funding will usu-ally be required to fill selected new positions andto undertake programs to fill particularly impor-tant data or research gaps. The funding for thesepurposes should be able to be provided by thenational government or with assistance from in-ternational agencies.

Larger sums of money will be required for cer-tain types of projects in the coastal zone. Outsidesources may have to be considered for fundingsuch projects. However, external donor and fund-ing organizations may be more willing to supportsuch requests if they are part of an integratedmanagement effort.

International Considerations

As ICZM programs confront ocean resource is-sues, they are necessarily drawn into the interna-tional arena. Transnational issues related to thecoastal and marine environment usually call forthe collective efforts of the concerned govern-ments in developing management measures toresolve resource use conflicts, to reduce or miti-gate negative impacts of pollution and humanactivities, and to develop common standards andprocedures for monitoring and assessment. Mosttransnational issues involving shared fisheriesstocks and pollution occur in large marine eco-systems, such as large bays, gulfs, and semi-en-closed seas. Near the shore, environmental issuesbecome transnational when a given ecosystemfalls within two or more national jurisdictions.Like migratory fish stocks, marine pollution alsorecognizes no political boundary. Concernedcoastal nations must recognize the mutual im-pacts of development activities. Thus, for in-stance, the destruction of the nursery function ofmangroves under one national jurisdiction mayaffect recruitment of shrimp or fish in a nearbyfishing ground under another jurisdiction. To the



extent possible, the waterbody should be treatedas whole in a manner similar to an inland water-shed as far as management is concerned. Co-management among the affected jurisdictionsshould be a guiding principle, although successwill depend upon the political and socioeconomicpriorities of the nations concerned.

Global Environmental Agreements

International conventions and agreements areplaying an increasingly important role in envi-ronmental management. Toward this end, UnitedNations agencies have been diligent in forging anumber of agreements and protocols which pro-mote international, regional, and bilateral coop-eration and collaboration among coastal nations.These include agreements such as the Law of theSea Convention (LOS) (1982), the Montreal Pro-tocol on Land Based Sources of Pollution (1987),

the London Dumping Convention (1972), andMARPOL (73/79).

Role of Scientific and Regulatory Bodies

Scientific bodies can provide scientific advice onmatters related to the utilization and managementof marine resources in given regions. The Inter-national Council for the Exploration of the Seasand the Forum Fisheries Agency provide such ad-vice for the North Atlantic and Pacific region. Re-gional programs such as the Regional Seas Pro-gram of United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) can perform similar functions in otherregions. Coastal nations could contribute to theeffectiveness of such efforts by assigning quali-fied scientific personnel to participate in regionalprograms and by applying the resulting collec-tive scientific advice in making policy and man-agement decisions affecting the region in ques-tion.

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Chua, T.E. 1993. “Essential Elements of IntegratedCoastal Management,” Ocean and Coastal Man-agement 21 (1-3): 81-108.

Chua, T.E., and L.F. Scura, eds. 1992. IntegrativeFramework and Methods for Coastal Area Man-agement. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 12.Manila: ICLARM.

____ 1991. Managing ASEAN’s Coastal Resourcesfor Sustainable Development: Roles of Policy-makers, Scientists, Donors, Media and Communi-ties. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 6. Ma-nila: ICLARM.

Chua, T.E., and D. Pauly, eds. 1989. Coastal AreaManagement in Southeast Asia: Policies, Manage-ment Strategies and Case Studies. ICLARM Con-ference Proceedings 2. Manila: ICLARM.

Cicin-Sain, B. 1993. “Sustainable Developmentand Integrated Coastal Management.” Oceanand Coastal Management 21 (1-3):11-44.

Clark, J.R., ed. 1991. “The Status of IntegratedCoastal Zone Management: A Global Assess-ment.” Proceedings of the Global AssessmentWorkshop, Charleston, South Carolina, July 8–10, 1989. Rosenstiel School of Marine and At-mospheric Science. University of Miami. Mi-ami, Fla.

Clark, J. R. 1992. Integrated Management of CoastalZones. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper no. 327.Rome.

Clark, J.R. 1996. Coastal Zone Management Hand-book. New York: CRC Lewis Publishers.

Crawford, B.R., J.S. Cobb, and A. Friedman. 1993.“Building Capacity for Integrated Coastal Man-agement in Developing Countries.” Ocean andCoastal Management 21 (1-3): 311-38.

Gaudian, G., and others. 1993. "Establishment ofa Coastal Zone Management Program for Tan-zania." Consultancy Report to the Commis-sion of the European Communities, DG VIII.Brussels.

Haq, Bilal U. 1993. “Sea-Level Rise and CoastalSubsidence Rates and Threats: Implications forMaritime Communities.” Environment Depart-ment, World Bank. Washington, D.C.

Hayden, B.P., G.C. Ray, and R. Dolan. 1984.“Classification of Coastal and Marine Environ-ments.” Environmental Conservation 11(3):199-207.

Hinrichsen, D. 1994. “Coasts under Pressure.”People & the Planet 3 (1): 6-9.

References


Linden, O. 1993. Integrated Coastal Zone Manage-ment in Eastern Africa Including the Island States.Coastal Management Centre. Australia Pro-ceedings. Manila.

Lundin, C.G., and O. Linden. 1993. “Coastal Eco-systems: Attempts to Manage a Threatened Re-source.” AMBIO XXII (7): 468-73.

Lundin, C.G., and O. Linden. 1995. “IntegratedCoastal Zone Management in Tanzania.”Swedish International Development Authorityand World Bank. Washington, D.C.

Ngoile, M.K., and C.J. Horrill. 1993. “CoastalEcosystems, Productivity and Ecosystem Pro-tection: Coastal Ecosystem Management.”AMBIO XXII (7):461-67.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and De-velopment (OECD). 1993. Coastal Zone Man-agement: Integrated Policies. Paris.

OECD. 1993. Coastal Zone Management: Case Stud-ies. OECD. Paris.

Olsen, S.B. 1993. “Will Integrated Coastal Man-agement Programs Be Sustainable: The Con-stituency Problem.” Ocean and Coastal Manage-ment 21:201-26.

Pernetta, J. C., and D.L. Elder. 1993. Cross-Sec-toral, Integrated Coastal Area Planning (CIAP):Guidelines and Principles for Coastal Area Devel-opment. A Marine Conservation and Develop-ment Report. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland.

Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation withDeveloping Countries. 1993. “Arusha Reso-lution on Integrated Coastal Zone Managementin Eastern Africa Including Island States.” Is-sued by the Policy Conference on IntegratedCoastal Zone Management in Eastern Africaincluding Island States. Stockholm.

Sorensen, J. 1993. “The International Prolifera-tion of Integrated Coastal Zone ManagementEfforts.” Ocean and Coastal Management 21 (1-3):45-80.

Vallejo, S.M. 1993. “The Integration of CoastalZone Management into National DevelopmentPlanning.” Ocean and Coastal Management 21(1-3):163-82.

World Bank. 1994. Africa: “A Framework for In-tegrated Coastal Zone Management.” Land,Water, and Natural Habitats Division and Af-rica Environmentally Sustainable DevelopmentDivision. Washington, D.C.

World Bank. 1995. “A Global Representative Sys-tem of Marine Protected Areas.” A Report byGreat Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority,World Bank, and the World ConservationUnion (IUCN). Washington, D.C.

Coastal Zone Management Centre. 1993. “Pro-ceedings.” World Coast Conference. TheHague.

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