water, sanitation and urbanisation 1 dominique senn, seecon gmbh

Water, Sanitation and Urbanisation


1

Dominique Senn, seecon gmbh


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Depending on the initial situations and respective local circumstances, there is no guarantee that single measures described in the toolbox will make the local water and sanitation system more sustainable. The main aim of the SSWM Toolbox is to be a reference tool to provide ideas for improving the local water and sanitation situation in a sustainable manner. Results depend largely on the respective situation and the implementation and combination of the measures described. An in-depth analysis of respective advantages and disadvantages and the suitability of the measure is necessary in every single case. We do not assume any responsibility for and make no warranty with respect to the results that may be obtained from the use of the information provided.

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Contents

1. Urbanisation

2. Conventional Urban Water Cycle: Characteristics

3. Water Supply and Sanitation in Slum Settlements

4. Consequences of Lacking Water and Sanitation

5. The Way Forward: Urban SSWM

6. References

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Urbanisation...

...is one of the most important demographic trends of our time.

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1. Urbanisation

In 2008, the number of people living in urban centres worldwide has for the first time surpassed the number of people living in rural areas. It is estimated that by 2050, the percentage of urban population will reach nearly 70% (BIRCH et al. 2012). Graphic source: UN-DESA (2010) and UN-DESA (2011)



Four drivers of urbanisation:

1. Natural demographic growth of urban populations

2. Absorption of rural settlements located at the edges of expanding cities

3. Transformation of rural towns into urban centres

4. Migratory movements from rural areas to cities.

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1. Urbanisation

Urban growth in Manila, Philippines.Source: http://www.earthzine.org/2011/07/20/remote-sensing-%E2%80%93-an-effective-data-source-for-urban-monitoring/ [Accessed: 19.12.2013]



For developed countries:

- High operation and maintenance costs and decay of existing infrastructure

For developing countries:

- Adequate water and sanitation service provision and coverage rates

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1. UrbanisationMain challenges of water and sanitation in the urban context



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Major differences between the natural water cycle and the conventional urban water cycle. Source: http://waterbydesign.com.au/whatiswsud/ [Accessed: 19.12.2013]



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The conventional urban water cycle is characterised by a linear infrastructure that transports clean water into and wastewater out of urban neighbourhoods. Source: www.sgiquarterly.org/feature2008Jly-8.html [Accessed: 19.12.2013]

Due to a high percentage of sealed soil and thus impervious surfaces, evapotranspiration and groundwater recharge are reduced and low quality surface runoff is increased. Utilities are often left to deal with extremely large volumes of water, especially during wet weather (CORCORAN et al. 2010). Graphic source: http://www.chaucer.ac.uk/ctsshared/Geography/GCSE%20Geography/Paper%201%20GCSE%20Revision/Revise%20Water%20on%20Earth/Water%20L3%20Floods/Water-Cycle%20Urban.jpg [Accessed: 19.12.2013]

Disruption of the natural water cycle



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It is estimated that more than 90% of sewage in the developing world is discharged directly into rivers, lakes, and coastal waters without treatment of any kind (LUETHI et al. 2009). Graphic Source: LUETHI et al. 2009

Pollution of water sources (1/2)




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In low- and middle-income countries, leaking on-site sanitation facilities and the absence of sewerage pipes that dispose of the wastewater, result in large volumes of local wastewater soaking into the soil, and eventually seeping into aquifers and polluting groundwater (GROENWALL et al. 2010).Graphic source: GTZ

Pollution of water sources (2/2)




The use of groundwater is a common feature of many urban areas. More than half of the world’s megacities depend on groundwater.

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Chicago has been using groundwater since at least 1864 and groundwater has been the sole source of

drinking water for about 8.2 million people in the Great Lakes watershed. This long-term pumping has lowered groundwater levels by as much as 900 feet.

Source: http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/gwdepletion.html [Accessed: 05.01.2014]

Depletion of groundwater sources




The “end-of-pipe” paradigm discourages recovery and reuse so that nutrients are lost to water bodies. This can cause algal blooms and a depletion of oxygen in receiving water bodies (HOWE et al. 2011). At the same time, as soils lose their nutrients to receiving water bodies, more and more fertiliser needs to be applied.

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Algal bloom in China, caused by pollution from agriculture and industry. Source: http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/jul/04/china-algal-bloom-yellow-sea-green [Accessed: 05.01.2014]

Broken nutrient cycles and impoverished soils




The concentration of a great quantity of population and activities on a small area involve the need of a great amount of good quality water. In many cities, per capita water consumption is on the rise. At the same time, water is often wasted if users have little financial incentive to use it sparingly.

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High water demand


Cost-intensive infrastructure for water supply and wastewater collectionCentralised networks are very cost-intensive in terms of construction, operation and maintenance. If the networks are not sufficiently maintained, leakages lead to a loss of valuable resources, unreliable or irregular water supply and low revenue collection for the utilities. Many large cities suffer from chronic water shortages due to over-exploitation of raw water resources, and to losses of water, which sometimes reach up to 60% of the volume of water supplied (UNESCO et al. 2004).



In a large number of the world’s poorest countries, the proportion of urban poor is increasing faster than the overall rate of urban population growth. In some African and Asian countries, more than 90% of the population live in slums.

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3. Water Supply and Sanitation in Slum SettlementsSlum settlements

Proportion of each country’s urban population living in slums. Source: http://filipspagnoli.wordpress.com/stats-on-human-rights/statistics-on-poverty/statistics-on-poverty-urbanization-and-slums/ [Accessed: 05.01.2014]



- Slums (also called peri-urban areas) are informal settlements, unguided by urban planning. Irregular layout and spontaneous construction make the subsequent expansion of networks into densely populated areas very difficult.

- High population density complicates the construction of water, sanitation and treatment facilities or network expansions.

- Low tenure security makes the provision of water and sanitation services through investments in large infrastructure extremely difficult.

- Slums are characterised by high poverty rates. People are often not able to pay for network expansion and improved service delivery.

- The relative distance to existing networks makes network expansion very costly.

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3. Water Supply and Sanitation in Slum SettlementsCharacteristics of slum settlements and implications for

water and sanitation management



Urban slums generally lack improved water supply and sanitation facilities.

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3. Water Supply and Sanitation in Slum SettlementsWater supply and sanitation

Households with water (left) and sewerage (right) connection in sub-Saharan African Cities. Source: WUP & WSP (2003).



In order to cover their needs with regard to water supply, the peri-urban poor often depend on a variety and combination of means.

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3. Water Supply and Sanitation in Slum SettlementsPeri-urban water supply

Typical water market situation in African cities. Source: WUP & WSP (2003).



Pit latrines are common sanitation facilities in urban slums.

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3. Water Supply and Sanitation in Slum SettlementsSanitation

Children disposing of a “flying toilet” in a slum in Kenya. Source: http://practicalaction.org/blog/where-we-work/kenya/flying-toilets-what-they-are-and-how-to-get-rid-of-them/ [Accessed: 05.01.2014]

But in many cases even such basic means are lacking and people are forced to practice open defecation or dispose of their excreta in plastic bags which they throw on the roofs or at the street (“flying toilets”).



Pit latrines are often constructed close to

groundwater sources.

During heavy rains, the latrines tend to get

flooded, and polluted water seeps through the

soil.

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4. Consequences of Lacking Water and SanitationPollution of water sources

Groundwater pollution

The impervious and unvegetated ground of

slum areas has little or no retention during heavy

rains.

Human and animal wastes are flushed into surface

water systems.

Pollution of urban water supplies, rivers and

productive coastal waters.



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4. Consequences of Lacking Water and SanitationHealth

Approximately 80% of all diseases and 25% of all deaths in developing countries are caused by polluted water and insufficient water supply, sanitation and hygiene (LUETHI et al. 2009). This situation is particularly accentuated in urban slums. Graphic Source: http://www.eenet.org.uk/resources/eenet_newsletter/news14/page12.php/ [Accessed: 05.01.2014]



A lack of adequate water and sanitation solutions perpetuates poverty, because:

-Adults who are ill themselves or who need to take care of their children are less productive.

-Health costs induced by the lack of adequate water, sanitation and hygiene practices can consume a large part of the poor household’s income.

-The time spent to fetch water cannot be invested into income-generating activities.

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4. Consequences of Lacking Water and SanitationPoverty



- The increased risk of contracting water-borne diseases as the primary handlers of contaminated water…

- The serious challenge to reproductive health presented by a lack of clean water and hygiene services…

- The responsibility of providing care to children and other family members suffering from illness…

… continue to exclude many women and girls from educational opportunities.

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4. Consequences of Lacking Water and SanitationEducation and gender



Due to the lack of adequate sanitation facilities, many people living in urban slums are forced to defecate in the open. In order to preserve their dignity, they often try to defecate in the open under cover of darkness. This poses an important security risk, particularly for women and girls. This risk is also given if water needs to be fetched during the night.

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4. Consequences of Lacking Water and SanitationDignity and security

Open defecation poses serious security and health risks, particularly for women and girls. Source: http://www.colorsmagazine.com/stories/magazine/82/story/toilets-of-the-world [Accessed: 05.01.2014]



Illnesses, high rates of mortality and reduced productivity because of poor water and sanitation solutions induce large economic costs.

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4. Consequences of Lacking Water and SanitationEconomic costs

Annual losses due to poor sanitation – the example of Kenya.Source: http://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/Feature%20Story/SDN/Water/infographic-sanitation-esi-900x4140.jpg [Accessed: 05.01.2014]



Urban Sustainable Sanitation and Water Management (Urban SSWM) is an integrated approach, which aims at designing and managing the urban water system in a holistic manner.

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What is Urban SSWM

Source: http://www.urbanwater.info/Areas/About/Water-Sensitive-Urban-Design.aspx [Accessed: 05.01.2014]



Decentralised water supply and wastewater treatment systems offer increased opportunities for local stakeholder participation in planning and decision-making, and for reutilisation of the resource at the local level.

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Decentralisation

Illustration of locality mapping - a participatory approach to provide a visual representation of

information in a particular geographical context - concerning the water and sanitation problematic

in a village in South India.Source: KROPAC (2004)



Particularly in developing countries, public service providers are often unable to keep up with urban population growth as they face a double challenge of maintaining the existing and often deteriorated networks and of extending the services to the rapidly growing settlements at the peripheries of the cities.

Through the engagement of the private sector, service delivery can be improved.

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Engagement of the private sector



For example:

-Small-scale service provision for construction of appropriate system components

-Collection, transport, storage and processing/recovery of products from sanitation systems (e.g. biogas, fertiliser, soil conditioner, irrigation water)

-Resources management

-Surveys, analyses, and impact evaluation (e.g. market surveys, institutional analysis, impact evaluation of previous sanitation strategies, and sustainability assessments)

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Creation of Revenue Opportunities



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Reuse Opportunities

Urban SSWM (right), unlike the conventional urban water cycle (left), takes advantage of reuse options including the reuse of energy from wastewater through biogas, the reuse of wastewater and greywater for irrigation as well as the reuse of nutrients from human urine and excreta to recover nutrients and limited resources like phosphorus for agriculture.

Source: HOWE et al. (2011)



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Financial Sustainability

If water supply and sanitation solutions are to be sustainable, they need to remain operative over time. This requires, among others, sufficiently high investments in the water sector and sound financial planning.

The six key elements to financial sustainability of WASH services.Source: http://www.skat.ch/publications/prarticle.2005-09-29.5069774463/prarticle.2005-09-29.1875579521/skatpublication.2012-12-19.5550148854/image1 [Accessed: 05.01.2014]



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Stakeholder Engagement

Urban areas provide an ideal institutional structure for community engagement.

Increased stakeholder engagement

Better identification of

challenges

Demand-driven solutions

Better commitment and

ownership

More significant

impact



32

BIRCH, E.L.; MELEIS, A.; WACHTER, S. (2012): The Urban Water Transition. Why We Must Address the New Reality of Urbanization, Women, Water, and Sanitation in Sustainable Development. In: sWH20: The Journal of Gender and Water 1, 6-7. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania. URL: http://wh2ojournal.com/past-issues/volume-1-number-1-april-2012/ [Accessed: 19.12.2013]

CHOCAT, B. (2002): Sustainable Management of Water in Cities. Valencia: Universidad Internacional Menendez Pelayo. URL: www.petus.eu.com/graphics/FRsusmanagecitiesBC.pdf [Accessed: 05.01.2014]

CORCORAN, E. (Editor); NELLEMANN, C. (Editor); BAKER, E. (Editor); BOS, R. (Editor); OSBORN, D. (Editor); SAVELLI, H. (Editor) (2010): Sick Water? The central role of wastewater management in sustainable development. A Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), UN-HABITAT, GRID-Arendal. URL: http://www.grida.no/publications/rr/sickwater/ [Accessed: 05.01.2014]

GROENWALL, J.; MULENGA, M.; MCGRANAHAN, G. (2010): Groundwater, self-supply and poor urban dwellers. A review with case studies from Bangalore and Lusaka. London: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). URL: http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10584IIED.pdf [Accessed: 05.01.2014]

HOWE, C. A. (Editor); VAIRAVAMOORTHY, K. (Editor); STEEN, P. N. van der (Editor) (2011): Sustainable Water Management in the City of the Future. Findings from the SWITCH Project 2006-2011. Delft: UNESCO-IHE. URL: http://www.switchurbanwater.eu/outputs/results.php [Accessed: 05.01.2014]

LUETHI, C.; MCCONVILLE, J.; NORSTROEM, A.; PANESAR, P.; INGLE, R.; SAYWELL, D.; SCHUETZE, T. (2009): Rethinking Sustainable Sanitation for the Urban Environment. Amsterdam/Delft: International Forum on Urbanism (IFoU). URL: http://www.susana.org/lang-en/library?view=ccbktypeitem&type=2&id=927 [Accessed: 05.01.2014]

UN-DESA (2010): World Population Prospects. The 2010 Revision. New York: Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat (UN-DESA). http://esa.un.org/unup/unup/index_panel1.html [Accessed: 19.09.2013].

6. References (1/2)



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UN-DESA (2011): World Urbanization Prospects. The 2011 Revision. New York: Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat (UN-DESA). http://esa.un.org/unup/unup/index_panel1.html [Accessed: 19.09.2013].

UNESCO (Editor); VEOLIA WATER (Editor); PS-EAU (Editor) (2004): Water, Sanitation and Sustainable Development. The Challenge of Cities in Developing Countries. Paris: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Veolia Water and Progamme Solidarité-Eau (pS-Eau). URL: www.pseau.org/outils/ouvrages/veolia_eau_assainissement_developpement_durable_villes_pvd_en.pdf [Accessed: 05.01.2014]

WUP (Editor); WSP (Editor) (2003): Better Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor. Good Practice from Sub-Saharan Africa. Kenya: Water Utility Partnership (WUP) and The World Bank Water and Sanitation Program (WSP). URL: www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/330200725049_afBetterWaterandSanitationForTheUrbanPoorGoodPracticeFromSSA.pdf [Accessed: 05.01.2013]

6. References (2/2)

Water, Sanitation and Urbanisation 34

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water, sanitation and urbanisation 1 dominique senn, seecon gmbh

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