immpact(c) stephen senn 20111 on the interpretation of responder analyses and nnts stephen senn

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IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 1 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

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Page 1: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 1

On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs

Stephen Senn

Page 2: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

An apology

• I will talk mainly about responder analysis

• I have little to say about numbers needed to treat

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 2

Page 3: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 3

Genes, Means and Screens

It will soon be possible for patients in clinical trials to undergo genetic tests to identify those individuals who will respond favourably to the drug candidate, based on their genotype…. This will translate into smaller, more effective clinical trials with corresponding cost savings and ultimately better treatment in general practice. … individual patients will be targeted with specific treatment and personalised dosing regimens to maximise efficacy and minimise pharmacokinetic problems and other side-effects.

Sir Richard Sykes, FRS, 1997

Page 4: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 4

Soon?

Page 5: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 5

Articles on pharmacogenetics by publication year

Source: Web of Science 9 June 2011

1500

1000

2010

500

2000

0

199019801970

1750

1960

250

1250

750

Year

Article

s

Page 6: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 6

Articles on pharmacogenetics by publication year

Source: Web of Science 9 June 2011

15000

10000

2010

5000

2000

0

199019801970

17500

1960

2500

12500

7500

Year

Cum

ula

tive Nu

mbe

rs of A

rticles

Page 7: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 7

The Pharmacogenomic Revolution?

• Clinical trials– Cleaner signal– Non-responders eliminated

• Treatment strategies– “Theranostics”

• Markets– Lower volume– Higher price per patient day

Page 8: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 8

Implicit Assumptions

• Most variability seen in clinical trials is genetic– Furthermore it is not revealed in obvious phenotypes

• Example: height and forced expiratory volume (FEV1) in one second• Height predicts FEV1 and height is partly genetically determined but

you don’t need pharmacogenetics to measure height

• We are going to be able to find it– Small number of genes responsible– Low (or no) interactive effects (genes act singly)– We will know where to look

• In fact we simply don’t know if most variation in clinical trials is due to individual response let alone genetic variability

Page 9: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

My Opinion

• Most of the hype is due to a failure to understand response

• Responder analysis is to blame

• And related to this is an obsession with Numbers Needed to Treat– Which is increasing the pressure to use

dichotomies

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 9

Page 10: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 10

A Thought Experiment

• Imagine a cross-over trial in hypertension

• Patients randomised to receive ACE II inhibitor or placebo in random order

• Then we do it again

• Each patient does the cross-over twice

• We can compare each patient’s response under ACE II to placebo twice

Page 11: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 11

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Difference to placebo in DBP mmHg

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..

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...

-15 -10 -5 0 5 10

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50-5-10

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First cross-over

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d cross-over

Page 12: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 12

7950.95

83246

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NB These are conditional probabilities of response on the second occasion. They are not conditional probabilities of being a ‘true’ responder.

Page 13: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 13

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Difference to placebo in DBP mmHg

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...

-15 -10 -5 0 5 10

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d cross-over

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IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 14

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Page 15: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

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0 5 10-25 -15 -5-10-20-30

?

Page 16: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 16

NOTE FOR GUIDANCE ONCLINICAL INVESTIGATION OF MEDICINAL PRODUCTSIN THE TREATMENT OF HYPERTENSION 1998P2Arbitrarily, response criteria for antihypertensive therapy include the percentage of patients with a normalisation of blood pressure (reduction SBP < 140 mmHg and DBP < 90 mmHg) and/or reduction of SBP ≥ 20 mmHg and/or DBP ≥ 10 mmHg. Results obtained should be discussed in terms of statistical significance and in relation to their clinical relevance.

The first word in this paragraph is the most important

Page 17: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

(C) Stephen Senn 2006 17

Dichotomania

• Continuous measurements taken and referred to baseline

• Patients dichotomised as responder/non- responder– Inefficient– Arbitrary

• Sheep versus goats– Ignores geep and shoats

• Analysis on risk difference scale to calculate NNT

Page 18: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

(C) Stephen Senn 2006 18

90 95 100 105 11080

90

100Figure 1 Illustration of response region

Baseline DBP

Out

com

e D

BP

Region X( )

X

Y = outcome, X = baseline

If (Y < 90 X > 95) (Y < 0.9X) patient ‘responds’

Page 19: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

Why I mistrust the NNT

• It has very poor properties as a scale– Reciprocal of risk difference

• It is theoretically unlikely to be stable from study to study– And this theoretical instability has been demonstrated

by empirical research

• It is an impatient measure– It tries to shortcut the steps from study to practice

• It is an illusion that this can be done

• Those who advocate it are preferring an easy lie to a difficult truth

Page 20: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 20

Pharmacogenetics: A cutting-edge science that will start delivering miracle cures the year after next.

Page 21: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 21

Moerman and Placebos

• Paper of 1984• Investigated 31 placebo-controlled trials of

cimetidine in ulcer• Found considerable variation in response• Considered placebo response rate was an

important factor• Has been cited by others as proof of

variation in treatment effect from trial to trial

Page 22: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 22

Page 23: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 23

Lessons from Moerman

• There is no evidence of variation in the treatment effect from trial to trial

• We should be wary about concluding that apparent variation signals true variation

• We need to be cautious and think carefully about analysis

• Of course…it is always possible that there was exactly the same genetic mix in each trial

– in which case gene by treatment would not manifest itself as trial by treatment interaction

• We need to understand components of variation

Page 24: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 24

Pharmacogenomics:

A subject with great promise.

Page 25: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 25

What you learn in your first ANOVA course

• Completely randomised design– One way ANOVA

• Randomised blocks design– Two way ANOVA

• Randomised blocks design with replication– Two way ANOVA with interaction

• No replication, no interaction

Page 26: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 26

1. Senn SJ. Individual Therapy: New Dawn or False Dawn. Drug Information Journal 2001;35(4):1479-1494.

Page 27: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 27

Page 28: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

A Word of Caution

• What is additive on one scale is not additive on another

• The Moerman example suggests a constant effect on the log-odds ratio scale

• If the background risk varies this translates into a varying effect on the risk-difference scale

• The biological interpretation of this is then moot• However the practical implication of this is

summarise on the additive scale

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 28

Page 29: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 29

Page 30: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

The Mottos

• Additive at the point of study• Relevant at the point of application• If NNTs have their place it is in decision making for

individual patients• Not in reporting results from individual trials• The additive scale has to be transformed into the

relevant scale at the point of treatment• The fact that NNTs might be relevant when making an

individual decision is not an excuse for summarising results this way

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 30

Page 31: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 31

Significant differences in favor of tiotropium were observed at all time points for the mean absolute change in the SGRQ total score (ranging from 2.3to 3.3 units, P<0.001), although the differences on average were below what is considered to have clinical significance (Fig. 2D). The overall meanbetween-group difference in the SGRQ total score at any time point was 2.7 (95% confidence interval [CI], 2.0 to 3.3) in favor of tiotropium(P<0.001). A higher proportion of patients in the tiotropium group than in the placebo group had an improvement of 4 units or more in the SGRQtotal scores from baseline at 1 year (49% vs. 41%), 2 years (48% vs. 39%), 3 years (46% vs. 37%), and 4 years (45% vs. 36%) (P<0.001 for all comparisons).

(My emphasis)

From the UPLIFT Study, NEJM, 2008

Tiotropium v Placebo in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Page 32: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 32

Two Normal distributions with the same spread but the Active treatment has a mean 2.7 higher.

If this applies every patient under active can be matched to a corresponding patient under placebo who is 2.7 worse off

Page 33: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 33

A cumulative plot corresponding to the previous diagram.

If 4 is the threshold, placebo response probability is 0.36, active response probability is 0.45.

Page 34: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 34

In summary…this is rather silly

• If there is sufficient measurement error even if the true improvement is identically 2.7, some will show an ‘improvement’ of 4

• The conclusion that there is a higher proportion of true responders by the standard of 4 points under treatment than under placebo is quite unwarranted

• So what is the point of analysing ‘responders’?

Page 35: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 35

Who are the authors?1. Tashkin, DP, Celli, B, Senn, S, Burkhart, D, Kesten, S, Menjoge, S, Decramer, M. A 4-Year Trial of Tiotropium in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, N Engl J Med 2008.

Personal note. I am proud to have been involved in this important study and have nothing but respect for my collaborators. The fact that, despite the fact that two of us are statisticians, we have ended up publishing something like this shows how deeply ingrained the practice of responder analysis is in medical research. We must do something to change this.

Page 36: IMMPACT(c) Stephen Senn 20111 On the interpretation of responder analyses and NNTs Stephen Senn

IMMPACT (c) Stephen Senn 2011 36

In conclusion

• Responder analysis is the source of much confusion• It is leading trialists to overestimate the individual

element of response to treatment• The key to understanding response is replication and

careful analysis• Stupid dichotomies do not help this understanding• NNTs may be relevant at the point of application but they

are not relevant at the point of study• Personalised medicine may be about to happen ‘soon’

for quite a few years to come yet