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IssuesinLanguageStudies(Vol.7No.2–2018)

Faculty of Language and Communication Universiti Malaysia Sarawak 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak. www.ils.unimas.my www.cls.unimas.my

Volume7Number2(2018)


EditorialCommitteeChiefEditor AssociateProfessorDrSu-HieTing,Universiti

MalaysiaSarawak

ManagingEditor

Kee-ManChuah,UniversitiMalaysiaSarawak

EditorialBoardMembers

DrWun-ChiewPung,UniversitiMalaysiaSarawakDrHamidahAbdulWahab,UniversitiMalaysiaSarawakYahyaBakeri,UniversitiMalaysiaSarawakAi-PingHo,UniversitiMalaysiaSarawak

ProductionAssociateEditor

Kai-CheeLam,UniversitiMalaysiaSarawakYvonneMichelleCampbell,UniversitiMalaysiaSarawak

AdvisoryBoardEmeritusProfessorRolandSussexOAM,UniversityofQueensland,AustraliaProfessorDrKamilaGhazali,UniversitiMalayaAssociateProfessorDrAngLayHoon,UniversitiPutraMalaysiaAssociateProfessorDrTheresadeVet,UniversityofArizonaDrKaraMcBride,WorldLearning,WashingtonD.C.DrSalinaJaafar,UniversitiMalayaReviewersProfessorKaarinaKoski,UniversityofTurku,FinlandProfessorTimothyR.Tangherlini,UniversityofCalifornia(UCLA),UnitedStatesofAmericaAssociateProfessorDrRoslinaMamat,UniversitiPutraMalaysia,MalaysiaAssistantProfessorDrSiewEngLin,UCSIUniversityKualaLumpur,MalaysiaDrJuliaDevardhi,HaramayaUniversity,EthiopiaDrKaren'Kari'Sullivan,TheUniversityofQueensland,AustraliaDrBoonYihMah,UniversitiTeknologiMara,MalaysiaDr Chiew Hong Ng, National Institute of Education, Nanyang TechnologicalUniversity,Singapore


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Contents

AfricanFolklore:ACatalystinContemporaryAfricanFictionsJoshuaUSMANMariusCROUS

1

AnalisisMaksimPerbualanGriceDalamSoalJawabTV3IndirawatiZAHID

16

DevelopmentofSupplementaryEnglishReadingMaterialsatYunnanMinzuUniversity,ChinaUmarKusumaHADIJokoPRIYANA

36

EstablishingtheGenericStructurePotentialofBidayuhBau-JagoiOralFolkNarratives,DondanYvonneMichelleCAMPBELLKamilaGHAZALISakinaSahuriSuffianSAHURI

55

InterpretingtheHumanBeingMetaphorsinEkegusiiPopSongsUsingtheCognitiveSemanticsFrameworkVictorOndaraNTABONaomMoraaNYARIGOTIMosesGatambukiGATHIGIA

73

InvestigatingtheImplementationofBlendedLearninginaParagraphWritingCourseinPromotingStudentEngagement:TheCaseofIntroductoryWritingCourseAnggriMUHTIASUPARNOSUMARDI

87

TheStudyofSyntacticandSemanticFeaturesofVerbsInProblemStatementSectionofMasterThesesSeyedFoadEBRAHIMIMansoorHOSSEINZADEH

104


AfricanFolklore:ACatalystinContemporaryAfricanFictions1

AFRICANFOLKLORE:ACATALYSTINCONTEMPORARYAFRICANFICTIONS

JoshuaUSMAN1MariusCROUS2

DepartmentofLanguageandLiteratureNelsonMandelaUniversity,PortElizabeth,SouthAfrica

[email protected]*

[email protected]

Manuscriptreceived24August2018Manuscriptaccepted9November2018

ABSTRACT

African folklorewhicharesaid tobeactive traditionshavehad immense influenceon the growth and development of African literature. This claim is aptlydemonstratedintheworksofsuccessfulearlyAfricanwritersasinthecaseofAmosTutuola and Daniel O. Fagunwa of Nigeria, Violet Dube in Zulu, S.E.K. Mghayi inXhosaandahostofthem.Theseliteraryartistsdrawtheirinspirationfromtheoraltradition by translating their structures and images to literary mode. It is on thisplatform that the article seeks to examine this claim in the light of the state ofAfrican literature today. This paper adopts Cyprian Ekwensi’s African Night’sEntertainmentasacasestudytodemonstratehowpresentAfricanwritersbuildonthattrendtosuccess.EkwensiisconsideredoneofthepioneersofAfricanliteratureand writing fiction in English in West Africa. Ekwensi’s works observed oralconventionsintermsofthemes,styleandothermotifs;butliteraryinitsform.Thebook adopts tales from African cultural background. This article establishes thatcontemporary African writers owe much to African oral tradition in their variousdomainsofliteraryinspirations.Keywords:Folklore,catalyst,pacesetter,Africanliterature

Introduction

Literary writers and scholars such as Ousmane Sambene, Isidore Okpewho,WoleSoyinka, Chinua Achebe and Amos Tutuola attest to the fact thatAfricanmodernliteratureinlinewithNigerianliteraturegrowsoutofatraditionofstorytellingandhistoricalremembrancethathasexistedinNigeriaforages.Folktaleis the most well-known form of orality in African literature apart from oralperformance, legend,myth and proverbs (Finnegan, 2017).Myths in all directionsconsistofcreationstoriesthathavetodowiththeuniverse.Mythalsoexplainsthe



activities of the deities at the beginning of creation, the aim of all creatures andnatureof their interrelationships. Legend is thenext in thought,whichdescribeorexplainstheeventsthattookplaceaftertheageofthegods. Itexplainstheheroichumanaccomplishments suchas constitutingempiresordynastiesandpreventingcalamity.TheAfricanlegendaryissynonymoustoepicintheirattentiononheroism.The legendary act is demonstrated in the context of daily life, but epics that aremoreelaboratearealwaysperformedonspecialoccasions(Westley,1991).

Thefolktaleisthecommonestoralproseform,itisalwaystoldatnightasaformofentertainment.Theyaremostlyfictionalstoriestoldaboutanimals,humanbeingsandsomegods.Sometimesastoryfeaturesthesegroupsseparatelyorfusethemtogether.Folktalesaresometimesmeantformoralinstructions,socio-culturalcommentaries or used to emphasise group values and teach against anti-socialbehaviour. InAfricaorNigeriatobeprecise,popularfolktales liketheflyingcarpetor the trick star demonstrates crafty animals and their craftiness to defend orprotectthemselvestoavoidwildandbiggeranimals.Forinstance,Àjàpá,atortoiseinYorubafolkloreofNigeria;andSungura,aharefoundincentralandEastAfricanfolklore.MostAfricanculturesemployarichrepertoireofjokesorwitticism,whichincluderiddlesandproverbs.ItiscommoninAfricansocietytoaccompanyeloquentspeechwithagoodknowledgeofproverbs.Itisbelievedthatproverbsexpressthewisdomofagesandarealsousedforclassroomargumentordiscussion.Riddlesarecloselyrelatedtoproverbs.Thisrequiresthelistenerstocomprehendordeducetheintendedmeaning.Thefolktale,knowntobeaformoftraditional fiction isusuallytold for night time entertainment. Folktales feature human beings and animals,eitherseparatelyortogether.Theyareoftenemployedforsocialcommentaryandinstruction and also serve as a potent means of affirming group values anddiscouragingantisocialbehaviour(Devantine,2009)

Frominception,Africaisknowntobeanoralsocietywellrootedindiverselanguages and traditional cultures. The multi-ethnic nature of Africa makes itdifficultforliteraturesinAfricanlanguagestogetthedesiredattention.Inadditionto this,most literary scholars fromAfrica’s culturalbackgrounddonotunderstandAfricanlanguagesotherthantheirs.Ekwealor(2009)statesthattheintroductionofliterature inEuropean languages laterbecameacentralpointof literaryattractionwhere literaryartists share their ideas forglobaleffect.Nevertheless, someof thebest-knownfewliteratures inAfricanlanguagesincludethoseinYorubaandHausainWestAfrica;Sotho,Xhosa,andZuluinsouthernAfrica;andAmharic,Somali,andSwahiliinEastAfrica.Inalaterdevelopment,Africanliteraturesattaineditsheightin1986, when African literary writers in the likes ofWole Soyinka became the firstAfrican to win the Nobel Prize for literature. Indeed, extending the range ofinternationalliteraryawardshasprovidedapowerfulenticementtoAfricanwriters.In spiteof thesemajordevelopments, theAfrican society still remainsglued to itstraditional cultures. These traditional cultures or oral traditions are also used toidentifyAfricanpresenceonvariouswritings(Ekwealor,2009).



OralTraditionandDevelopmentofLiteraryTraditioninNigeriaPriorto1500,thepresent-dayNigeriawasacollectionoftribalgroupsintheformofempires, kingdoms, chiefdoms and community tribe habitations (Chapin, 1992).Thesesettlementswerebasedonethnicgroups.TheearlykingdomsinNigeriaweretheHausaempires,Benin, YorubaandNupekingdoms.Neighbouringempires andkingdoms also overlapped into the Nigerian territories like the south andwest ofLakeChadwhichconstitutedanextensionofKanemBornoEmpire (Chapin,1992).Thereweremany other smaller states that probably existed alongside thesewell-knownsettlementsbuthistoryandarchaeologicaldataaswellasoraltraditioncouldnotprovidedetailsoftheiraccuratedatesandantiquities.EthnicGroupsinNigeriaInmodern-dayNigeria,thereareover350ethnicgroupsthatexistasanentity;withnoneclaimingthe-middle-of-the-roadposition.However,thethreemajorlanguagesas well as largest of the ethnic groups are Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo. According toEmenyonu(1978),thesethreegroupsaccountedforthesepercentagesoftheentirepopulation of the country: Hausa (28%), Yoruba (22%), and Igbo (20-22%). OtherethnicgroupsthatarewellnumberedwithintheaxesofthesethreelanguagesaretheIjawpeopleofSouthernNigerianthatapproximatelymakeupforabout12%inpopulation, followedby the Fulani andKanuri people from the farNorthof about10% each. The Ibibio (4%), Nupe people (5%) and the Tiv people and the Gbagyipeoplehave3%populationeach.Otherminority languagesofover threehundredsprinklearoundtheaxesofthesemajorlanguages.

TheHausapeopledominatetheNorthernpartofthecountrycoveringabout50% of the population in the North. Besides that, the Hausa language is thedominant lingua franca in theNorthernpartofNigeria.TheYorubapreponderatestheWesternpartofthecountryandvirtually,coveringabout98%populationoftheregion.WhiletheIgboethnicpopulationdominatestheEasternpartofthecountrywithapopulationofabout70%inEasternNigeria.Thereareover350languagesinNigeria, the threemajor languages arewidely spokenboth asmother tongue andlinguafrancaintheirrespectiveregions,leavingEnglishasthesoleofficiallanguage(Emenyonu,1978).

In Nigeria, religious affiliations are well rooted in ethnicity. Colonialinvasions immensely influence the regional religious majority. The coming ofChristian missionaries through the west, east and south greatly influenced theirChristianity. In the same vein, the invasion of the North by the Muslim Arabsinfluenced Islam in the far North. The North central is a blend of Christians andMuslims.TheHausaandFulanipeoplearepredominantlyMuslims.TheIgbopeopleare dominantly Christians of Roman Catholic, Methodist and less of Protestantchurches.TheYorubapeopleareamixofChristiansandMuslims.

The influence of oral tradition on the development literary tradition inNigeriademonstratesthatthepeople’srootedoraltraditionhasservedasabedrockor catalyst to literary development in Nigeria. Traditional epic and folktales, forexample, influenced the rise of the novel and early writers of the 20th century.



Orality and itsdifferent contextsof applicationarebeing transformed into literaryworks.EarlyNigerianwriterslikeCyprianEkwensi’sAfricanNightsEntertainmentisareduplicationofacollectionoftraditionalfolktalesandotherformsoforaltraditionnarratedinliteraryform.WoleSoyinka’sDeathandtheKing’sHorsemanisareplicaof the people’s inherited beliefs and culture that is given a literary pattern. OlaRotimi’sTheGodsAreNotToBlameisatraditionalbeliefthatisimitatedinaliteraryform.OtherNigerianandAfricanwriterslikeAmosTutuola,D.O.FagunwainYoruba,andSamuelEdwardKruneMghayiinXhosahavetheirworkseitherretold,recastortranscribematerialsfromtheoraltradition.

Folklore has contributed greatly to the successes of most early Africanwriterswhoknewtheresourcesembeddedintheoraltraditionofthepeople.Thesewriters use the images, material resources and the structures of the people’stradition and reinvent themusing literary approach. Archibalg Campbell Jordan inXhosa, Guybon Sinxo, Oliver Kgadime Matsepe in Sotho, Rolfes Robert ReginaldDhlomoinZuluandOswaldMtshalihavedrawnimmenselyfromoralsources.TheseAfricanwritersowesomuchtotheoraltradition inAfrica.Folklore isviewedfromAfrica’sstandpointbyUkadike(2003),astheentireoraltraditionofAfricanpeople,thewholeoraldiscourseoneverysubjectandineveryformofexpressioninitiatedbypeopleofAfricandescent.GoodyandWatt(1963)commentonseeitasoraturewhich is a form of expression, therefore, includes song, dance, folklore, rites andceremoniesstoredinhumanmemoryandtransmittedverbally.

LiteratureReview

Ukadike(2000)andDevantine(2009)areinsupportthatAfricaisbelievedtobeanoral society deeply rooted in various languages and traditional cultures. Inconjunctionwith this,Haley (1976)attests that thecontinenthasa longhistoryoforalantecedents:

History of our ancestors and the society they lived in was usuallyremembered by people and kept alive by word of mouth. In mostancient societies including those of Africa, legacies, culture andtraditions were passed from one generation to other by this ‘OralTradition’. While books did get written, the best account of life andtimes of ordinarymen and women of Africa can often be found in theoraltraditionsofthesociety.(p.179)

The multi ethnic and cultural differences in Africa make the literature in Africanlanguages not to receive the desired scholarly attention. This is because mostscholars in African culture do not know other African languages other than theirown.Secondly,theintroductionofliteratureinEuropeanlanguageslaterbecameacentral point of literary attraction where literary artists rendered their ideas forglobaleffect.Nevertheless,someofthebest-knownliteraturesinAfricanlanguagesinclude those in Yoruba and Hausa in West Africa; Sotho, Xhosa, and Zulu insouthern Africa; and Amharic, Somali, and Swahili in East Africa. In a laterdevelopment, African literatures achievedan important milestone in 1986, when



WoleSoyinkabecamethefirstAfricantowintheNobelPrizeforliterature.Indeed,the spread of international literary awards has offered a powerful incentive toAfricanwriters.Inspiteofthesemajordevelopments,theAfricansocietystillholdstraditionalculturesinhighesteem.LiteraryWritinginNigerianLanguagesManyNigerianlanguagesfound it quite challenging to produce standardorthography in their indigenous languages.This isdueto the fact thatmostof theorthographies in local languageswere not fully developed.Nevertheless, a few ofliterarywritings lateremerged intheformof literarynovelsespecially inthethreemajor languages. In theHausa languageofNigeria, theearliestnovelwrittenwasthat of Muhammadu Bello titled Gandoki which was launched in 1933 by thetranslationBureau inNorthernNigeria.Bello’snovelblendsanddilutes the typicalHausaoraltraditionandliterarynarratives,givingitaheroicpatternusingastrongtraceofIslamichistory.HistoryassumesthatwritinginHausadatesbacktothe14thand15thcentury.TheseweremostlyArabicwritingsamongtheHausapeople.EarlyHausa poets include Ibn Al-Sabbagh, Muhammad al-Barnawi, Abdullahi Sikka andothers.

The development of Hausa drama is greatly influenced by the people’srootedoraltradition.HausaplaywrightslikeAminuKano,AdamudanGoggo,DaudaKano,MuhammadSadawhohavewrittena lotonHausa folktales and fairy tales.These plays include; Alura chikin ruwa, (Needle in Haystack), littaffian Soyayya(Booksoflove),wayasangobe?(WhoknowsTomorrow?),Kiyardadani(BelieveinMe)andhostofothers.

InYoruba language,mostwritingsareadevelopmentofYorubatraditionaltales.OnethepopularwritersinYorubalanguageisD.O.Fagunwawhoproducedanovel inYorubabasedon folktale titledOgbojuodeninu igbo irumalein1938 (TheForest of a Thousand Demons). The development of Yoruba literature has dualstrands; that is, those that are highly influenced by rich Yoruba oral tradition andthose influenced by western literary patterns. In the little time of indigenouslanguagewriting, Yoruba English literarywriters likeWole Soyinka, Amos Tutuola,DanielO. Fagunwa, FemiOsofisan,OlaRotimi,NiyiOsundare andothers emergedwiththeirwritingsinEnglish.Nevertheless,theliterarywritersweavedelementsofYorubacultureintoEnglishliteraryfictions.FamousamongthemareWoleSoyinka’searly works: The Lion and the Jewel (1963),A dance of the forest (1963),AfricanCulture:TheRhythmsofUniity (1985),DeathandtheKing’sHorseMan (1975)andKongi’sHarvest(1972).

Little of literary writing in Igbo language was done before the advent ofAfricanEnglish literarywriters.The little Igbo language literaturewasmoreof Igbooral literature. Prose narratives in Igbo were of imaginary stories or events thatemanated from Igbo oral literature. The rise of Igbo English literary writers likeChinuaAchebe, BenOkri, Buchi Emecheta, ChimamandaNgozi Adichie and otherschangedthecourseofliterarywritingfromIgbolanguagetoEnglishliterarywriting.Butnotfar-fetched,theseIgboliterarywritersalsotookthepatternoftheIgbooraltradition.ChinuaAchebe’searlyfictionslikeThingsFallApart (1958),ArrowofGod



(1964),No longeratEase (1966),Chikeand theRiver (1966)andTheDrum (1979)account for the colonial experience of the Igbo people. Chinua Achebe weavestogethertheIgbooraltraditionwithfolktales.Despitethis,earlyprosefictioninIgbolanguageissaidtoberootedinIgbooraltradition.Emenyonu(1978)opinesthatthemodern Igbo prose fiction, poetry and drama took their roots in the Igbo oraltradition. Expatiating on this, Onyekaonwu (1986) stated that “creative writers inIgbo see the body of Igbo oral tradition as a means or rich source of literarymaterials;opentothemforexploitationforthepurposeofwritingtheirownoriginalworks”.Inaddition,Okpehwo(1979,p.1)statedthat“yhestore-houseoffolkmythand fancy are gainfully plundered by writers for their own original literaryproduction.

Similarly,Ekwealor(2009)statedthattheIgbotraditionalstories(folktales)serveasavital instrumentforthecontemporaryIgboprosewriters.ManymodernIgboprosewritingsdrawalotfromtheIgbotraditionalstories,whileinsomecaseselementsoforaltraditionareincorporatedinthesewritings.SomeIgbooralformslikeanecdotes, Igbomyths,proverbs,oralperformanceandfolktalestremendouslyinfluencedtheirworks.Theadoptionof traditionalstorytechnique isseen inD.N.Achara’s Ala Bingo; in which the plot in this early Igbo novel is said to be aremodellingofanIgbo‘Iduu,atypeoftraditionalfolktaletitledThefamouskingofthemountains.

TheTraditionofStorytellingonNigerianTraditionalSetting

TalesbyMoonlightHaving been brought up in a rural setting, and having lived a pastoral life, theexperiencewasquiteexciting.Thatlifewasmoreaboutsurvivalinalesscompetingworld. One of the excitingmemories of those timeswere stories narrated by ourparents.Someare fictionalwhilesomefromtheir lifeexperiences.Everydayaftersupper,wesataroundourparentsallearsinanticipationoftheirwonderfulstories.Some storiesarephilosophical, storiesaboutwhy the tortoisehasa cracked shell,howthe lionbecamethekingoftheanimals,whytheharehas longears,whythechameleon changesdifferent colours, thehare (wise) and thehyena (foolish), andothers.

Ateverypoint intime,parentsdoaskusaboutthemoral lessonswelearnfromthosestories.Alotoflessonsrangingfromoneshouldbehonest,refrainfromgreed,goodtostrangersorvisitorstobeinghardworking,wise,anddiligent.AsanArmyofficer,myfatherdoestellushisexperienceintheArmy,inparticularthecivilwarofBiafrainthe1960s.HowtheIgbopeopledecidedtosplitandcalltheirnewstateRepublicofBiafra.He toldushow the thengovernment counter the ideaofsecession,sayingthatNigeriamustbeone.

The war between the Nigerian government and the Biafra (Igbo) soldierslastedthreeandthehalfyears.TherewasmassmassacreoftheIgbopeopleastheywereatadisadvantagecomparedtotheNigerianmilitarywhoweremilitarilywellequipped.



HetoldushowtheBiafrasoldierstookadvantageoftheirfriendlinesswithmonkeys to attack Nigerian soldiers. Then, the Igbo people do not eat monkeysrather they even give them food. Therefore, the monkeys became friendly withBiafra soldiers, any time theNigerianArmy approached the territory of the Biafrathe monkeys would alert them. So, with these techniques they slew many ofNigerianArmy.TheNigeriansoldierslaterdiscoveredthistacticandbegantokillthemonkeys sporadically. Hunger and strife among the Igbo people led them tosurrender.Attheend,myfathersaidweneedanimalsaroundusbecausewhenwefeedthem,theyinturnprotectus.Thisstoryboilsdowntowhythedogbecameadomesticanimal.FiresideStoriesItwasacommontrendthatwhenthemoonishiddeninitstimeofdisappearance,thenextavailableoptionistositbythefiresideandtellourstories.Firesidestoriesare common among children and peers. We take turns in storytelling whetherfictitiousorfolktales.Everyonewillgointocreativitytoentertainourselves.Mostofourstoriesareofanimalkingdomwhichareeitherreadortoldandretold.Littledidwe know that these storiesmake great impact in our lives. Such storytelling to alargeextentboostedmyliteraryprowess.VillageSquarePlayandDancesIn virtually every rural community, there is always a playground in a central placewhere theyoungandadultaswellaschildrengathered toplay, singanddance inthenight.Thisisdoneinordertoreducethelonelinessoridlenessoftheday.Thesenocturnal activities are usually entertaining; therefore, the people always lookforward to taking the advantage to ease their bored life. The activities comprisesvillagedrummersandyounggirlsandboysthataregoodatdancing.Whiletheagedaregluedtothefiresideinthehuts,theyouthsarebusyentertainingthemselvesinthesquare.Mostyouthsusethisopportunitytowooyounggirlsintobecomingtheirfuturebetroths.Itisusuallyanexcitingeventtobehold.PlayingtheHideandSeekTheNigerianversionofthehideandseekiscalled“Boju-Boju”inHausa.Itisanactwheresomeonegoesintohidingwhilehispartnerseekstocatchhim/her.Theactisusually accompanied by singing a song.When your partner is able to locate andcatchyou,youwillthenbethenexttoseekyourpartner.

This form of entertainment using traditional storytelling and dances hasinfluencedourmoralupbringingbyteachingusgoodvaluesandadecentwayoflife.Itisalsopertinenttonotethattheyhavebeentransposedintothemediaasformsof interlude and social activities. Demonstrating them in different aspects of themedia and also using them in Home video production significantly influence theconductofthisresearch.



CorpusofOralTraditioninAfricanNight’sEntertainment

AfricanNight’sEntertainmenttellsaboutanoldmanwhonarratesastorytosomevillagers(Abeng,2017).Thissectionprovidesthesummaryofthestory.

ThestorybeginswithamancalledMallamShehuwhohadadreamthathewasinamarketplacewherehesawahorseheadmiredandeventuallyboughtitandpaidforit.Nevertheless,thishorseissaidtohavebeenpaidforbyanotherman,butMallamShehu inabid toacquire thehorsebyallmeanspaidanextraamountofmoneytoinfluencethesaleinhisfavour.Meanwhile,theinitialbuyerwhoalreadyboughtthehorsewasupsetandconfrontedMallamShehuandsaid“Mallam,whydoyouwanttodeprivemeofmybargain?”Hereplied,“notsomyfriend.Iwantthehorse,youwantthehorse.Thesellerwantsmoney,andtowhomshouldhesell?”-Thisinsinuatesthatthehighestbidderbuysthecommodity(horse).

Eventually,MallamShehuclaimedthehorseandthehorsegrewbeautifullyinhishouse.Subsequently,thehorsegavebirthtoacolt.MallamShehulovedthecoltasmuchasthehorse.Assoonasthecoltwasripetoberidden,hemountedit,rodeoutintothetown,whereitlimbedintoagallop.Thehorsestumbled.MallamShehufell,breakinganarmandleg.Immediately,hewokeupfromthisdream,suffocatedwith sweat. On this, Mallam Shehu consulted a soothsayer who interpreted hisdream.Theseertoldhimthehorsesignifiedawoman.

Although, Mallam Shehu had three wives but none gave him children. Aswealthy as hewas, thiswas his ultimate desire.He recalledwhatwas told to himthat“horse(woman)wouldbetheonlyonetobearhimasonbuthewouldsufferagreatdeal.’’TheseerdoesnotadvisehimtodesirethiswomannorchildbutMallamShehureplied,“WillAllahindeedletmeseeasonofmyown?Ifso,Idon’tcarehowmuchIsufferafterthat.”

In the courseof time,MallamShehu’s servants came tohis chamber to tellhim about a damsel they noticed within the community, which isMallam Audu’sdaughter called Zainobe. Shewas engaged to aman, Abu Bakir from her infancy.They were deeply in love with each.Zainobe was so beautiful that her motherdoubtedifacommonerlikeAbuBakirwasworthyofherandAbuBakir’smotherfeltthesameway.Zainobewasalwaysin-doorandrarelywentout,soshewashardlynoticed by people. Little wonder that Mallam Shehu had never seen her untillnow.Hepersistentlysenthisservantstoaskhertoalwaysstopovertoseehim.Shealwaysreplied,“TellhimIamnotaman,Icannotcomealonetoseehim.Thatisnotproper.”

MallamShehufinallyrequestedthathewantedtomarryher.Shetoldhimshealready had a fiancé and only Allah could separate them. Meanwhile, Abu Bakircame to know aboutMallam Shehu’s request. Thismade him uncomfortable andsaidthistoher:

Womenarelikewaterandhorses.Womenarelikewaterbecauseyoucrossastreaminthedryseasonandwhenyoureturnintherains,thesamestreamwilldrownyou. Ifyouloveahorseverymuchandyoufeedher,she’llthrowyoudownandbreakyourbackbone.So isawoman’s love.Drytoday likeanebbtide,hightomorrowlikeaflood.”–AbuBakir



Zainobepledgedher loyalty toAbuBakir,andshesaid, “Youspeakofdeep thingsAbu. But I’m not that kind of woman. Nothing will ever make memarryMallamShehu,unlesshe’spreparedtomarrymydeadbody”.

In oneof the servant’s errands to Zainobe,AbuBakir stopped the servantand beat himmercilessly.Mallam Shehu in his lust still qwnt back to the seer torequest love charm. The seer again forewarned him against it but he ignored hisadvice.TheseerpreparedasecretappealinglovecharmforhimandMallmShehusenthistrustedservanttogetitspreadonZainobe’sbody.Theservantsucceededindoingthat.

Asthecharmbegantotakeeffect,Zainobebeameentangledintoit,andshealwaysliedtohermotherthatshewasgoingouttoseeAbuBakirandwenttoseeMallam Shehu instead.Mallam Shehu always requested his servants take her to aspecialroominhishouse.Aftertheyconversed,healwaysgaveheraperfumeasagift. The scentshadcharm tochangeZainobe’smind to lovehim.Becauseof this,shealwaysliedtohermotherthatshewaswithAbuBakir.Meanwhile,aftersometime of not seeing Zainobe, Abu visited her, just for him to discover Zainobe’spranks.Heleftherhouseinanger.Hermotherscoldedhersaying“That’salie!Abuhas been here all the time,waiting for you to return.” Zainobe stamped her footangrily,“Soithascometothis,henowfollowsmearound…IknowAbuhasbeenlookingforanexcusetoquarrelwithme.”

Hermothereventually,inhaledtheperfume(potion)giventoherbyMallamShehuand thecharmtookeffectonher. Fromthatmoment, sheadvisedZainobenotmarryAbuBakirsayingthathewasnotworthyofher.ZainobewenttoseeAbuBakirinangerandforthefirsttimeshewasrudetohim.Shesaid, Whenatradergetsholdofsomegoodclothandhastakenittothemarket,

atleast10bidderswillpriceitbeforehesellsittothehighestbidder.Agirlwhohasneverbeenmarriedislikeaclothinthemarketplace.”-Zainobe

AbuBakirwasangrythathethreatenedtoflogher.Although,hewasableto

control his anger, he rather chose to report her to her father. When Zainobe’smothersidedher,thefatherwhippedZainobeandhermotherheartlessly.Withouther father’s consent, Zainobe went ahead tomarryMallam Shehu. Although, thewedding was fantastic and the talk of town, her fatherrefused to be a part ofit.Mallam Shehu straightaway spent generously on Zainobe’s family, the King andother influentialpeople.Unfortunately,AbuBakir’sbridepricewhichhedepositedwas returned to him.MallamAudu, Abu Bakir’s father refused themoney but hiswifecollecteditback.Inanger,AbuBakirrefusedtotouchthereturnedbridepriceandpromisedtohavehisvengeance induetime.Afterwards,AbuBakirembarkedonajourneyofvengeance.Hecarriedalongwithhimabow,arrowandafewpenceandwentonhissearchforvengeance.Heaskedhisbrothertobeholdtheirmother.

After some time, say a year later, Zainobe gave birth to a son, namedKyauta. Theboywas said tobehandsomeand good looking andgoodmannered,andeveryonecherishedhim. Immediately,MallamShehubuiltKyautaabeautifulhousewithinthepalace.Kyauta’splaymatesvisitedhimandplayedwithhimwithinthe compound.As years pass by, Abu Bakirwas still on his search for vengeance.



After passing through ugly and dreaded experiences, he finally was directed to avillagecalledthevillageofrejects.Coincidentally,hemetwiththevillageheadcalledMallamTausayinka,whoincidentallywasalsoaseer.Goingthroughhiscrystalball,heforesawthemissionofAbuBakirandheadvisedasthus:

YouarethinkingofinjuringMallamShehufortakingZainobefromyou.Youridea isthathehasdonesobecausehehasmoremoneythanyoudo.Thatidea iswrong.MallamShehutookthegirlfromyoubecausehehas lookedforasonfor35yearsinvain.Onenighthedreamedthatifhemarriedyourbetrothed, she will bear him a son. And now the prophecy has beenfulfilled…ifyouseteyesonthischild,youwillnotwanttoharmonehaironhis head. Go and rest, Zainobe still loves you …let Allah avenge you.”–Tausayinka

Abu Bakir was not satisfied with the reply and he suggested: “Can’t it be

arranged that this same son should be the cause of his death?” Tausayinka nowcommitedAbuBakirtotakinganoaththatthevengeanceofAllahwouldbeonhim.AbuBakirwentaheadtotaketheoath.TausayinkathenrequestedAbuBakirtogoandgethimasapfromaspecialtreeinaforestfromafarawaytown,topreparethecharm.

In a nutshell, this deadly mission recounts that Abu Bakir experiencedstarvation, andwas attacked by robbers. His earwas cut off; he lost an eye,wasjailed, sustainedblisters inhis feetbutnevertheless, hedidnot giveup.Hewasahardworkingandhonestmanfullofdeterminationtofulfilatask.Heworkedhardtoraise money. Despite all these, everyone advised him to give up his quest forvengeance.AbuBakirrefused;heeventuallygotthesapthroughanoldwitchwhohelpedhim.Havinggottenthecharm,AbuBakirreturnedyearslater.ThecharmwaspreparedforhimbyTausayinka.HewastoapplythecharmonKyauta.TausayinkagaveAbuBakiratalismantoassisthimaccessKyauta’sroominvisibly.

AbuBakirreturnedtohishometownGalma,heconfidedinhismotherandbrother to keephis return secret and threatened to behostile if theydid not.Hisbrother showedhimKyauta, Zainobe’s son the followingday. That night, heworethe talisman; this gave him access Kyauta’s room unnoticed, he then rubbed thecharmonKyauta.Afterdoingthat,visitedZainobeandsaidtoher,

“Youhavedisgracedme.Youhavecausedmeuntoldsuffering.Itiswrittenthatyoushallpayforall this inthisworld.Yourpresenthusbandtookyouawayfrommebecausehewantedason.Thatsonshallbeacursetoyou.”(AbuBakir)

As revealed to her in a dream, Zainobe jumped up from sleep, filledwith

fear.SheranintoKyauta’sroomtocheckonhim.Shefoundhimsleepingpeacefully.Withthis,sheresolvedthatitwasjustadreamandwentbacktobed.WhenKyautawoke up that morning, he became a changed boy who went into juveniledelinquencies. He started stealing and became a thief, a liar and a rude boy. Hedisgracedhisfatherandtheentirefamily.MallamShehuhadtopayforeverything



Kyautastole. ItbecameembarrassingforbothMallamShehuandZainobe.MallamShehutriedallcorrectivemeasuresbutnothingseemedtowork.Moreso,Zainobealways intervened. Kyauta’s abnormal conditions grew worse on a daily basis.Hestole100poundsfromhisfather,andthenrelocatedtoKano,stolemore,andwasimprisonedmanytimes.

When, Kyauta came out of prison, he got a job and remained honest. Heservedtheclerkfaithfullyandencouragedhimtostartabusiness.Kyauta’shonestywas tested somany timesandhe succeeded.The clerk trustedhimandopenedashopinanothertownforhimtomanage.Unfortunately,hedidnotremitfundsformonths. He was arrested and imprisoned. When the case was heard, his fatherbailedhimbypayingtheclerkthe400poundshedemandedfordamages.

Addinginsulttoinjury,Kyautagwentintoarmedrobbery.Heeasilyslippedoff handcuffs.He escaped fromhis father’s imprisonment and relocated to Lagos,wherehemetDogo.Kyauta andDogobecame friends andwenton raids asDogoadvised:“iftheycatchyou,gowiththem.Youknowwhenyouarefedupwiththem,that’sthetimetomakeyourgetaway.”–Dogo

Abu Bakir’s attitudes brought shame toMallam Shehu. He then relocatedand took on a new identity as Mallam Usman with his wife, Zainobe.One day,Kyauta and Dogo saw a beautiful house and then planned to raid the house thatnight.Thatsamenight,theyrobbedthehouse.Duringtherobbery,afigurelurkedintheshadowsandKyautashothiminfear.Astheybolted,hesawZainobeatthedoorandrecognisedher;hethenranintoherarms.Uponinquiry,helearnedhehadjustkilledhis father,MallamShehuwhohad just relocated to this townanddisguisedhimself as Mallam Usman to hide from the shame he – Kyauta has brought tothem.Thescalesof thecharmfell fromhiseyes.ShecriedasshetoldhimMallamUsmanwashisfather.Sheshowedhimasecretpassageandheescaped.

Unfortunately, Dogo was caught. He snitched on Kyauta but Kyauta wasnever caught. Zainobe then told the King of the town that Mallam Usman’s sonwouldarriveonacertainday.SheplannedwithKyautaandtheyagreedonthatday.HecameasplannedandtheKinggavehimagrandwelcome.HelookedsomuchlikeMallamUsmanandatthesightofhim,everyonesympathisedwithhim.

Kyautasharedhisfather’spropertybetweentheking,thepoorandMallamShehu’swives.ZainoberememberedherdreamaboutAbuBakirandtoldKyauta.Itoccurredtoherthat,itwasnotjustadream,butadreamcometrue.Kyautacameback to his senses. After the whole scenario, Kyauta and his mother ZainobetravelledbacktoGalma.AbuBakirwasold, frailanddisfigured.Kyautavisitedhimandcutoffhisheadfromhisbodywithasharpsword.Afterwhichhefledforayearandcamebacktotakecareforhismother(Zainobe).

The narrative has demonstrated the nature of Cyprian Ekwensi’s narrativestyle. The story consists of diverse aspects of oral tradition. ThedemonstrationofAfrican folklore is reflected through the use of folktale, myth, legend, proverbs,traditional beliefs or tradition and religion. Ekwensi uses these elements of oralnarratives to conveyhismessage, given that traditional ancient stories arepartofAfrican cultureusedasentertainment. Themoral andethical conflicts in the storydemonstratethenatureofAfricansettings.Themoralimplicationisthatoneshouldlearntoforgivewhenextremelyhurt.ZainobebetraysAbuBakir,MallamShehuuses



diabolic means to influence his relationship with Zainobe (which is wrong). AbuBakir’s quest for vengeance brought about the tragedy in the story. The dramatictwistinthestoryisthatthelawofnatureistamperedwith.

African folklore consists of African culture and tradition which isdemonstrated in the story. African tradition is characterised by force marriage,infant courtship, belief in charms, belief in traditional medicine and witchcraft.RevengeorvengeanceisoneoftheattributesofanuncivilisedAfricancommunity.AlltheseconstitutethemotifsfoundinEkwensi’sAfricanNightsEntertainment.

DiscussionandConclusion

Persistence in contemporary interests on African folklore and its derivatives isinfluencedbytherealitythatAfricanoralartsororaltraditionstillexistintheworksofprominent literarywritersandnew literatures.Fordecades, it isconsideredthefashionofAfricanliteraturewheremanyliterarywritersdrewtheirinspirationfrom.Edward(1991)commentsthat“theconsciousexplorationofitstropes,perspectives,philosophy and consciousness, its complementary realism, and ontology, for thedelineation of authentic African response to memory, history and other possiblecomparisonswithmodern existence such aswitnessed in recent developments oftheAfricannovel.”

Oralnarrativeshavebeentheexperimentedtextsforearlywritersinawaythatpopularliteraturecreatedbyliterarywritersorstorytellersofthemarketplaceand those of inner-city employ the original materials of the oral tradition. Somewritersdrewtheirinspirationsfromthespringoflivingoraltraditions.Thethematicand structural importance of African traditional stories to the development ofAfrican literature is demonstrated in the works of prominent African writers likeNgugiwaThiong’o,ChinuaAchebe,WoleSoyinka,KofiAwoonor,AmaAtaAidooandhost of them. These writers adopted elements of orality as themes, styles andstructureintheirnarratives.ThroughAfricanoraltraditionsuchasTheAfricanoraltradition—thefolktale,theproverbs,themyths,thelegends,thesongs,theidioms,theincantationsandtheriddles,AfricanliteratureisabletopromoteanddefendtheAfricanheritage.Mythsaretreasuredinpeoples’cultureandbeliefs.Theyareseenasstoriesenrooted inAfricanfolklorebeliefsorreligion.They interpretorattempttoclarifytheoriginsandfundamentalvaluesofagivencultureandthenatureoftheuniverseandhumanity.InthemoderndayAfrica,mythsarestillheldinhighesteembecause they are believed to be stories that are true based on their supernaturalinfluenceonevents.Edward(1991)inhisdefenceofChinuaAchebeasaforerunnerof the literarymovement that seeks to protect the African heritage and traditioncommentsthat:

AchebeisundoubtedlysensitivetotheAfricanoraltradition,butheappearsto be less innovative when it comes to the deployment of oral literarystructures. One is therefore not surprised that all Achebe's novels—fromThingsFallApart throughAnthillsof theSavannah—are structurally in themodeof thegreatWestern tradition. It isuseful forone, inattempting toexplore influences of the African oral tradition on the novel form, to be



clearastowhatistypicallyAfricanandwhatisexclusivelyAfricanorwhatisborrowedtonourishtheAfricantradition.CyprianEkwensiandotherwell-knownAfricanwriterstodayfindsuccourin

theuseoffolkloreintheirearlyworks.InhisearlyworkswhichisacollectionIkolothe Wrestler and Other Ibo Tales,andAn African Night’s Entertainment,thenovelBurning Grass,and the juvenile worksThe Leopard’s ClawandJujuRock,Ekwensi told storiesbasedon traditional folktales thatdepicta rural setting.InBurning GrassEkwensi follows the adventures of Mai Sunsaye, whohasSokugo,wanderlust,andofhis family,who try to rescuehim.While seeinghisprotagonists through varied adventures, Ekwensi portrays the lives of the Fulanicattlemen.EkwensihasusedtheAfricantraditional folktalestodrawtheattentionofyoungpeopleinto liking literature.Thisearlyworks,whichhasbeenconsideredoneoftheauthor’smore“serious”novels,greatlyinfluencedthereadingcultureofmanyyoungreadersacrossNigeriaandAfrica.

Although, central themes in contemporary African literature and Africanliterary traditions, followed the parameters introduced by the influence ofChristianityandIslam.Thisafterwardsbroughtaboutthestrugglebetweenruralandurban life, traditions and secular (modern), culture and religion, generations andgenderissues.However,theoraltraditionhasgreatinfluenceontheearlyworksofthe first generation of Nigerian and Africanwriters. Folklore is evident in popularliterature drawn from oral storytellers like Cyprian Ekwensi’s African NightEntertainment.Thesestoriesdwell therealmofAfricantradition.TheearlywritersweavedandbuilttheirfictionalstorylinesalongtheAfricantraditionalstories.Someare a collection of oral tradition fused together; while some writers intelligentlyadapted or tailored their literary prowess towards translating literary works intoAfricanlanguages.Othersincorporatedexistingoraltraditions.

Evidence in modern African literary writing reveals that there is obviousinterplay between the existing African oral tradition and literary traditions of thetwentieth century. The dominance and placement of orality and other traditionaloralformswithinthecontextandstyleofAfricanwritersexpressedtheirefficacyinfictionalwriting.Avolumeofliteraryworkshavetakenfromoralfeaturestobuildintheir writing style. Early writers like Amos Tutuola and D.O. Fagunwa in Nigeria,S.E.K.MohayiinXhosa,SouthAfricaandMarioAnthonioinPortugueseexploretheuseofAfricanfolkloreintheirworks.

The early African writers comprehend the potentials in oral tradition; itsimages,structuresandresources.Therefore,theytookadvantageofthattodeveloptheir style of writing by giving oral tradition a literary approach. In South Africa,SinxoGuybonfoundtherelationshipbetweenAfricanfolkloreandhispopularXhosafictions.ThesametrendofcharacterisedthewritingsofO.K.MatsepeinSotho,A.C.JordaninXhosa,RolfesRobertReginaldDhlomoinZulu.Thesewritersexploredandestablished the relationship between oral tradition and literary writtenmaterials.Despite the influence of European tradition, these literary artists connected theseartisticactivitiesofpopularfiction,oraltraditionandotherseriousliterarywritings.Toalargeextent,AfricanwriterslikeChinuaAchebe,WoleSoyinka,OswaldMtshali,Mazisi Kunene, Ayi Kwei Armah, Nardine Gordimer. Mariama Ba, Aminata Forna,



NgugiWa Thiong’o are indebted to the African oral tradition in their ventures ofcreative writings. For instance, traditional epic and folktales for example haveinfluencetheriseofthenovelandearlywritersofthe20thcentury.Equally,pioneerNigerian writers like Cyprian Ekwensi’s African Nights Entertainment(1962) is areduplicationofacollectionoftraditionalfolktalesandotherformsoforaltraditionnarratedinliteraryform.WoleSoyinka’sDeathandtheKing’sHorsemanisareplicaofthepeople’sinheritedbeliefsandcultureinaliteraryapproach.OlaRotimi’sTheGods Are Not To Blame is an adaptation of the Greek classic Oedipus Rex (1968)recastinYorubatraditionalsettingasaplay.OtherNigerianandAfricanwriterslikeAmosTutuola,D.O.FagunwainYoruba,andSamuelEdwardKruneMghayiinXhosahavetheirclassicworkseitherretold,recastortranscribefromtheoraltradition.

The prospects and future of folklore are found in recent globaldevelopments in community radio,television and its rapid spread in rural Africawhich made speech recording facilities available within rural Africa. It gives thesocietyacapacitytorecordtheir thoughts, ideasandbeliefswithoutbeingabletoread and write. These new approaches to information documentation areconsciouslycultivatedtoservethespecificneedsoforalcultures.Theyshouldalsobe seenasanopportunity for technology toenhance thewaypeople livewithoutnecessarily altering theirwaysof life.Opportunitiesare created thus to theglobalknowledgeproductionindustrytotapintotheindigenousknowledgeofvariousoralcultures in Africa and other parts of the world. The potentialities of the globalinformationcommunitywillbeincreasedsincethereisadiversityofknowledgeandknowledgesystemsavailablenow.

Tosumup,inthecontextofliterarycriticism,thesuppressionoftheethnicfactor has taken the formof erasing the ethnic presence in the literary history ofindividual countries. Gerard (1981) insisted on the inclusion of the ethnicity inliteraturesofAfrica.Heclaimedthattherehasalwaysbeen:

avaguereferenceto ‘orature’,a label thatneitherproperlydesignates thecomplex literary resources of diverse group-ethnicities nor reflects theirnature. However, other critics assume that identifying ethnicity in Africanliteraturemay be amajor step towards developing a viable alternative toliterarydominance.(pp.31-32)

Thus, it is safe to conclude to that contemporary African writers owe much toAfricanoraltraditionintheirvariousdomainsofliteraryinspirations.

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http://mindadventures.club/an-african-nights-entertainmentChapin, H. (1992).Nigeria: a country study. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research

Division,LibraryofCongressEkwensi,C.(1948).Whenlovewhispers.Onitsha,Nigeria:TabansiBookshopEkwensi, C. (1962).An African nights entertainment: A tale of vengeance. Ibadan,

Nigeria:AfricanUniversitiesPress.



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Ekwensi, C. (1996).Africannightsentertainment(Africanreaderslibrary). London,England:HodderMurray.

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Haley,A.(1976).Roots:thestoryofanAmericanfamily.NewYork,NY:Doubleday.Larson, C. R.(1971). The emergence ofAfrican fiction. Bloomington, IN: Indiana

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1983:Anhistoricalandstylisticsurvey.UnpublishedPh.D.Thesis,UniversityofIbadan,Nigeria.

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emergenceofanewculturalart.SocialIdentities,6(3),237–40.Westley, D. (1991). A bibliography of African epic.Research in African

Literatures,22(4),99-115.


AnalisisMaksimPerbualanGriceDalamSoalJawabTV316

ANALISISMAKSIMPERBUALANGRICEDALAMSOALJAWABTV3

IndirawatiZAHIDAkademiPengajianMelayu

UniversitiMalaya50603KualaLumpur

[email protected]

Manuscriptreceived9October2018Manuscriptaccepted28November2018

ABSTRAK

Maksim Perbualan (MP) diusulkan oleh Grice (1975) dalam usaha mengurangkansalahfahamdalamkomunikasi.MPmempunyaiempatmaksim,iaitukualiti,kuantiti,hubungandancara.DiyakinisekiranyakesemuapemeranmematuhiMP,komunikasiakan berlangsung dengan lancar. Walau bagaimanapun, realitinya, tidak kesemuaMP akan dipatuhi. Analisis telah dilakukanpada struktur isi rancangan Soal JawabTV3 dengan mengaplikasikan MP dan membincangkan faktor kepatuhan danketidakpatuhanMP.Antarametodyangdiaplikasikanadalahmuatturun,transkripsidan analisis teks. Pemeran komunikasi dalam rancangan inimelibatkan dua orangmoderator (M) dan dua orang pemerhati ekonomi (PE). Dapatan analisismemperlihatkankeempat-empatMPdipatuhiolehMmanakalaPEtidakpatuhpadaMPkuantitidancara.KepatuhanMPolehMdipengaruhiantaranyaolehprosedurpenerbitan, kemahiran berbahasa dan pengalaman kerja. Kepatuhan MP oleh PEbertitiktolakdaripadasifatrancanganyangyangmempunyairujukan,iaitumaksimkualiti;manakalamaksimhubunganditandaidenganpenggunaankosakatasepertiinflasi, GST dan BRIM, iaitu tema ekonomi. Ketidakpatuhan MP oleh PE ialahpelanggaran maksim kuantiti dan cara yang bertujuan pemahaman audiens.Walaupunketidakpatuhanberlaku,kelancarankomunikasitidakterjejas.DapataninisekaligusmenolakpendapatFinch(2000).KataKunci:maksim,PrinsipKerjasama,kepatuhan,ketidakpatuhan,moderator

GRICE’SCONVERSATIONALMAXIMSINSOALJAWABTV3

ABSTRACT

TheConversationalMaxims (CM)wasproposedbyGrice (1975) in order to reducemisunderstandings in communication. The CM has fourmaximswhich are quality,quantity, relation andmanner. It is believed that if all communicators observe the



CM,thecommunicationwilltakeplacesmoothly.Howeverinreality,notallCMwillbeadheredto.Analysiswasdoneonthebodystructureofthetelevisionprogramme,SoalJawabTV3byapplyingtheCM,andtheobservanceandnonobservanceofCM.The programmewas transcribed and analysed. The communicators involved weretwomoderators(M)andtwoeconomicobservers(EO).FindingsshowthatfourCMwereobservedbyMwhileCMofquantityandmannerwerenotobservedbyEO.M'sobservations of the CM were influenced by publishing procedures, language skillsandworkingexperience.EO’sobservationofthequalitymaximwasderivedfromthereferencesused intheprogrammewhiletheobservanceoftherelationmaximwasbased on the use of vocabularies such as inflation, GST and BRIM for economic-themeddiscussions.TheEO’snonobservanceofCMwerefloutingof themaximsofquantity andmannerwhich referred to the occurrence of detailed description andprolix respectively. Despite the nonobservance, the smoothness of communicationwasnotaffected.ThisfindingdismissedtheopinionofFinch(2000).

Keywords:maxims,CooperationPrinciple,observance,nonobservance,moderator

Pengenalan

Komunikasiberkesanberhubungandengankelancaraninteraksiyangberlaku.Dalamkasus soal jawab di televisyen, keberkesanan komunikasi dititikberatkan baik olehmoderator mahupun oleh tetamu undangan. Moderator yang bagus akanmeningkatkan keberkesanan sesi soal jawabmelalui soalan praatur di antara ahlipanel bagi memastikan mesej program akan kekal sebagaimana objektifnya(MeetingsImagined,2018).Nguyen(2015)menyatakan“agoodmoderatorisgreatatimprovisation,knowsatremendousamountofthegivensubjectandunderstandswhat it takestoavoidfacilitatinganaudienceslumberparty”.Penyataan inihanyaakan dapat dimanifestasikan apabila moderator merupakan individu yangberpengalaman dalam bidangnya. Sementara itu ahli panel yang bagus pula perlumemiliki pengetahuan berhubung peranan mereka dalam rancangan, mengetahuicara penyampaian maklumat yang berkesan, kesedaran kepentingan perkongsianmaklumat,mendengardanmenghubungkanhujah ahli panel laindanmemastikandiribertenagabagirancanganyangdisertai(Nguyen,2015). Komunikasi merupakan proses dua hala di antara pengguna bahasa danakan hanya dianggap berjaya apabila kesemua pemeran yang terlibat dalamkomunikasi tersebut mempunyai kefahaman yang sama tentang apa yangdikomunikasikan(TeamFME,2013,hlm.4).Halinimelibatkanprosesmemahamkanpemeran. Proses ini tidak mudah untuk dilakukan kerana kebarangkalian untukberlakunya salah faham itu wujud. Lanjutan itu, dalam usaha mengurangkankesalahfahaman, Grice (1975) telah mengesyorkan Prinsip Kerjasama (PK) yangmempunyai sembilan komponen sebagai garis panduan semasa berkomunikasi.Sembilan komponen ini kemudiannya dikumpulkan menjadi empat kategori yangdinamakan maksim perbualan (MP). Menurut Finch (2000, hlm. 159), “Grice’sprincipleassumesthatpeoplecooperateintheprocessofcommunicationinordertoreduce misunderstanding”. Penyataan Finch ini jelas menunjukkan usaha yangdilakukanbagimengurangkankesalahfahamansemasakomunikasi.Daninidisokong



olehGrundy(2008,hlm.88)yangmenyatakanpemeranmengaplikasimaksimGriceuntukmencapaikomunikasiberkesandanmengelakkansalah faham.Perkarayangsama juga dinyatakan oleh Okanda, Asada, Moriguchi dan Itakura (2015), iaitumemahamiperaturanperbualanmerupakanterasuntukkelancarankomunikasidanperaturan perbualan yang dikongsi dalam masyarakat akan menyumbang padasituasisalingmemahamisemasaperbualan.

SorotanLiteratur

MenurutFadhly(2012),kajiandalambidangpragmatikmencakupitigaaspekutama,iaitu lakuan bahasa, implikatur perbualan dan kesantunan. Kajian berhubungimplikaturperbualan,berfokuspadapematuhandanketidakpatuhanpemeranpadaMP yang diusulkan oleh Grice. Dalam memperlihatkan kepatuhan danketidakpatuhan MP pelbagai korpus digunakan antaranya sesi temuduga, filem,novel,komunikasidansebagainya.AntarakajianyangdilakukanialahEphratt(2011),Phosravizadeh dan Sadehvandi (2011), Fadhly (2012), Al-Saedi (2013), Bilal danNaeem (2013), Chaipreukkul (2013), Hanifah (2013), Sobhani dan Saghebi (2014),Shuwei (2014), Tajabadi, Dowlatabadi dan Mehri (2014), Abari dan Lotfi (2015),Harared(2015),Seftika(2015),Samosir(2015),Fahmi(2016),Mohamad,MohameddanMohamed(2017),MsuyadanMassanga(2017),Taghiyev(2017),Xioaqin(2017)danAyaserhdanRazali(2018).

Ephratt (2011) melakukan analisis bagi menentukan status kesenyapanverbal yang dikatakan sebagai ketidakpatuhan pada MP. Dapatan kajian inimenidakkan label yang diberikan oleh kebanyakan sarjana bahawa kesenyapansebagaiketidakpatuhanMPsebaliknyamemperlihatkanbahawakesenyapanverbalini berperanan aktif dalam komunikasi. Sementara itu, Phosravizadeh danSadehvandi (2011)menganalisispelanggarandanpencabulanmaksimkuantiti atasduawatakutamafilemDinner forSchmucks.Dapatanmemperlihatkanpencabulanmaksim kuantiti berlaku atas sebab kelewahan, sirkumlokasi dan kebecokan.Pelanggaranmaksim juga berlakudalam kajian Fadhly (2012). FadhlymenganalisistigakorpustekstemudugaPresidenIndonesia,SusiloBambangYudoyono(SBY)danmendapati SBY melanggar keempat-empat MP dengan tujuan penjagaan muka,perlindungan diri, kesedaran, kesantunan, mendapatkan perhatian, kawalanmaklumat, penghuraiandan kejahilan. Kajian ini jugamendapatiMP tidak bersifatuniversal.

Kajian Al-Saedi (2013) dalam novel The Giver karya Lois Lowrymemperlihatkan penulis novel ini pada kebanyakan masanya telah menjadikanwatak-watak dalam novel tersebut tidak mematuhi MP atas tujuan menjanaimplikatur baru, menyembunyikan kebenaran, pembujukan dan menyakinkanpembacadenganmesejyangingindisampaikanolehpenulis.Halyangsamaberlakudalam kajian Bilal dan Naeem (2013) yang menganalisis dialog Presiden Pakistansemasasidangmedia.DapatanmemperlihatkanPresidenPakistantelahmelakukanketidakpatuhan MP atas tujuan mencuci minda khalayak dalam cubaan untukmendapatkan sokongan dan mengalih tumpuan daripada agenda politik yangsebenarnya.Sementara itu,Chaipreukkul (2013)pulamengkajiketidakpatuhanMPyang berlaku dalamhumor sitcomTheBig Bang Theory. Dapatanmemperlihatkan



humordimanifestasikanmelaluiketidakpatuhanMP.Ketidakpatuhanyangdominanialahpelanggarandiikutidenganinfringing,pencabulandanpilihankeluar.

Hanifah (2013) menganalisis bahasa pengguna Facebook (FB) lelaki danperempuan dengan fokus jenis maksim yang tidak dipatuhi dan bagaimanaketidakpatuhan ini berlaku. Kajian mendapati pengguna lelaki tidak patuh padamaksimhubunganmanakalapenggunaperempuantidakmematuhimaksimkuantiti.Kedua-dua gender ini memperlihatkan kecenderungan melanggar maksim denganberjenaka,memberikanlebihinformasiatastujuanuntukmerasalebihrapatdenganrakan selain sifat medium FB yang tidak mempunyai limit komunikasi apabilaberinteraksi.

Sobhani dan Saghebi (2014) menganalisis pencabulan MP dalam datakonsultasipsikologi Iranian.Objektif kajian iniadalahuntukmemahami sikap tidakbekerjasama penutur dalam sesi konsultasi. Pencabulan MP dikatakan berlakukeranakontekskonsultasipsikologiyangberintipatikomplekssensitifdanterdapatpesakit yang sukar berkongsi maklumat – perasaan, idea, pendapat, masalah dansebagainya.

Shuwei (2014) mengaplikasi pendekatan analisis wacana dalam mengkajipenggunaan MP hos rancangan bual bicara televisyen bahasa Cina. Temu bualmelibatkan dua orang tetamu, iaitu masing-masingnya penutur natif bahasaMandarindanbahasa Inggeris.Dapatanmemperlihatkanhos rancanganmematuhiMP dan sering kalimeminta pengesahan dalamusahamemahami danmenyemakmesejtetamuundangan.

Sementara itu, Tajabadi, Dowlatabadi danMehri (2014), menganalisis MPdalamhujahpertikaianlisandalamMajlisPenyelesaianPertikaianIran.Tigarakamanmesyuarat Majlis dianalisis. Dapatan memperlihatkan dua kasus, iaitu kepatuhandan ketidakpatuhan maksim. Kepatuhan maksim cara dan kualiti didapati kerapberlaku masing-masingnya atas alasan mengelakkan ketaksaan dan kebenaran.Sementara, pencabulan maksim paling kerap pada kuantiti dan hubungan keranakesemulajadian komunikasi perundangan yang perlu jelas dan tidak taksa denganmengemukakanmaklumat yang lebih daripada yang sepatutnya selain kewujudanisudiluartopikperbincangan.

Harared (2015) memperlihatkan dua jenis ketidakpatuhan maksim, iaitupelanggarandanpencabulanmaksimdalamfilemDiaryofaWimpyKid.Pelanggaranmaksim berpunca daripada situasi hubungan di antara watak yang mempunyaihubungan yang rapat, iaitu adik-beradik dan kawan rapat. Hubungan rapat inimenjadikan mereka sudah saling memahami dan menjadi punca kepadaketidakpatuhanmaksimberlaku.Pencabulanmaksimberlakuapabilapenuturmahumenyembunyikansesuatufakta,iaitufaktormatlamatperbualansesuatukonteks.

Analisis etnografi dengan penerapan MP dalam interaksi tawar-menawarpembeliandisebuahpasardilakukanolehSamosir(2015).Dapatanmemperlihatkansecara dominannya pematuhan MP hubungan dan cara dalam proses tawar-menawar. Pematuhan MP hubungan diperlihatkan melalui interaksi yang relevandengan perkara yang dibicarakan, iaitu tema interaksi dalam jual-beli barangan.PematuhanMPcarapuladiperlihatkanmelaluimaklumatyangjelas,ringkas,teraturdantenang.PelanggaranMPkuantitiberlakuapabilajurujualmemberikaninformasi



melebihi apa yang sepatutnya manakala pelanggaran kualiti diperlihatkan melaluiinformasiyangtidakjujur,tidaksesuaidenganfaktadankenyataandalambertutur.

KajianketidakpatuhanMPahlipolitikditeruskanolehSeftika(2015).AnalisismenggunakankorpustemubualBarackObamadenganABCNewsdalamrancanganGood Morning America. Dapatan analisis menunjukkan terdapat lapan belaspelanggaran maksim mencakupi kuantiti, relevan dan cara. Pelanggaran maksimkuantiti dan cara didapati kerap berlaku dengan tujuan mengelakkan pemberianpandanganyangtepat.

Fahmi (2016) mengenal pasti maksim yang sering dicabuli dan faktorberlakunya pencabulan dalam perbualan seharian. Kajian ini memperlihatkanmaksimyangseringdilanggardalampercakapanseharianmahasiswadanmahasiswianggota EZC FPBS IKIP MATARAM. Dapatan memperlihatkan bahawa berlakunyapelanggaran maksim kuantiti sebanyak 30 kali, maksim kualiti sebanyak 20 kali,maksim cara sebanyak 10 kali, danmaksim hubungan sebanyak 5 kali. Umumnyakeempat-empat MP dicabuli dengan faktor budaya dan jarak sosial merupakanfaktorpencabulanberlaku.

Kajianmaksim kuantiti dalam perbandingan teks bertulis penulis Iran danpenutur natif bahasa Inggeris dilakukan oleh Abari dan Lotfi (2015). Dapatanmenunjukkan bahawa kedua-dua bangsa penulis ini telah melakukanketidakpatuhanmaksim, iaitu pencabulanmaksim kuantiti dalam penulisan artikelbahasa Inggeris mereka. Walau bagaimanapun kekerapan pencabulan maksimdidapati lebih tinggidalamartikel yangditulisolehpenulis Irandalam teksbahasaParsi.

Mohamad,Mohamed danMohamed (2017)menganalisis pencabulan danpelanggaran MP yang dilakukan oleh pelajar Cina semasa proses pembentangankerja kursus dalam bahasa Melayu. Dapatan memperlihatkan pencabulan danpelanggaranMPseringberlakumasing-masingnyasecaratidaksengajadansengaja.Kajianinimenyatakanbahawapencabulandanpelanggaranmaksiminitidakdapatdielakkan. Kesemua ini berpunca daripada kebolehan, keupayaan dan tahappenguasaanbahasaMelayupelajar.

Msuya danMassanga (2017) menganalisis kepatuhanMP oleh ahli politikTanzaniadalamsatutemuramahditelevisyen.Kajianberfokuspadamaksimkualitidan kuantiti. Dapatan memperlihatkan ketidakpatuhan berpunca daripada soalanyangberbentukpelbagaidansoalanyangtidakpatuhpadamaksim.Antarabentuksoalan yang tidak patuh maksim termasuklah yang bersifat pelanggaran, pilihankeluar dan pertembungan maksim. Ketidakpatuhan ini berlaku bertujuanmemperoleh kredibiliti sosial dan politik, mewujudkan kesantunan, mengelakkanancamanmukadanmembinaimejpositif.

Kajian Taghiyev (2017) tentang jenaka linguistik Inggeris berfokus padapencabulan MP dan ketaksaan. Dapatan memperlihatkan pencabulan maksimkuantiti dan caraberlakupadaduabarispertama jenaka lisanmanakalapadaduabaris kedua jenaka, pencabulan maksim hubungan dan cara berlaku. Dinyatakanpencabulan maksim kuantiti dan cara dilakukan secara senyap dan tidakdisengajakanmanakala pencabulanmaksim hubungan berlaku akibat pelanggaranmaksim. Dapatan kajian juga memperlihatkan ketaksaan boleh berlaku sama adapadaarasleksikalataupunstruktural.



Xioaqin (2017)dalamkajiankomunikasiground staff syarikatpenerbangandomestik China mendapati berlakunya strategi kelewahan komunikasi dalamperkhidmatan yang diberikan. Kelewahan komunikasi inimenunjukkan berlakunyapencabulan keempat-empat MP. Pencabulan MP antaranya bertujuan menjagamuka,mengelakkankonfliksertaaduandanmewujudkankeharmonianantaraparapenumpang.

Kajian terkini oleh Ayaserh dan Razali (2018)menganalisis ketidakpatuhanmaksimahli politik Syria – Presiden Syria, iaituBasharAl-Assad semasa temubualdengan saluranARD.Dapatankajianmemperlihatkanpelanggarankeempat-empatMP yang memberikan implikatur Al-Assad cuba mendapatkan sokongan daripadakhalayak.Ketidakpatuhaninijugaberlakubertitiktolakdaripadaimplikaturbahawamaklumat yang diberikan tersebut akan berpihak kepada dirinya dan beliau akanterusmendapatsokongandaripadarakyatSyria.

Sehubungan itu, tinjauan literatur dalam kajian implikatur perbualanmemperlihatkan penggunaan kepelbagaian korpus analisis dengan kecenderungankorpus yang digunakan ialah temu bual ahli politik dan filem. Dapatan yangdiperoleh memperlihatkan dominasi ketidakpatuhan maksim. Kajian yangmenggunakankorpussoal jawabekonomisecara totalbelumada.Yangadahanyasoal jawabyang jugamenyelitkanperbincangantentangekonomi, iaitukajianolehFadhly (2012),BilaldanNaeem (2013),MasuyadanMassanga (2017)danAyaserhdanRazali(2018),iaituapabilakorpustersebutmelibatkantokohpolitik.Sementaraitu, pengkaji tidak menemui kajian tentang implikatur perbualan denganmenggunakanrancangantelevisyenatauradioberkaitantopikekonomi.Sementarakajian yangmenggunakan korpusmedia kebanyakannyamengunakan pendekatananalisisperbualan, iaitu satuaspekyangberbezadaripadakajian ini.Antarakajianyang yang mengaplikasi pendekatan analisis perbualan ialah Kong dan Su (2014),Carnel (2012),Schegloff (2007)danHutchby (2006).Pendekatananalisisperbualancenderung membincangkan tentang strategi ambil giliran, tindakan dan urutanorganisasiinteraksidalamrancangan.

PermasalahanKajian

Kajianberintipati ekonomiper se belumdilakukan. Sehubungan itu kajian ini akanmenggunakan korpus soal jawab berkaitan ekonomi bagi memperlihatkankepatuhan dan ketidakpatuhan yang berlaku. Tujuan berlakunya kepatuhan danketidakpatuhan pasti memperlihatkan perbezaan kerana korpus yang berlainandigunakan.Lanjutanitu,dapatanyangakandiperolehpastinyaakanmemperlengkapasbabiaberlaku.

Objektif

Kajianyangdilakukaninimempunyaiduaobjektif,iaitu:i. mengklasifikasi pematuhan dan ketidakpatuhan maksim perbualan oleh

pemeran.ii. membincangkanfaktorberlakunyapematuhandanketidakpatuhanmaksim

perbualanolehpemeran.



Metodologi

KajianyangdilakukaninimenggunakandatarancanganSoalJawabTV3yangdimuatnaikdiYouTubeolehDMAnalyticspada27Oktober2017.Rancangan inidisiarkanoleh TV3 dan berdurasi selama 1 jam. Tajuk rancangan Soal Jawab TV3 ini ialahPraBajet 2018. Rancangan ini mempunyai dua orang moderator dan dua orangtetamuundangan.Fokusanalisishanyapadastrukturisiyangberdurasi52minit28saat.

Rancangan ini dipilih sebagai korpus kerana rancangan yang bertemakanbajet negara sering kali mendapat liputan dan menjadi satu siri rancangan yangwajib ada pada setiap tahun. Ia menjadi tarikan kepada khalayak yang mahumengetahui pandangan pakar ekonomi yang diundang tentang hala tuju ekonominegara serta jangkaan dan harapan mereka. Senario ini pula diperkukuh dengansituasi negara yang akan mengadakan piliharanraya ke-14 pada tahun 2018 - themother of all elections (Tan, 2018; Chai, 2018) pada 9Mei 2018 dan isu ekonominegaramenjadiantaratopikutamayangdibicarakan. Analisis dilakukan pada kesemua ujaran dalam struktur isi rancangan SoalJawab TV3, mencakupi campur kod dan akronim dalam dialog kedua-dua orangmoderator dan pemerhati ekonomi. Analisis tidak dilakukan pada komunikasi takverbal,iaitukinesikdanparalinguistik.

Kajian inimengaplikasikan kaedah kualitatif yangmencakupi tujuhmetod,iaitukajianpustaka,muatturun,menonton,mengulangdengarsertamencatatbagipenyediaantranskripsidananalisisteks.Analisisteksmelibatkanprosespenyisihandatamengikutkonteksperbualan,iaituduaorangmoderatordanduaorangtetamuundangan. Analisis dilakukan dengan menggelompokkan data kepada konteksperbualan (KP) yang setiap satunya memperlihatkan koheren maklumat. KP akandisusunmengikutsusunankronologidataperbualandandilabelkanmengikuturutannomborKP1, yangbermaksudKonteksPerbualan1, KP2,merujuk kepadaKonteksPerbualan2danseterusnya.Terdapat13KPkesemuanya.

Dua orang moderator dalam rancangan dilabelkan sebagai M1 dan M2manakaladuatetamuundanganyangdirujuksebagaipemerhatiekonomidilabelkansebagai PE1 dan PE2. Dapatan analisis akan menggelompokkan kepatuhan danketidakpatuhankedua-duamoderatordanpemerhatiekonomisebagaisatupaparandapatankeranadalamsesuatuKPberlakunyatumpangtindihkomunikasidiantaraparapemeran.InijugaberkaitandengankoherenmaklumatdalamsesuatuKP.

Analisis pematuhan akan mencakupi keempat-empat MP manakala untukketidakpatuhan, infringing dan penggantunganmaksim tidak diaplikasi. Ini keranainfringingtidakberlakudalamkasuskedua-duamoderatordanpemerhatiekonomikeranamasing-masingnyamerupakanwartawanberpengalamandanpakarekonomiyang biasa ditemu bual. Penggantungan maksim pula tidak diambil kira keranaanalisisbertujuanmemperlihatkankeberkesanankomunikasimelaluiimplikatur.

PrinsipKerjasamaGrice(1975)

Menurut Grice (1975) terdapat cara komunikasi yang diterima sebagai perlakuanstandard.Perlakuanstandardinimerujukpadamenghasilkandanmendengarujaran



dengan anggapan umum bahawa komunikasi tersebut benar melalui pemilikanjumlahmaklumat yang tertentu, relevan dan akan dapatmengungkapkan sesuatuyangdapatdifahami(Davies,2000,hlm.2).Perlakuaninidirujuksebagaikerjasamadalam komunikasi, iaitu perbualan yang rasional dan dikawal oleh PK. PKdijangkakanberkuatkuasaapabilaperbualanberlakudengansarananGricekepadapemeran:

Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchas is required,at thestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.(Grice,1989,hlm.26)

Menerusi PK, Grice (1975, hlm. 45) mengemukakan empat kategori MP, iaitu: i.maksim kuantiti (informatif) ii. maksim kualiti (kebenaran) iii. maksim hubungan(relevan)daniv.maksimcara(kejelasan).PKdiringkaskansepertiJadual1:Jadual1PrinsipKerjasama–MaksimperbualanMaksimKuantiti(informatif)

MaksimKualiti(kebenaran)

MaksimHubungan(relevan)

MaksimCara(kejelasan)

a. Pastikansumbanganandabersifatinformatifsepertiyangdiperlukan.

b. Janganjadikansumbanganandalebihinformatifdaripadaapayangdiperlukan.

a. Janganbercakapsesuatuyangpalsu/tidakbenar.

b. Janganbercakapsesuatuyangkurangbukti.

a. Pastikanberkaitan/relevan.

a. Elakkankekaburan.

b. Elakkanketaksaan.

c. Ringkas(elakkanlewah).

d. Pastikanteratur.

WalaupunGrice(1975)telahmengemukakanPKini,beliautetapmengakuibahawaakan berlaku juga ketidakpatuhan maksim semasa perbualan berlaku.Ketidakpatuhan ini mecakupi keempat-empat maksim yang dikemukakan dalamJadual1.Sehubunganitudalammemerihalkansituasiini,Gricetelahmenyenaraikanlimajenisketidakpatuhanpadamaksimsepertiyangberikut:

1. Pelanggaranmaksimberlakudengankesedaranataupengetahuanpenerima.Contohnya,KuantanmerupakanibunegeriJohor–pelanggarankualiti.

2. Pencabulan maksim berlaku apabila pemeran sememangnya berniat atausengajatidakmematuhiMPuntukmenimbulkansalahfahamataudilakukanatas tujuan tertentu. Dalam kasus ini, penuturmelakukan perkara ini dan



penerima tidak mengetahuinya. Contohnya pembohongan nilai hargasehelaibajuyangdibeli–pencabulanmaksimkualiti.

3. Pilihan keluar berlaku apabila penutur memilih keluar daripada maksimdenganmenggunakan frasayangmenyingkirkanataumengurangkankesanmaksimdanmemberikan isyarat kepadapenerima. Contoh – kasus doktoryang tidak bolehmemberikanmaklumat pesakit pada audiens (kerahsiaanmaklumat)akanmenyatakan“sayatidakbolehberkongsimaklumatpesakit”padasoalanyangdiajukankepadanya.

4. Infringing the maxims dengan maksud penutur akan melakukaninfringement berpunca daripada kurang pengetahuan atau kemahiranbertutur sesuatu bahasa, rasa cemas, keterujaan dan sebagainya yangmenyebabkangangguankepadaprestasipenutur.

5. Penggantungan maksim dengan maksud pemeran komunikasimenjangkakan ketidakperluan pematuhan pada maksim kerana ia tidakmenghasilkan implikatur. Contohnya dalam pembacaan puisi wujudnyaketaksaan.

Situasi yang dijangkakan oleh Grice (1975) ini sememangnya akan berlaku.Penyataan ini disokong oleh Nieto (2011, hlm. 36) bahawa people often fail toobserve the maxims on many occasions. Dan kelima-lima jenis ketidakpatuhanmaksim ini boleh berlaku pada mana-mana satu daripada empat MP dalam PK.Menurut Al-Saedi (2013) ketidakpatuhan maksim berlaku bukan disebabkanpemerankomunikasi itu tidakbagus tetapi ketidakpatuhan ituberlakuatas sebab-sebabmisalnyasesuatuperkaraitutidakdapatdikatakansecaralangsungatauperludisampaikan dengan cara yang berbeza. Al-Saedi memberikan antara sebabpencabulanmaksimberlaku ialahbertujuanmenjagamuka,memuaskanhati sertamenghiburkan, mengelakkan rasa kekecewaan dan membujuk. Sementara itu,DarighgoftardanGhaffari(2012)berpendapatpencabulandanpelanggaranmaksimakanmenyumbanglebihbanyakmaklumatberbandingsekiranyamaksimdipatuhi.

Dapatan

Terdapat 13 KP bagi struktur isiSoal Jawab TV3 yang analisisnya akan dipaparkandalamdua jadualutamayangberasingan, iaitupertamanya JadualPematuhandanKetidakpatuhan MP dan keduanya Jadual Perincian Ketidakpatuhan MP. Huraianakanmengemukakan contoh bagi mewakili kasus yang dibincangkan dengan dataanalisisdielipsisbagitujuankeringkasan.Jadualutamasecaraumumnyamempunyailimakolum,kolum1–KP,kolum2–maksimkuantiti,kolum3–maksimkualitidankolum 4 – maksim hubungan dan kolum 5 – maksim cara. Analisis MP dilakukandenganmengasingkan dapatan bagi moderator (M) dan pemerhati ekonomi (PE).Jadual2memaparkanpematuhandanketidakpatuhanMP.



Jadual2PematuhandanKetidapatuhanMP

KonteksPerbualan(KP)

MaksimKuantiti

MaksimKualiti

MaksimHubungan

MaksimCara

M PE M PE M PE M PE1 √ X √ √ √ √ √ X2 √ X √ √ √ √ √ X3 √ X √ √ √ √ √ X4 √ X √ √ √ √ √ X5 √ X √ √ √ √ √ X6 √ X √ √ √ √ √ X7 √ X √ √ √ √ √ X8 √ Ø √ Ø √ Ø √ Ø9 √ X √ √ √ √ √ X10 √ X √ √ √ √ √ X11 √ X √ √ √ √ √ X12 √ X √ √ √ √ √ X13 √ X √ √ √ √ √ X

Jumlah 13 12 13 12 13 12 13 12PetunjukMModerator PEPemerhati

Ekonomi√Aplikasi XTidak

AplikasiØTiadaAplikasi

Jadual2memperlihatkanbahawakeempat-empatMPdipatuhiolehmoderatorbagikesemuaKP.WalaubagaimanapunPEhanyamematuhiduamaksim, iaitumaksimkualiti danhubungan.KP8memperlihatkan tiadaaplikasi kesemuaMPolehPE. Inikerana KP8 hanyamelibatkan perbualan di antara kedua-duamoderator sebelumsesi Soal Jawab TV3 berhenti untuk rehat. PE didapati melakukan pelanggaranmaksimkuantitidancara.

ContohkomunikasiyangmemperlihatkanpematuhanmaksimdapatdilihatdalamJadual3yangberikut.Jadual3KepatuhanMaksimKP Pemeran Dialog1 M1 … Saya nak tahu kalau …petunjuk-petunjuk ekonomi semasa …

kedudukanekonomi…dalamkeadaanyangmemberangsangkan…landasanyangbaik.…dimana…ekonomikitasekarang?Apakahiabergerak…arah…merasaselesaatau…pandangan-pandangan…menujukearah…muflis.

PE2 …daripadasegikewangannegara…ekonomibertambahbaiktapikewangan negara tidak memberangsangkan. … sebab. Pertama,…tengok hasil kutipan negara. … Nombor dua, untuk menjanaekonomi,…ekonomiberbandingtahunlepasdengantahunnibaiklah,tapidarisegikewanganagaktidakmemberangsangkan

2 PE2 …dijangkakanekonomikitaakannaiktetapipadakadaryanglebih



perlahan daripada tahun ini. Bank Dunia, IMF even AsianDevelopmentBankujurkan…

Petunjuk...elipsis M1Moderator1 PE2Pemerhati

Ekonomi2M1 dalam ujarannya telah mematuhi keempat-empat MP, maksim kuantiti –berinformatifyangmemadai;maksimkualiti–benar,iaituadarujukan–petunjuk-petunjukekonomi;maksimhubungan-situasisemasaekonominegaradanmaksimcara-ujaranyangringkas,jelas(tidakkabur,tidaktaksa)danteratur.Halyangsamapada ujaran PE2 ada rujukan – kewangan negara (kebenaran) –maksim kualiti;berinformatifdenganmelakukanperbandingan–maksimkuantiti;dikaitkandenganBankDunia,IMF,AsianDevelopmentBank–maksimhubungandanteraturdenganpenomboransertajelas–maksimcara.

Sementara itu, Jadual 4 memaparkan perincian kepatuhan danketidakpatuhanyangberlakudiantarapemeran.Jadual4PerincianKetidakpatuhanMPKP

MaksimKuantiti MaksimKualiti MaksimHubungan

MaksimCara

M PE M PE M PE M PE1 L C K L C K L C K L C K L C K L C K L C K L C K2 X X X √ X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X √ X X3 X X X √ X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X √ X X4 X X X √ X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X √ X X5 X X X √ X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X √ X X6 X X X √ X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X √ X X7 X X X √ X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X √ X X8 X X X Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø Ø9 X X X √ X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X √ X X10

X X X √ X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X √ X X

11


12


13


∑

13

12



Petunjuk

Jadual4memperlihatkandapatanperincianketidakpatuhanyangberlakupadaPE.Ketidakpatuhan, iaitupelanggaranmaksimkuantitidancarakecualipadaKP8, iaitutiadaaplikasimaksimkeranaketiadaansoaljawabyangberlaku.

Pelanggaranmaksim kuantiti berlaku apabila PE dalamusahamemberikanjawapan kepada moderator telah menjelaskan maklumat melebihi detail yangdiperlukan sekali gus didapati lewah. Lihat paparan contoh pelanggaran maksimkuantitidalamJadual5yangberikut:Jadual5PelanggaranMaksimKuantitiKP PE Dialog5 1 Memangkossarahidupnimerupakansatuisurakyat.….Aaa..kitaada

3elemenpentingdalamkossarahidupni.Nombor1,makanminumlah.… . Yang ke-2 pengangkutan. Yang ke-3 perumahan. … Dr. pun sebuttaditentangikan,tentangayam.…isuikannisekarang.Isuikanniaaa..isuikan.Bilanelayanasing…apayangberlakudekathargaikanini.Bilanelayan-nelayan asing … dorangambik kitapunya ikan … . The totalvalueofhasil lautyanghilang…lebihkurang5billionayear.5billionsetahun.…bila jadimacam tu, ikan kurang kan?Bila ikan kurang kitaimport.… kita punya supplier tak cukup…demandmeningkat,hargaakanmeningkat.Hargameningkat….Yangke-2,adanyaorangtengah.…diajualdekatperaihni,dekatorangtengah…....orangtengahyangduduk kat tepi pantai …memborong habis semua. … beli … hargarendah.…ikantakcukupdekatlaut…orang-orangtheforeignnelayanasingdahambik.…orang tengah…untungbanyak…sampaikatkita,the…harga jadi tinggi. ... isuayam…adasindiket tau.…control thepriceofayamni.…nelayanasingtadidokpegicurikitapunyaikanapasemuatu...…inflation…GST…KPDNKK…

7 1 …RMK11…BRIM...orangtuani…termsebagaiwargaemas…lebihsedap sikitkan. … dorang ni ada potential. … saya ada ramai kawan-kawanyangwargaemas.…canstillcontribute.…contoh…TanSriKP…TanSriIrwan,…taptheknowledge,theskills,kemahiran…intermofgivingbacktothispeople…tocontribute…sayarasaramaidorangnakcontribute. … Tapi tak diberi peluang.…Orang tua-tua ni dia banyak,orang warga emas ni dia banyak petua. … dia punya knowledge andthenexperience,pengalamandiakepadatothesepeople.…elemenPRtu…nakcompromise,berhubung, interpersonalwargaemasnibukansatuliability…anasset….

KPKonteksPerbualan

MModerator PEPemerhatiEkonomi

LPelanggaran

CCabul KPilihanKeluar ∑Jumlah XTidakaplikasiØTiadaAplikasi √Aplikasi



Petunjuk...elipsis ..jedamikro

DalamKP5,ada tigaelemenyangdinyatakanolehPE tetapielemenpertama, iaituisu ikan dihuraikan dengan detail. Antara isu ikan yang dibincangkan ialah perihalorang tengah – “duduk di tepi pantai”, “beli semua ikan”, “mereka beli hargamurah”, “untung tinggi”; nelayan asing – “curi ikan”, “hasil laut hilang”, “hasiltangkapan ikannelayantempatanmenjadikurang”,“permintaan ikanyangtinggi”,“ikantidakcukup”,“terpaksa import”,“harganaik”dansebagainya.Sementara isuayamdiberikanpenyataanringkas,iaituhargayangdikawalolehsindiket.

Sementaraituduaelemenyangberbaki,iaitupengangkutandanperumahantidak dibincangkan dalam KP5. Ketiadaan perbincangan isu pengangkutan danperumahan oleh PE dalam KP5 tidak dilabelkan sebagai ketidakpatuhan keranajawapanyangdiberikandalamkasusinitelahberinformatif,benar,relevandanjelas,iaitumematuhikeempat-empatMPbagimenjawabpertanyaanmoderator. Dalam KP7, PE menghuraikan tentang warga emas yang dikatakan masihbolehmenyumbangkepadapembangunannegara.PEmengemukakan“contohTanSri Irwan”, danmenghuraikan jenis sumbangan, iaitu “the knowledge”, “the skills”dan“pengalaman”.Kata-katainipuladiulangbeberapakali.PEjugamengemukakanpandangannya sendiri tentang kesediaan dan jumlah warga emas yang mahumenyumbang kepada pembangunan negara. Penjelasan detail berlaku berkenaankelebihan yang dimiliki oleh warga emas – “elemen perhubungan awam”,“compromise”, “berhubung” serta “interpersonal” dan seterusnya menyimpulkanbahawa mereka “bukan satu liability” tetapi “an asset”. Penghuraian seperti inimemperlihatkan ketidakpatuhan PE. Namun ketidakpatuhan ini tidakmenjejaskanintipati komunikasi bagi KP5 dan KP7 kerana maklumat yang dikemukakan inisememangperludalammemahamkanaudiens.HaliniselaridengandapatanFadhly(2012) yang menyatakan maklumat detail melebihi keperluan ini akanmenguntungkanaudiensdanpihakwartawan. Contoh ketidakpatuhan maksim cara dapat dilihat dalam Jadual 6 yangberikut:

Jadual6PelanggaranMaksimCaraKP PE Dialog4 2 ... . Saya rasalah pada pendapat saya tak ada. Dia lebih bersifat

bertanggungjawab.Ithinkitisresponsiblebajetdansayarasamemang..memang banyak kehendak-kehendak penjawat awam. ... . Tapi sayarasakerajaanaaa..sayarasabolehfulfil.....Sayarasakerajaanaaa..tumyopinion lapadapendapatsaya tidakaaa ..keperluantu ..kitastilltengokmacammana.

6 2 Sayarasakalaubolehjangan..jangan..jangan..jangankurangkanlagiperuntukan…kitacutsanacutsini,macammanakitanakperformkan.Sobermaknathisperkara-perkarayangpentingni,basicrequirementni,keperluan ni perlu ada. Dan jangan .. jangan potong la, jangan adabajetcut....TN50



Petunjuk...elipsis ..jedamikro

KetidakpatuhanmaksimcaradalamJadual6dapatdibahagikankepadaduakasus, iaitu pertamanya perulangan frasa yang bermaksud sinonim dan keduanya,perulangan frasa yang bermaksud penekanan maklumat. Kedua-dua kasus inimeyebabkan kelewahan yang tidak perlu berlaku berbanding dengan kelewahandalam konteks pelanggaran maksim kuantiti – maklumat berlebihan yangdibincangkansebelumini. Kasuspertama–sinonim,iaituperulanganujaran“sayarasalah”dan“padapendapat saya”; “bertanggung jawab” dan “it is responsible”; “my opinion” dan“padapendapat saya”; “requirement”dan “keperluan”; “janganpotong la” (elipsiskatabajet)dan“janganadabajetcut”.Sementaraitubagikasuskedua,perulangan–penekananmaklumat,kata“memang”yangberulangduakali;ujaran“sayarasa”,berulang tiga kali; kata “jangan”, berulang empat serta tiga kali dalam dua ujaranyangberbezadankata“cut”,berulangduakali. Contoh dalam Jadual 5 dan Jadual 6,memperlihatkanwujud ujaran “sayarasalah”, “saya rasa”, “my opinion”, “pada pendapat saya” yang pada araspermukaananalisismemperlihatkansepertiberlakunyapelanggaranmaksimkualiti,iaitu janganbercakapsesuatuyangpalsu/tidakbenardan janganbercakapsesuatuyang kurang bukti.Walau bagaimanapun dalam kasus analisis, PE telahmembuattanggapan berasaskan rujukan, iaitu membuat pertimbangan wajar menggunakanrujukan seiring dengan kepakaran yang dimiliki, misalnya RMK11, kehendakpenjawatawam,kedudukanfiskaldansebagainya.Sehubungan itutidaktimbul isupelanggaranmahupunpencabulanMPdalamkasusini.

Contoh-contohKPyangdikemukakan inimewakilimasing-masingnyakasuskepatuhan dan ketidakpatuhanMP yang berlaku dalam struktur isi. Dapatan jugamemperlihatkan berlakunya korelasi di antara maksim kuantiti dan cara dalamkedua-dua kasus, iaitu apabila ujaran dikatakan lewah maka sifat ini juga tidakdikehendaki dalammaksim cara. Pelanggaranmaksim cara ini tidak berhubungandengankasusketaksaandankekaburanatasasasrancanganiniyangbersifatkhususdan khalayak sasarannya ialah orang yangmempunyai pengetahuandalambidangekonomi danmemahami kosa kata ekonomi yang digunakanmisalnya “demand”,“supplier”, “GST”, “inflasi”, “TN50”, “KPDNKK” dan sebagainya. Selanjutnya, faktorberlakunya kepatuhan dan ketidakpatuhan MP akan dihuraikan dalamPerbincangan.

Perbincangan

PematuhanMPolehmoderatorsememangnyasudahdijangkakankeranatigafaktorutama, iaitu prosedur penerbitan rancangan, latar belakang moderator - jawatanyang disandang dan kemahiran berbahasa yang berhubungan dengan pengalamanyangdimilikiolehmoderatoryangmengendalikanrancanganini.

Faktor pertama, penerbitan sesebuah rancangan perlu melalui beberapaprosedur dan ini melibatkan perancangan yang rapi, iaitu sebelum keputusanpenerbitansesuaturancangantersebutdapatditerima.Setiaprancangantelevisyen



yang telah dikenal pasti penerbitannya akanmelalui rangka kerja yang dinamakanpapancerita.MenurutDanesi (2009,hlm.278),papancerita ialah“blueprint forafilm sequence or TV commercial, which is drawn to portray copy, dialogue, andaction, with caption notes regarding filming, audio components, and script” yangantara lain bermaksud paparan urutan penggambaran dalam sesuatu penerbitanrancangan.Sementara itu,menurutAdvancedMedia Institute (2018),papanceritamempunyai beberapa fungsi, iaitu membantu penentuan parameter cerita dalamsumberyangditentukandalamtempohyangditetapkan,menentukanaturan,fokusceritadanmengenalpastimediumyangakandigunakanbagi setiapsatubahagianceritatersebut.PenerbitanSoalJawabTV3pastinyamelaluiprosedurini.

Faktor kedua, moderator dalam Soal Jawab TV3 bukan sahaja bertindaksebagai moderator dalam rancangan tetapi dalam masa yang sama merupakanwartawan penyiaran yang berperananmenyampaikanmaklumat kepada khalayak.Menurut badan penyiaran tertua di dunia, iaitu British Broadcasting Corporation(BBC), wartawan penyiaran mempunyai spesifikasi tugas (Job Profile BroadcastJournalist, 2018), iaitu melakukan penyelidikan dengan pemantauan minimum,merentas kepelbagaian berita dan isu semasa,menulis skrip untuk TV, radio sertadalam talian dan sebagainya. Ini memperlihatkan bahawa wartawan penyiaranmerupakan wartawan yang secara umumnya mempunyai pengalaman yang luasdalam pelbagai medium media dan mempunyai tugas agak mencabar. Dalamrancangan ini, wartawan penyiaran telah membuat penyelidikan tentang isuekonomiyangakandibincangkandanlatarbelakangPEyangterlibatsesuaidenganetikakewartawananyangperludipatuhi, iaituantaranyaberkewajibanberkhidmatkepadaorangawam,bertugassecaratelusdanbertanggungjawab(Plaisance,2016).

Situasi ini diperkukuh dengan moderator merupakan wartawan penyiaranyangsudahbertugasagak lamadengansyarikat televisyenyangberkenaan.Dalamkasus ini,M1merupakan seorang eksekutif kananwartawanpenyiaran sementaraM2 pula merupakan seorang penerbit eksekutif. Jawatan yang disandang olehkedua-duanya moderator ini memperlihatkan bahawa kedua-duanya sudah lamabertugas sebagai wartawan serta berpengalaman luas. Hal ini turut berhubungandenganwibawamerekasendiriyangtelahdiberikantugasdankepercayaansyarikat.PerrinandDow(2016)menyatakanwartawanyangberpengalamanakanmerancangteks mereka sebelum mula menulis, iaitu mencakupi matlamat penulisan, pelan,aliran dan sebagainya dalam tugas yang akan dilakukan. Dan ini jelas dibuktikandenganorganisasimaklumat yangdisusunbaikolehkedua-duamoderator semasamengendalikanrancangan.

Faktor ketiga, kemahiran berbahasa juga merupakan sesuatu yangdititikberatkan dalam kalangan wartawan. Aspek ini menjadi perkara yangdipentingkansepertimanayangdinyatakanolehAllenmantaneksekutifeditorBBCRadio News (Little, 2015) bahawa sememangnya menjadi tugas wartawan untukberkomunikasi dengan jelas dan efektif supaya berita yang disampaikan dapatdifahamidenganmudahselainmenyediakankepadaparapenontondanpendengarpenggunaanbahasayangbijaksemasaberkomunikasi.DalamkasusstrukturisiSoalJawab TV3 ini ternyatamoderator telahmenggunakan bahasaMelayu yang tidakmenimbulkan kekaburan dan ketaksaan bahasa. Ini mematuhi maksim cara yangdiusulkanolehGrice(1975).



Kepatuhan MP oleh PE mencakupi dua MP, iaitu kualiti dan hubungan.Kepatuhan MP kualiti bertitik tolak daripada maklumat yang dikongsikan dirujukterlebih dahulu dengan dinyatakan sumbernya oleh PE – Bank Dunia, IMF, AsianDevelopmentBank,RMK11dansebagainya.Inimerujukpadanilaikebenaran.

Kepatuhan maksim hubungan dapat dilihat melalui penggunaan larasekonomi yang ditandai oleh kosa kata seperti “inflasi”, “GST”, “BRIM”, “demand”,“supplier”,“KPDNKK”dansebagainya.Inimembuktikanisuyangdibincangkanialahekonomi. Penyataan ini selari dengan Beden dan Zahid (2017) yang menyatakanbahawa kerjasama akan wujud apabila berlakunya ketepatan dan kesesuaianpenggunaanunsur-unsurbahasadengantopikperbincangan.

Sementaraitu,penggunaanakronimtidakmenimbulkangangguansemantik,iaitugangguan linguistik seperti yangberlakudalamkajian rancanganMentorolehZahid dan Hashim (2018) kerana audiens Soal Jawab TV3 adalah audiens bersifatkhususkeranasifatrancanganitusendiri.Dalambidangkomunikasi,“…noise,whichis anything not intended by the informational source” (West& Turner, 2000, hlm.12).

Apabila kedua-dua maksim kualiti dan hubungan dipatuhi, maka tidakberlakunyapencabulanMPdalamrancanganinikeranasifatinformatifnyabertujuanperkongsianmaklumat. Begitu juga tidak berlaku pilihan keluarMP kerana setiapsatu soalan bersifat praatur kerana ada papan cerita yang disediakan lebih awal.Malah lazimnya ada sesi pra sebelum sesebuah rancangan dirakam (Fitzgerald,2016).

Ketidakpatuhan MP yang dilakukan oleh PE hanya pelanggaran maksimkuantiti dan cara. PE ternyata bertindakmengemukakan contoh danmemberikanhuraian yang detail dalam respons. Ketidakpatuhan ini tidak memudaratkankomunikasi yang berlangsung seperti yang dinyatakan oleh Fadhly (2012). Begitujuga pelanggaran maksim cara tidak menjadi isu besar dalam respons PE keranaperulangan yang berlaku berpunca daripada campur kod, bahasa Inggeris danMelayu yang sinonim, iaitu terjemahan ujaran. Situasi ini juga menunjukkankedwibahasaan PE dan audiens juga. Lazimnya, rancangan yang diterbitkan diMalaysia dan audiens sasarannya orang Malaysia, persoalan campur kod tidakmenjadi isu dalam komunikasi. Ini kerana sebagai sebuah negara multietnik,pertembungan bahasa tidak dapat dielakkan. Sehubungan itu campur kodmerupakanperkarabiasadalamkalanganpenuturbagisesebuahnegarayangbercirisedemikainrupa(Albury,2017).

Kesimpulan

Analisis Soal Jawab TV3 memperlihatkan kepatuhan keempat-empat MP olehmoderator manakala hanya maksim kualiti dan hubungan dipatuhi oleh PE.Kepatuhan MP oleh moderator sememangnya sudah dijangkakan kerana sifatscripted – papan cerita. Selain itu, soalan yang bersifat terbuka atau open-endedsering dikemukakan dalam soal jawab. Faedah penting soalan open-ended ialah“allow you to find more than you anticipate” (Farrell, 2016) kerana ia membukaruangperolehanmaklumatyanglebih.



Kepatuhan maksim kualiti dan hubungan oleh PE juga sememangya telahdijangka kerana sifat perkongsian maklumat dan keilmiahan rancangan. Aplikasikedua-duamaksiminimemperlihatkankorelasi.Dalammaksimkualiti,PEmembuatrujukan sebelum membincang dan menghuraikan jawapan yang diberikan sesuaidengankewibawaankedua-duanya. PelanggaranmaksimkuantitidancaratidakdapatdielakkanolehPEkeranajawapan perlu diberikan penjelasan detail dan pengemukaan contoh yang relevanbagi tujuan pemahaman. Sifat soalan yang open-ended juga menjadi penyebabkepadasenarioini.Walaubagaimanapun,tidaktimbulisuketaksaandankekaburandalam maksim cara PE. Ternyata MP yang diusulkan oleh Grice (1975) tidakkesemuanyadiaplikasikanolehpemerandan implikasinyapula tidakmenimbulkanmasalah. Sehubungan itu dapatan ini telah sekali gus menolak penyataan Finch(2000)sebelumini.

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Penghargaan

Nur Habibah Ahmad Suhimi, pelajar Akademi Pengajian Melayu (APM), UniversitiMalaya(UM),KualaLumpur,Malaysiayangmenyediakantranskripsidata.


DevelopmentofSupplementaryEnglishReadingMaterialsatYunnanMinzuUniversity,China36

DEVELOPMENTOFSUPPLEMENTARYENGLISHREADINGMATERIALSATYUNNANMINZUUNIVERSITY,CHINA

UmarKusumaHADI1JokoPRIYANA2

DepartmentofEnglishEducation,GraduateSchoolofUniversitasNegeriYogyakarta,

55281,Yogyakarta,Indonesia

[email protected]*

2j_priyana@yahoo.comManuscriptreceived26May2018Manuscriptaccepted29October2018

ABSTRACT

For teachers or curriculum developers, providing students with adequate readingsourcesisindispensableinordertoachieveimpactandtomeetthestudents’needs.Besides, it is important tosupply studentswithpassageswhicharecontextualisedwith the students’ study background and passages which can stimulate students’interest. However, there are still inadequate sources that can be accessed bystudents of the Indonesian language departmentwho attend English class to findmoreinformationaboutIndonesiaprovidedinEnglish.Thisstudyaimedtodevelopsupplementary English reading materials mainly containing information aboutIndonesia.Todevelop thematerials, the researcherusedADDIEmodelcomprisingfivesteps:analysing,designing,developing,implementing,andevaluating.Thedatawerecollectedthroughquestionnaires,interviews,andobservationsandthenwereanalysedbyusingdescriptive statisticsand interactiveapproach.The results showthatthedevelopedmaterials:1)areappropriatetobeusedinclassroomsettings,2)havefulfilledtheneedsofthestudents,3)haveexposedstudentstothediversityofIndonesia,and4)havereinforcedthestudents’ languageandcomprehensionskillsthroughthetasksprovidedinthematerials.Keywords:English,supplementarymaterials,reading,materialsdevelopment



Introduction

In English classroom settings, students read a range of text types largely foracademicpurposes.What they readusually dependson their language skill levelsand the requirements of the curriculum. For teachers or curriculum developers,providing students with adequate reading sources is indispensable in order toachieve impact and tomeet the students’ needs (Tomlinson, 1998). Besides, it isimportant to supply students with passages which are contextualised with thestudents’ study background and passages which can stimulate students’ interest(Howard & Major, 2005; Richards, 2001). In fact, the lack of existing pertinentreading sources in the forms of books, modules, handouts, or supplementarymaterials remains the issue faced by some educational institutions such asuniversities and language courses (Azizah, 2017; Chandra, 2017). This can makeclassroomreadingactivitieslessmeaningfulandfarfromachievingitsgoals.

The students of Indonesian language department at Yunnan MinzuUniversity, China learn the Indonesian language as a foreign language. Instead ofhavingIndonesianclass,theyareregularlyobligedtotakeanEnglishsubjectatthethirdsemester.ThefacultyprovidesanEnglishlecturerfromtheEnglishdepartmentscheduled to teach the students once in a week. For the materials, the lecturermostly uses a module which is generally used by the students of the Englishlanguagedepartment.Eachunitoftheexistingmodulecoversanumberofactivitiesdesigned to improve the students’ language skills, such as listening and speakingactivities,readingactivities,vocabularybuilding,andgrammarfocus.Moreover,thestudents can improve their translation skills through accomplishing translationsectionpresentedineveryunitofthemodule.However,basedontheinformationgained from the preliminary observation, none of the passages providedinformationabout Indonesiaorother informationrelatedtothecontentarea.Thepassages were mostly about the United States. However, it is necessary to givepassageswiththetopicswhicharerelevanttothelearners’studybackgroundsincethey give students opportunities to negotiate meaning through both oral andwritten language. Texts which are not related to learner’s backgrounds presentchallenges to second language learners in areas such as schema activation, textstructures, and active use of reading and learning strategies (Peregoy & Boyle,2008).

Withrespecttothecontentofthepassages,textsthatprovideinformationabout Indonesiacouldgivestudentsof the Indonesian languagedepartmentsomepositive impacts on the improvement on their insights about Indonesia aswell astheir communication skills. Sufficient information about the country gives thestudents clearer descriptionon its people, the cultures, the language, thehistory,theplacesaswellastheartworks.Therefore,beingwell-informedaboutIndonesiacouldraisethestudents’comprehensiononIndonesiaaswellastheirlanguageskillssincetheyalsowouldhavetasksrevolvingaroundvocabularyitemsandgrammar.

In order to address the of providing relevant texts to students of theIndonesianlanguagedepartment,itisnecessarytodevelopsupplementaryreadingmaterials containing information about Indonesia that are accessible by both thestudentsandthelecturer.Inaddition,itisimportanttocompletethematerialswith



specific tasks focusing on improving the students’ language skills through theexercisesonvocabularyandgrammar

LiteratureReview

TheNatureofReadingFinding fixeddefinitionsof reading isnotsimpleas theactof reading itself.Thereare numerous or even complex definitions of reading suggested by the experts.According to Hedgecock (2009), reading is an activity of extracting visualinformation or massages from any encrypted system and comprehending themeaning.Fischer(2003)definesreadingastheactivityonmakingsenseofwrittenorprintedsymbols. Currentresearch indicatesthatreading isacomplexcognitiveactivity involving the interaction between information decoding skills andbackgroundknowledgeincorporatedwithsocialexperiences(Stephenson&Harold,2009).

Generally, people read to extract the information from the text andunderstandthemessageof the text.Meanwhile, theexpertshaveproposedsomemotives of people doing reading. Grabe and Stoller (2011) classified purposes ofreadingintofourcategories:1)readingtosearchforsimpleinformationandreadingto skim, 2) reading to learn from texts, 3) reading to integrate information,writeand critique texts, and 4) reading for general comprehension. People read someinformation from diverse sources such as newspapers, magazines, online newsplatforms,andothersources.Theysometimesmerelyreadthearticleorthenewsitemonly to findsimple information. If theyhavean intention to read for specificpurposes suchas foranacademicpurpose, theywould read thepassagecarefullyrather than skimming the text. Additionally, peoplewho read to analyse the textfrom specific point of viewswould be very critical. By doing so, they couldmakesome reviews or critiques on what they have read. Meanwhile, others just readsometextsforfunorpleasuresuchasreadingnovelsandanecdotes.

Therearealsovarioustypesofreadingtexts.Brown(2001)arguedthatthevarietyorgenresofwrittentextsarelargerthanspokentexts.Thereareatleast25genres of written texts, that is, non-fiction (e.g., reports, editorials, articles, anddictionaries), fiction (e.g., novels, short stories), letters, greeting cards, diaries,journals, memos, messages, announcements, newspaper “journalese”, academicwritings, forms,applications,questionnaires,directions, labels, signs, recipes,bills,maps, manuals, menus, schedules, advertisements, invitations, directories, andcomicstripesorcartoons.

While readinga text, readersbasicallybuildaconnectionwith theauthor.The text is created as the written form of one’s ideas and expression. In otherwords,whenreadersreadatext,theycreateabridgewhichconnectsthemwiththeauthorthroughhisorherideas.Thisprovesthatreadingessentiallyisaninteractiveactivity,notapassiveone.

The term “interactive” also refers to the interplay among various kinds ofknowledgethatthereaderemploysincomprehendingtext.Thereadermayusehis



orherbackgroundknowledgetounderstandthetextcomprehensively.AccordingtoHedge (2007), reading is a dynamic interaction between texts and the readers.Furthermore,Birch(2002)pointsoutthatreadingisaninteractiveactivity inthreeways:1)thestrategiesusedbythereader,2)theinteractioninthereader’smindinunderstandingtheauthor’smessage,and3)theinteractionbetweenthereaderandtheauthormakingindirectcommunication.ReadingComprehensionComprehensionistheessentialgoalofreadingactivities.InthecontextofanEnglishclass, comprehension should be explicitly taught by teachers. According toAnderson,teachersshouldkeepcomprehensionasoneoftheprinciplesofteachingreadingasmonitoringstudents’comprehensionisessentialtoasuccessfulreadingclass(ascitedinNunan,2003).

There are several definitions about reading comprehension. Snow (2002)defines reading comprehension as “the process of simultaneously extracting andconstructingmeaning through interactionand involvementwithwritten language”(p.11).Readersextractinformationoftheprintedtextstoconstructthemeaningofthetexts.

Harrison(2004)definescomprehensionas“theprocessofgettingmeaningofacommunication,asapersonal letter,speech,sign language;theknowledgeorunderstanding that is the result of such a process” (p. 51). In short, the term“comprehension”inreadingcontext,referstotheprocessofconstructingmeaningfromanytext.

AccordingtoSnow(2002),comprehensionconsistsofthreemajorelements:thereaders,thetexts,andtheactivities.Thereadersaretheelementsthatdothecomprehending. They use their skills, themicros and themacros, to comprehendthe texts.The textsareelements thatare tobecomprehended.Readingactivitiesdealwithall texts.Readerscomprehend the text.Theactivitiesof readingare theelementsinwhichthereisinteractionbetweenthereaderandthetext.ReadingComprehensionSkillsTherearethreetheoriesinrelationtoreadingcomprehension(Gilakjani,2016),thatis, mental representation, content literacy, and cognitive process. Mentalrepresentation refers to the way a reader understands the text. Oostendorp andGoldman (1998) state that mental representation describes how the readerconstructsthemeaningofthetext(ascitedinGilakjani,2016).AccordingtoKintsch(1998), while someone is reading a text, there are three varieties of mentalrepresentations created: surface component, the text-base, and the situationalmodel(ascited inGilakjani,2016).Content literacydealswiththestudents’abilitytoread,tounderstand,andtolearnfromthetext(Gilakjani,2016).Therearethreetypesof content literacy, that is, general literacy abilities, content-specific literacyabilities,andpreviousknowledgeofcontent.Meanwhile,Kintsch(1998)statesthat



cognitiveprocesses theory concernswith theperceptionof the reader to the text(ascitedinGilakjani,2016).TeachingReadingTeachingreadinghasitsownspecialcharacteristics.InteachingEnglishasaforeignlanguage,theaimofareadinglessonistomakestudentsreadvarioustypesoftextsin English at an appropriate speed, silently, and with adequate understanding(Nuttal,1982).Meanwhile,itisimportantforEnglishteachersnottoputsomethingintothestudents’head,buttogetthemtomakeuseoftheknowledgetheyalreadyhaveinordertoacquirenewmessagesandinformationinthetexts(Nuttal,1982).

Sadoski (2004) mentioned that there are three domain-taxonomy oflearningthatbecomethegoalsofteachingingeneral:cognitivegoal,affectivegoal,andpsychomotor goal. The firstdomain is the cognitivedomainwhichmeans thedomain of intellectual skill including the recall or recognition of information, thecomprehensionofinformation,andthedevelopmentoflogicalandrationalthoughtskills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Sadoski, 2004). Secondly, theaffectivedomainisthedomainofattitudes,interests,values,appreciation,andlifeadjustment. Thirdly, the psychomotor domain is the domain of themind and thebodyworkingtogethertoproducephysicalperformances.

In the context of teaching reading, Sadoski (2004) does not put thepsychomotordomain in itbecause it ismainly related to learninga special skill inspecialsituation.Therefore,therearetwomajorgoalsinteachingreadingwhichareaffectiveandcognitivegoals.Theaffectivedomainneedstobeaddressedinreadingclasses.Thegoalsaredistinguishedbytheconceptualdifferencebetweenattitudesand interests of the students. The first goal of teaching reading is developing thestudents’positiveattitudes towardreading.The termattitudeapplies tostudents’perceptions of their competences and their disposition toward their futureperformance.Studentswhoaredevelopingtheirreadingabilitiesneedtoapproachreadingpositivelyandgainsomeconfidenceintheircompetencytoread.Students’performancesrelatingtoreadingactionscanbecategorisedintotwoclassifications,namely, positive attitude and negative attitude. Several positive attitudes involve:success,confidence,satisfaction,acceptance,andself-esteem.Meanwhilenegativeattitudes entail failure, insecurity, frustration, stigmatisation, and shame (Sadoski,2004).

The second goal of teaching reading in affective domain is developingstudents’ personal interests and tastes in reading. The teachers should lead thestudents tohaveawareness that themainobjectiveof readingactivities is togainpositivethings.Theyreadmorethanjustreadingsentencesinatext,buttheycanachieve some goals of their life through reading. Having an interest in readingmeans“havingthemotivationtoreadandtorespondaffectively,toseek,toenlargeself-understandingandsenseofself-worththroughreading”(Sadoski,2004,p.49).

In addition, there are two main goals of teaching reading in cognitivedomains. Those two goals cover the beneficial aspects of reading and thedevelopment of students’ mental skills. The two main goals are developing the



advantageof readingasa tool tosolveproblemsanddeveloping the fundamentalcompetenciesofreadingathigherlevelsofindependence(Sadoski,2004).

MaterialsDevelopmentIn terms of language teaching and learning, the term “material” is not merelyrestricted to the printed things or written forms used for in the teaching andlearning process. It also refers to “whatever which is employed by teachers orstudents to facilitate the learning of a language” (Tomlinson, 1998, p. 2). Thematerials can be in the forms of books, e-books, articles, newspapers, cassettes,CDs,VCDs, dictionaries, flash cards, pictures andother facilitieswhich are able toimprovestudents’languageskills.

ForEnglishteachers,developingmaterials isaprocessinprovidingsourcesof language input in order to increase the performance of language learning.Tomlinson (1998) points out that materials development is the “supplying ofinformationaboutand/orexperienceofthelanguageinwaysdesignedtopromotelanguagelearning.Materialsdeveloperscanprovidereadingtexts,audiorecordings,movies,shortstories,pictures,orothersources inordertosupport thesuccessoflanguage learning” (p. 2). From Tomlinson’s (1998) statement, learning materialscan be classified into paper-based materials, audio materials, visual materials,audio-visualmaterials,andcomputer-basedmaterials.

Learningmaterialsusedinalanguageclassshouldfulfillthecriteriaofgoodmaterials. There are some criteria of good materials suggested by the experts.Rowntree(ascitedinRichards,2001)indicatesgoodmaterialsshould:1)stimulatethestudents’interest,2)remindthestudentsofpreviouslearning,3)encouragethestudentstopractice,4)explainnewcontenttothem,5)helpstudentsgetfeedbackontheirlearning,and7)enablestudentstochecktheirprogress.

Tomlinson(1998)suggeststhatgoodlanguageteachingmaterialsshould:1)achieveimpact,2)helplearnersfeelatease,3)helplearnersdevelopconfidence,4)exposethelearnerstolanguageinuse,5)providelearnerswithopportunitiestousethe target language to achieve communicative purposes, 6) take into account thestudents’learningstyles,and7)provideopportunitiesforoutcomefeedback.

TheothersuggestionsaboutthecriteriaofgoodmaterialsareproposedbyHoward and Major (2005). They suggest that the materials should: 1) becontextualised, 2) stimulate interaction, 3) reinforce learners’ language skills andstrategies, 4) focus on form as well as function, 5) provide opportunities forintegratedlanguageuse,6)beauthentic,7)linkeachothertodevelopaprogressionof skills, understanding, and language use, 8) be attractive, 9) have appropriateinstructions,and10)beflexible.



ResearchQuestions

Thisstudyaddressedthefollowingresearchquestions:1) Whatare theneedsof thedevelopmentof thesupplementaryEnglishreading

materialsonIndonesiaforthestudentsoftheIndonesianlanguagedepartmentatYunnanMinzuUniversity,China?

2) What are the students’ views on the appropriateness of the developedmaterials?

TheoreticalFramework

ThisResearchandDevelopment (R&D)projectaddresestheneedsof thestudentsmajoring in the Indonesian language department who were going to usesupplementaryreadingmaterialsintheirEnglishclass.Thematerialswereexpectedto present various information about Indonesia. Therefore, the topics of thematerialswerechosenbasedonthegeographicalandculturalissuesinIndonesia.Inaddition, the tasks on reading comprehension, vocabulary building, and grammarhadtobe includedinordertosupportthedevelopmentofthestudents’ languageskills.

Methodology

ThisstudywasaResearchandDevelopment(R&D)project,whichmainlyaimedatdevelopingsupplementaryreadingmaterialsforacademicpurposes.Theresearcherreferred to ADDIE model suggested by Branch (2009) in conducting thedevelopment process as it could be adapted to and practically applied in theeducationalcontext.Thereweresystematicproceduresfollowedinconductingthisproject, namely, analysing, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating.Eachstepconsistedofcertainactivitiesleadingtheresearcherfromthepreliminaryobservation to the last process of the development. The flow of ADDIEmodel isshowninFigure1.



Figure1.ProceduresofDevelopmentSubjectsoftheResearchThemainsubjectswhoparticipated inthisstudywere27studentsmajoring intheIndonesian languageatYunnanMinzuUniversity.A totalof22outof27 studentswerefemalestudentsandtherewerefivemalestudentsinvolved.TheycamefromseveralneighboringprovincessuchasGuangxiandSichuan.TechniquesandInstrumentsofDataCollectionThetechniquesemployedincollectingthedatawereasfollows:1) QuestionnaireDistributionThe researchers distributed the questionnaires three times. The first time wasdistributedattheearliestprocessoftheresearchinordertocollectthedataonthetargetandlearningneeds.Theseconddistributionwasforexpertjudgement,whilethefinaldistributionwaswhentheresearcherconductedthestudents’evaluation.

8. Evaluating the materials

9. Revising the second draft

10. Finishing the final draft of the materials

7. Implementating the materials

1. Conducting preliminary observation

2. Conducting needs analysis

4. Developing the first draft of the materials

5. Getting the materials judged by the expert

6. Revising the first draft

3. Designing the course grid (syllabus)

Analysing

Designing

Developing

Implementing

Evaluating



2) InterviewsThe interviewswereconducted inorder togather informationwhichcouldnotbeobtainedthroughthedistributedquestionnairesorothertechniques.Theinterviewsfollowedcertainguidelines.3) ObservationTheobservationwascarriedoutbeforetheresearchwasconductedandduringtheimplementation of thematerials. In this process, the researchers asked for sometechnicalsupportfromtheircolleaguestorecordtheteachingandlearningprocessortakesomepictures.Thiswasnecessaryfortheresearchertoseetheprocessandknowtheprogressofthestudents’development.Theinstrumentsusedincollectingthedatawerevignettes.DataAnalysisTechniquesThe data gathered were then analysed using both qualitative and quantitativetechniques to get qualitative andquantitativedata. Thequalitativedatawere theresultsoftheinterviewsandobservation,whereasthequantitativedatawerefromthequestionnaires.

Inanalysingthequalitativedata,theresearcheremployedinteractivemodelsuggested by Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) which include: collecting thedata,reducingthedata,displayingthedata,anddrawingtheconclusions.Thedatawere in the form of the interview transcripts. The transcripts showed therespondents’ responses in the preliminary phase of the research and during thefeedbackphaseforthematerials.Throughthisway,theresearchercouldgetsomeinformationabouttheneedsofthesubjectsandthestanceofthesubjectsonthematerialsdeveloped.Furthermore,theresearchercouldmakeappropriatedecisionsintheprocessofdevelopingthematerials.

The quantitative data were examined by using descriptive statistics. Theresults of this statistical calculation helped the researcher interpret the datarepresentedby themean values. Thequestionnaire used a four-point Likert Scalewherethehighestvaluewas4,whilethelowestvaluewas1.TheresultswerethenconvertedbasedontherangeofscoresasdisplayedinTable2.

Table1Dataconversion

ScoreRange Criteria>3.25 Verygood2.5<x 3.25 Good1.75<x 2.5 Fairx 1.75 Poor



FindingsandDiscussion

ResultsofNeedsAnalysis1) NecessitiesNecessities presents information about the demand of the target situation. Thereare three questions and each question contains optional answers or responses tothequestion.

Figure2.Readingskills

Figure 2 displays reading skills that students shouldmaster. Based on thepercentages,allstudentshadagreedthattheyshouldbeabletofindoutthetopicofthetextandidentifythemainideaoftheparagraph.Inaddition,themajorityofstudentshavestatedthatfindingouteitherexplicitorimplicitinformationaretwoskills that they also need to master. Meanwhile, less than half of the totalrespondentsstatedthatknowingthesocialfunctionofthetextisconsideredastheabilitythattheyneedtomaster.

Informationabout thetypesofEnglishtexts that theyreadcanbeseen inFigure3whichshowsthatalmostallstudentschosedescriptivetextasatypeoftextthat they needed to read in the target language. Meanwhile, only a smallpercentageofthestudentsthoughtthatnewsitemtextisneededtoread.



Figure3.Texttypes

Figure 4 shows the level of the students’ reading proficiency that thestudentsshouldachieve.ThestandardusedtomeasuretheirreadingskillsisbasedontheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferences(CEFR).InCEFR,one'sreadingability is divided into six levels, namely, A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, andC2. Basedon theframework, A1 level indicates that the students are able to understand familiarEnglishwords and very simple sentences. A2 level indicates that the students areabletounderstandveryshortandsimpletexts,suchasads,menus,andtimetables.AtB1 level, the students areable tounderstand texts that consisthigh frequencyeveryday language and description, and at B2 they can understand articles andreportsconcernedwithcontemporary issuesandproses.Meanwhile, thestudentsat C1 level can understand long and complex factual, literary texts, and longertechnicaltexts.Studentsatthehighestlevel(C2)canunderstandwitheaseallformsof the written language, including abstract, structurally or linguistically complextexts.



Figure4.Expectedlanguageproficiencylevelinreading

Figure4showsthatmostofthestudentsexpectedtheirreadingskillscouldreachB1level,whichmeanstheycouldunderstandtextsthatconsisthighfrequencyeveryday languageanddescription.Only4%ofstudentsstatedthattheyexpectedtohaveskillsatA2andB2levels.2) LacksFigure 5 shows that the reading ability of themajority of the students when thequestionnairewas givenwas at A2 level. At this level, students could understandvery short and simple texts, such as ads, menus, and timetables. A few of themstated that theywereat levelB1andonlyoneof themgave information that shewas at level B2. Thus, the researcher needed to develop materials thataccommodatetheabilityofthestudentsatA2andB1.



Figure5.Students’proficiencylevelinreading

In understanding the text, 72% of the respondents stated that they haddifficulties in findingout the implicitorunspecified informationof thetext (Figure6). However, nearly half of the respondents also stated that they were stillexperiencingissuesdealingwithfindingtheinformationwritteninthetext.Aroundaquarteroftherespondentsstatedthattheyalsohaddifficultiesinfindingoutthetopics of the text and identifying the main idea of the paragraph. Thus, theresearchersneedtoprovidereadingexercisesaimedatimprovingstudents'readingskills, especially the ability to find out unstated information, stated information,topicsofthetext,andmainideasfromthetext.InformationabouttheweaknessesofstudentsinunderstandingthistextcanbeseeninFigure6.

Figure6.TheStudents’DifficultiesinReading



UnitDescriptions

The supplementary materials consist of six units. Each unit presents four Englishtexts about Indonesia. Moreover, there are tasks revolving around the students’readingcomprehension,vocabularybuildingandgrammar.Attheendofeveryunit,there is a reflection column that should be filled in by the students, so they canmeasuretheirunderstandingoftheunitaswellastheirreadingskills.

Unit1consistsoftextsaboutIndonesia,theIndonesianlanguage,Pancasila,and six largest ethnic groups in Indonesia. Unit 2 consists of texts about Jakarta,Bandung,Yogyakarta,andBatik.ThetextsinUnit3areaboutChengBengFestival,BelitungIsland,TobaLake,andSamanDance.InUnit4,thestudentscanreadtextsabout Cap Go Meh, Ma’nene ritual in Toraja, Bunaken Island, and BorneanOrangutans. InUnit5,thetextsareaboutPenglipuranvillageinBali,KecakDance,Flores,andKomodoIsland.Meanwhile,Unit6consistsoftextsaboutRajaAmpatinPapua,DaniethnicgroupinPapua,Maluku,andMorotaiIsland.

In organising the tasks, the researchers follow the stages of Task-BasedLanguage approach, that is, schema building, controlled practice, comprehensibleinput, focus on form, ore task, and reflective learning (Nunan, 2004). These taskslead the students tobemoreencouraged in learning Indonesiaand to improve intheirreadingskills.AppropriatenessoftheMaterials1) TheAppropriatenessoftheContentTable 2 shows that themean of the appropriateness of the content is 3.64. Thisvalueindicatesthatthecontentofthematerialsisin“verygood”category.Inotherwords, thematerials have provided the proper content for the readers andwereappropriatetobeused.Table2ResultsoftheevaluationoftheappropriatenessofthecontentNo Indicators Score Category1 Thecontentisinaccordancewiththelearning

objectivesstatedinthesyllabus.4 Verygood

2 Thetextsconformtoneedsofthelanguageleveloftheresearchtargets(B1).

4 Verygood

3 Thetextspresentedareauthenticandrefertotrustedsources.

4 Verygood

4 Thetopicschosenareinlinewiththeneedsandexpectationsoftheresearchtarget.

3 Good

5 Exercisesortasksareinaccordancewiththelevelofresearchtargetlanguageproficiency.

3 Good

6 Thegivenpassagesconsistofseveraltypesoftext. 3 Good7 Theselectedtextscoverthethemesofdiversity. 4 Verygood8 Therearenewvocabularyitemsoneachunit. 4 Verygood



9 Therearecertainexercisesforimprovingvocabularymastery.

4 Verygood

10 Thereisaspecialsectionongrammarineachunit. 3 Good11 Thematerialsareorganizedbasedontheprincipleof

TBLT(Task-BasedLanguageTeaching)3 Good

12 Thetextspresentedraisetheaccurateandactualissues.

4 Verygood

13 Thecontentofthismaterialisdominatedbyreadingmaterialswiththeintegrationofreading,writing,andspeakingskills.

3 Good

14 Thetextspresenteddonotcontainelementsofdiscriminationandnegativeissuesoncertainethnics,religions,races,andcommunities.

4 Verygood

Mean 3.64 Verygood2) TheAppropriatenessofthePresentationAccordingtoTable3,themeanvalueofthisaspectis3.82.Thisscoreindicatesthatthematerialsarewellpresentedasthescoreisinthe“verygood”category.Table3ResultsoftheevaluationoftheappropriatenessofthepresentationNo Indicators Score Category1 Thematerialspresentthelearningobjectives. 4 Verygood2 Thematerialshavepre-readingsection. 4 Verygood3 Thematerialshavewhilst-readingsection. 4 Verygood4 Thematerialshavepost-readingsection. 4 Verygood5 Thematerialshaveanswerkeyscomponent. 4 Verygood6 Thenumberoftasksofeachunitisproportional. 3 Good7 Theinstructionsofthetasksareclearlystated. 3 Good8 Thematerialsprovidethepronunciationofthe

vocabularyitems.4 Verygood

9 EachunithasbeendevelopedthroughTBLTapproach.

4 Verygood

10 Thematerialshavereferences. 4 Verygood11 Thematerialshaveacknowledgmentandtableof

contents.4 Verygood

Mean 3.82 Verygood3) TheAppropriatenessoftheLanguageTable4showsthatthelanguageusedinthematerialsisin“verygood”category.Itimpliesthatthereadersconsiderthelanguageasagoodmodel.



Table4ResultsoftheevaluationoftheappropriatenessofthelanguageNo Indicators Score Category1 Thespellingofthewordsiscorrect. 4 Verygood2 ThedictionofthewordsisappropriateforB1

readers.4 Verygood

3 Thelanguageusedisclearandgrammaticallycorrect.

3 Good

4 Thematerialshaveusedcorrectpunctuation. 3 Good5 Thevocabularyitemsprovidedbeforethepassage

areimportant.4 Verygood

Mean 3.6 Verygood4) TheAppropriatenessoftheGraphicsandLayoutTheresultsoftheevaluationonthegraphicsandlayoutshowthat, ingeneral,theappearance of the materials is categorised as very good as the mean value hasreachedthehighestscore(Table5).Table5ResultsoftheevaluationoftheappropriatenessofthegraphicsNo Indicators Score Category1 Thefontsareinterestingandlegible. 4 Verygood2 Thefontsizeisproportional. 4 Verygood3 Thespaceamongsentencesisproportional. 4 Verygood4 Theillustrations/graphicsdisplayed

representingthecontentofthepassage.4 Verygood

5 Thesizeofthegraphicsisproper. 4 Verygood6 Thefrontcoverappearanceisattractiveand

representsthecontentofthematerials.4 Verygood

7 Thebackcoverappearanceofthematerialsisattractive.

4 Verygood

Mean 4 Verygood5) TheEvaluationfromtheStudentsAboveall,thestudentsagreedthatthedevelopedmaterialswereappropriatetobeused inEnglishclass.They thought thematerialsdidnotonlyprovide informationabout Indonesia, but also provided opportunities to improve their language skillssuchasvocabularyandgrammar.Theoverallstudents’responsestoeachunitofthematerialsisdisplayedinTable6.



Table6Resultsofthestudents’responsestoeachunitofthematerialsNo Indicators Mean Category1 Unit1(AnOverviewofIndonesia) 4 Verygood2 Unit2(Java) 4 Verygood3 Unit3(Sumatera) 3.93 Verygood4 Unit4(KalimantanandSulawesi) 4 Verygood5 Unit5(BaliandNusaTenggara) 4 Verygood6 Unit6(PapuaandMaluku) 3.89 Verygood

Discussion

The English supplementary reading materials were developed as a response toissues dealingwith inadequacy of the existingmaterials used in English class. Thenewly developedmaterialsmet the students’ necessity in havingmaterials whichwererelatedtothenativelanguageofthecountry,thatis,Indonesia.Beingfamiliarwith the country can stimulate the students’ interest in learning the language aswellasotheraspectsofIndonesia.Thisisinlinewiththecriteriaofgoodmaterialssuggested by Richards (2001), that is, good materials should stimulate students’interest. The materials contain several passages talking about Indonesia. Tocomprehendthetext,thestudentswererequiredtousetheirreadingstrategiesandskills.Thestrategieshelpedthestudentsunderstandthepassagebetter.AsstatedbyHowardandMajor(2005),thematerialsshouldreinforcethestudents’languageskillsandstrategies.Furthermore,asstatedbyRichards(2001),thematerialsshouldalsoencouragethestudentstopractise.Students’evaluationonthecontentofthematerialsshowthattheyaresatisfiedenoughwiththeinformationaboutIndonesiagiventhroughseveraltextswithvarioustopics.TheyfeltclosertoIndonesia,wheretheIndonesian language isfrom,andgotsomeimprovement intheirreadingskillsatthesametime. Thepassagesonthematerialshavebeenchangedsothattheyweremorerelevant to the learners’ background. This contextualisation of the materials wasalignedwiththecriteriaofgoodmaterialsstatedbyHowardandMajor(2005). The activities have been organised in the forms of tasks which aimed atdeveloping the students’ reading skills as well as language skills through theactivities revolving around grammar and vocabulary items. All tasks had clearinstructionsonhowtheyshouldbecarriedout.Inaddition,thematerialsprovidedthe integration of some language skills, such as reading-writing and reading-speaking. This referred to the criteria of goodmaterials proposedbyHoward andMajor (2005). In addition, the passages of the materials were adapted fromauthentic sourceswhichenabled students togetnew things (Richards,2001). Thestudentscouldcompletethetasksonreadingcomprehension,vocabularybuilding,and grammar focus. It indicates they have made some improvements, especiallydealingwith some difficulties they had before thematerials were developed andimplemented.



Good materials provide opportunities for the students to check theirprogress (Howard&Major, 2005).After reading thepassages and completing thetasks, the students could confirm their understanding by filling out a reflectioncolumnpresentedinthelastpartofeachunit.Therearepointsusedasindicatorstosee the students’ progress, that is, to what extent they have understood thematerials,whatlanguageabilitytheyhavemastered,andtowhatextenttheywerecuriousaboutIndonesia.Fromthereflection,theteachermightgivesomefeedbacktothestudents(Tomlinson,1998).Havingtheevaluationcolumnineveryunitgavestudentstheopportunitytodoself-reflectiononwhattheyhave learnedfromthewholeunit.Theymayconsulttheirteachersabouttheirviewsaboutthecontentofthetextsorthetaskstheyhavecompleted.Teacherscouldalsoprovidefeedbacktothestudents.

Conclusion

The research involved developing appropriate supplementary English readingmaterialsforthestudentsoftheIndonesianlanguagedepartmentatYunnanMinzuUniversity,China.Thestudents’needsandthecurriculumrequiredthelecturer,theresearcher aswell as curriculumdevelopers todevelopmaterials that couldmeetstudents’ needs andachieve the learningobjectives.Moreover, thematerials alsohave been contextualised with the students’ study background, so the materialscouldstimulatethestudents’interest.

The developed materials were used by students at Yunnan MinzuUniversity, China. However, because of limited time, the students did not gothrough the entire contents of the developed materials. In addition, due to costconstraints,thedevelopedmaterialscouldnotbedistributedonalargescale.Inanattempttodealwiththisissue,theresearchersdistributedthedigitalversionofthematerials to thestudentsso that theycouldbeaccess thematerials through theirmobiledevicebyscanningtheQRcodeofthematerials.

References

Azizah,L.(2017).Developingreadinglearningmaterialsfor2ndsemesterstudentsofInternational Relations Department. (Unpublished thesis). Yogyakarta StateUniversity,Yogyakarta.

Birch, B. M. (2002). English L2 reading: Getting to the bottom. London, England:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates.

Branch, M. B. (2009). Instructional design: The ADDIE approach. New York, NY:Springer.

Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to languagepedagogy(2nded.).NewYork,NY:PearsonEducationCompany.

Chandra,M. (2017).Developing autonomous online reading learningmaterials forTOEFL preparation. (Unpublished thesis). Yogyakarta State University,Yogyakarta.

Fischer,S.R.(2003).Ahistoryofreading.London,England:ReaktionBooks.



Gilakjani, A. P., & Sabouri, N. B. (2016). How can students improve their readingcomprehension skills? Journal of Studies in Education, 6(2), 229-240. doi:10.5296/jse.v6i2.9201.

Grabe,W.,&Stoller,F.L. (2011).Teachingandresearchingreading.GreatBritain:PearsonEducationLimited.

Harrison,C.(2004).Understandingreadingdevelopment.London:SAGEPublication.Hedge,T.(2007).Teachingandlearninginthelanguageclassroom.Oxford:Oxford

UniversityPress.Hedgecock, J. S. (2009).Teaching readersofEnglish:Students, texts,andcontexts.

NewYork:Routledge.Howard J., &Major, J. (2005) Guidelines for designing effective English language

teaching materials. Proceedings of the 9th Conference of Pan-PacificAssociationofAppliedLinguistics(pp.101-109).Seoul,SouthKorea.

Miles,M. B., Huberman, A.M., & Saldana, J. (2014).Qualitative data analysis: Amethodsourcebook(3rded.).ThousandOaks,CA:SagePublishing.

Nunan,D.(2003).PracticalEnglishlanguageteaching.NewYork,NY:McGraw-HillNunan,D.(2004).Task-basedlanguageteaching:Acomprehensivelyrevisededition

of designing tasks for the communicative classroom. New York, NY:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Nuttal,C.E.(1982).Teachingreadingskillsinaforeignlanguage.London,England:HeinemannEducationalBooks.

Peregoy,S.F.,&Boyle,O. (2008).Reading,writingand learning inESL:AresourcebookforteachingK-12Englishlearners.NewYork,NY:Pearson.

Richards,J.C.(2001).Curriculumdevelopmentinlanguageteaching.NewYork,NY:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Sadoski,M.(2004).Conceptualfoundationsofteachingreading.NewYork,NY:TheGuilfordPress.

Snow, C. (2002).Reading for understanding: Toward a research and developmentprograminreadingcomprehension.Pittsburgh:RAND.

Stephenson,L.,&Harold,B.(2009).Elementsintheteachingandreading.Teachers,Learners, and Curriculum, 4(1). Retrieved from https://www.zu.ac.ae/main/files/contents/edu/.../Stephenson.pdf.

Tomlinson,B. (1998).Materials development in language teaching (2nded.).NewYork,NY:CambridgeUniversityPress.


EstablishingtheGenericStructurePotentialofBidayuhBau-JagoiOralFolkNarratives,Dondan

55

ESTABLISHINGTHEGENERICSTRUCTUREPOTENTIALOF

BIDAYUHBAU-JAGOIORALFOLKNARRATIVES,DONDAN

YvonneMichelleCAMPBELL1KamilaGHAZALI2

SakinaSahuriSuffianSAHURI3FacultyofLanguages&Linguistics,UniversityofMalaya,

JalanUniversity,50603KualaLumpur

[email protected]*[email protected]@um.edu.my

Manuscriptreceived20April2018Manuscriptaccepted13October2018

ABSTRACT

This study aimed to establish the genre status of the Bidayuh oral folk narrative,knownasdondan,withafocusontheBau-JagoiBidayuhgroup.Inordertoanalysethegenre statusof thedondan, theGenericStructurePotential (GSP) isused.TheanalysesrevealedthatthedondanhasasimilarGSPtoEnglishFairyTalesbutdiffersin termsofoneof theelements, thePlacement,which isanobligatoryelement inthe dondan. The study also revealed that the Semantic Attributes which realisestheseGSPelementsaremoreculturallybased. AlthoughtheGSPofthedondan issimilar to English Fairy Tales, it is the optional elements that reflect the culturallyrelated elements of thedondanespecially the communicative purpose to educateand disseminate cultural knowledge. Future work on oral folk narrative shouldincludein-depthanalysisoflexicogrammaticalitems.Keywords:oralfolknarrative,dondan,Bidayuh,genre,GenericStructurePotential

Introduction

The Bidayuh is one of themany ethnic groups residing in Sarawak,Malaysia, theeasternMalaysian state on the south-western of Borneo Island. Believed to haveoriginated from theSungkungareaofWestKalimantan,Bidayuhgroups consistofthe three major groups, namely, the Bukar-Sadong, Bau-Jagoi and Biatah group



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(Rensch, Rensch,Noeb,&Ridu, 2012). This study focuseson theBau-Jagoi groupwhosevillagescouldbefoundintheBauDistrictinSarawak.

Traditionally, the Bidayuh Bau-Jagoi community held strongly to thetraditional religionor odatoma.Odatomawasavery importantentitywithin theBidayuh community, consisting of rules established by the priest and priestess toensureabalancebetween thepeople, nature and spiritualworld as thebeliefsoftheBidayuhrevolvedmostlyaroundnatureandthespiritualworld.ThetraditionalBidayuhcommunity isananimisticcommunityduetotheirbeliefs intheexistenceof spirits around them. They are often referred to as the “pagan” Bidayuh, todifferentiatethemfromtheChristianandMuslimBidayuh.

BidayuhDondan

Bidayuh oral folk narratives or dondan,was one of themeans for the traditionalBidayuhtodisseminate importantvalues,beliefsandcustoms (Ridu, Jitab,&Noeb2001). They relied solely on oral means to pass down their cultural heritage andknowledgetoeachother,especiallytheirchildren(Riduetal.,2001).Dondan isanemictermusedbytheBidayuhtorefertoalargenumberoforaltales,intheformof narratives, which would be classified bymost non-Bidayuh scholars as ancientstories,myths, legends and fables. Those responsible in disseminating thedondanwere usually elderly folks who were regarded as knowledgeable by the people.According to Ridu et al. (2001), dondan were usually told at night either in thelonghousegallery (plamanbotangromin) toa largeandvariedaudience,or in theboriumohorgardenhousebyanelderwomantoherchildrenandgrandchildrenorintheBaruk,(theceremonialhouse)toteenageboysandmen(Riduetal.,2001).

Dondanwas regardedasa tool foreducating theyoungsters tohelp themlearn importantmoral values aswell as away to understand theBidayuh culturalidentity and way of life. However, due to modern advancement, the practice ofstorytellingandthedondan itselfislosingitsplaceintheBidayuhcommunity.Itisoften regarded as irrelevant by the younger generations of Bidayuh, in factmostBidayuh children are more familiar with Western folk stories (Campbell, Ting &Chuah, 2012). Besides that, most Bidayuh nowadays are either Christians orMuslimsandhavemovedawayfromtheirancestors’animisticbeliefs.TheyoungergenerationsofBidayuhdonotknowwhatadondan isorhaveneverheardofanydondan (Campbell, et al., 2012). This is a sad loss for the Bidayuh communitybecause the dondan could be a rich source of cultural knowledge. The loss of itwould result in the loss of valuable knowledge which may be exclusive to theBidayuh.

This study, therefore, examined the Generic Structure Potential or GSP ofthedondan togetherwith the Semantic Attributeswhich realises the elements oftheGSP.TheanalysisoftheGSPwouldprovideinsightnotonlyonthestructureofthedondanasagenrebutalsoprovideamoresystematicanalysisofthecontentofthedondanasanimportantcarrierof lesson,moralvaluesandculturalheritageoftheBidayuh.



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FolkloreTheoryonOralNarrative

Oralfolknarrativesarestorieswhichareusuallypasseddownfromonegenerationto the next through oral communication and are typically simple in structure,language and theme (Lwin, 2009). They are generally associatedwith stories thatexplainedthephenomenonoftheworldandarecreatedbyaparticularcommunityinanattempttounderstandtheworldaroundthem,especiallythoserelatedtothenaturalandspiritualworld(Lynch-Brown&Tomlison,1993).

Intheoldendays,beforetheadvancementofmoderntechnology,oralfolknarrativewasoneofthemediatoentertainandeducatethepeople. Itwasatoolused to transfer knowledge especially cultural knowledge such as the customs,beliefs,moralsandvalueswhichweredeemed importantby thepeople. Thiswasespeciallycommoninsocietieswhichdidnothaveanyformalwritingoreducationsystem (Babalola & Onanuga, 2012; Reese, 2007). Therefore, oral folk narrativesserve tocommunicate tomembersofacommunity theculturalknowledgeand toteachmoralvalues.

Oral folk narratives consist of other types of narratives, namely, myths,legends,folktalesandfairytales.Studiesandtheoriessurroundingoralfolknarrativeclaimed thatmanyelements inoral folknarratives are symbolic. They are knownandunderstoodonlybythepeopleofthecommunity.Jung(1970)believedthatthesymbols within these oral folk narratives expressed the ancient models of thehumansoulandspirits.Inotherwords,oralfolknarrativesarerichinsymbolsandmetaphorswhichareexclusivetothepeople.

Oral folk narrative is also seen as a reflection of the community’s life andcustoms.AsstatedbyHolbek(1987),“everyelement[inafairytale]maybereadaspertaining to real life” (p. 409). By analysing the GSP and Semantic Attributes ofBidayuhdondan,thisreflectionoftheBidayuhcommunity’slifeandcustomscanbeexplored systematically to provide a better understanding of the Bidayuhcommunityaswell as the functionofdondanasa tool todisseminatecultureandmoralvalues.

Methodology

Before this study was conducted, permission was obtained from the relevantauthorities including the Penghulu or leader of the Bau-Jagoi area and the ketuakampongorheadmanofthevillagesofKampungStassandKampungSkibang,Bau.

Itwascrucialtoidentifystorytellerswhomthevillagersregardedasprolificsince this study focused on the oral folk narratives of the Bau-Jagoi Bidayuh. Thiswas done by conducting informal interviews with the villagers including theheadmen of the two villages. Based on the suggestion of the people, twostorytellers were identified, one from Kampung Skibang and one from KampungStass. Both gentlemenwere in their late 80s during the time of this study. Thetimes and dates for the storytelling sessions were agreed upon. The storytellerspreferred evening time, after dinner because itwas the timewhen everyonewasresting and needed some form of entertainment, a habitwhichwent back to theoldendayswhentherewerenotechnologiestoentertainthem.



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Altogether12dondanwererecorded inthisstudy. Thedondanwerethentranscribed and later translated into both Bahasa Melayu and English. BahasaMelayu because it is the closest language in terms of structure and vocabulary toBidayuh,andEnglish,forthepurposeofdiscussion.Thedondanwerethenanalysedusing theGSP frameworkasproposedbyHasan (1984) to identify thestructureofthedondanasagenreaswellasBhatia’s(1993)conceptofcommunicativepurposesto determine the communicative purposes of this particular genre within theBidayuhcommunity.

The next section explains the GSP framework, followed by a generaldiscussionofGSPoftheBidayuhdondanandadetaileddiscussiononthedifferentelementsoftheGSP.

GenericStructurePotential:EstablishingaGenre

Agenreisdefinedashavingagoalorapurposethatneedstobedisseminatedandtransferredtomembersofacommunity,andinthecontextofthisstudy,aculturalcommunity. According to Martin (1984) a genre is “a staged goal-orientedpurposeful activity inwhich speakers engages asmembers of our culture” (p. 25)accomplishedor realised through the languageof the text (Martin,1984). Hyland(2002) reiterates that genres “are abstract, socially recognized ways of usinglanguage.”

Swales(1990)andBhatia(1993)recognisegenreas“communicativeevents”havingsomeformsof“communicativepurposes”:

Genre is a recognizable communicative event characterized by a set ofcommunicative purpose(s) identified and mutually understood by themembersof theprofessionaloracademiccommunity inwhich it regularlyoccurs.(Bhatia,1993,p.13)Bystudyinggenre,therolesandfunctionsofthetextswouldalsobelooked

intowithregardstotheirsocialandculturalcontext.BothBhatia(1993)andSwales(1990) highlight the importance of achieving or realising the communicativepurpose(s) of the text through the use of patterned structures ormoveswhich inturn is realised through the language. Bhatia (1993) argues that genre analysisallows one to “understand how a particular genre defines, organizes and finallyconstructsocialreality”(p.8)andthatgenreanalysisattemptstoexplainlanguagein use and the communicative purposes by looking at language above the clauselevelandtakingintoaccountthesocialandculturalcontextofthetext.

Genre, according to Halliday (1978), needs to be analysed by taking intoaccounttheconceptofgenericstructure,whichiscommontothetextsthatbelongto the same genre. The concept of generic structure could be locatedwithin theconceptofregister.Halliday(1985)explainedthatGenericStructurePotential(GSP)was developed by Hasan (1984) to explain how the structural unity of a text isaccomplished. Itcoversbothsyntagmaticandparadigmaticanalysis lookingatthegeneric structure and the lexicogrammatical patternswithin a text andhow theseaccomplishthecommunicativepurposeofthetext.



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Hasan (1984)developed theGSPmodel in the lightof SystemicFunctionalLinguisticbasedonHalliday’s(1985)notionofregister. AccordingtoHasan(1984),all genres have a generic structure potential that is a linear combination of threetypes of elements: obligatory, optional and recursive in a certain order. Theobligatoryelementsandtheirsequencedeterminedthegenreofthetext,whiletheoptionalelements,whichmayormaynotappear inthetext,addsvariationtothetextsinthesamegenre.Recursivereferstotheorderingoftheseelementsincludingiterationofthesetwoelements.

Hasan(1984)analysedEnglishnurserytalesasagenrebyanalysingtheGSPofthesetales.Hasan(1989)identifiedthemoveswithinthesenurserytalesandhowthesemoveswerestructuredtocreateagenrewhichwasuniquelyanurserytale.TheobligatoryelementsinthenurserytaleswereInitiatingEvents,SequentEventsandFinalEvents.Theseeventswereobtainedbyanalysingtherecurrentpatternsofthese elements. The optional elements in the nursery tales were the Placement,FinaleandMoral.

BasedonheranalysisofclassicEnglishnurserytales,Hasan(1984)proposedtheGSPofnurserytalesasfollows:

←[(<Placement>^)InitiatingEvent^]SequentEvent^FinalEvent[^(Finale).(Moral)]

Figure1.ProposedGSPofnurserytales(Hasan,1984)

Table1ThesymbolsandnotionsoftheGSPSymbol MeaningNoroundbracket Obligatoryelements() Optionalelements<> Elements whose lexicogrammatical realization may be

includedorinterspersedwiththelexicogrammaticalrealizationofsomeotherelement(s)

[] Boundariesofalimitationofsequence.^ Relativesequence;cannotprecedetheother. Theplacingoftheelementcanbereversed← Possibilityofiterationoftheelement

Hasan(1984)statedthattheGSPofatextwasrealisedbytheSemanticAttributeormeaningwithintheEvents.ThisreferredtowhatthedifferentEventcontainedandwhattheytalkedabout.

Tan(2009)analysedtheSemanticAttributesandlexicogrammaticalitemsofthe Event sections of Grimm’s fairy tales, stating that these Semantic AttributesrealisestheelementsofGSP,particularlytheobligatoryelements. Tan(2009)alsoanalysed the lexicogrammatical items which realise the Semantic Attributes.However, for thepurposeof thispaper,only theGSPandSemanticAttributesarefocussedon.Thispaperalsoexaminestheoptionalelements.



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EstablishingtheGenericStructurePotentialoftheBidayuhDondan

Theanalysisofthe12dondanrevealedthattheGSPforthesedondanaresimilartoHasan’s(1984)findingsontheGSPofnurserytales.TheGSPofthe12dondanareshowninTable2.Table2TheGSPforall12dondan Folknarratives(Dondan) GSP1. Lomow PÎE^SEÊ^FE2. PironukOdiNuboh PÎE^SE^FE3. ManukRuwui PÎE^SE^FE^B4, OyungduwohDiyak PÎE^SE^FE^B5. Ronai PÊÎE^SE^FE^B6. PironukJajiRaja PÎE^SE^FE7. SikauBungak PÎE^SE^FE^M8. Siak Bigimang duwoh Asang

BiganaPÎE^SE^FE^FÎE^SE^FE

9. Sibunyuah PÎE^SE^FE^FÎE^SE^FE10. Do’ot PÎE^SE^FE^B11. Ayang PÎE^SE^FE^B12 Tiburit PÎE^SE^FE^BP=Placement,IE=InitiatingEvent,SE=SequentEvent,FE=FinalEvent,E=Explanation,M=Moral,B=Belief,F=FinaleBased on the pattern in Table 2, the GSP of the Bidayuh Bau-Jagoi dondan cangenerallybesummarisedasshowninFigure2.←[<Placement> ^ Initiating event^]. (Explanation) [Sequent event] ^ [Final event ^(Moral).(Belief)]

Figure2.TheproposedGSPforthedondanTheobligatoryelementsofthesedondanarePlacement, InitiatingEvents,SequentEventandFinalEvent. InHasan’s (1984)study,Placement isanoptionalelement;however, this is not the case for theBidayuhdondan. Placement is anobligatoryelementinthedondanstudied.

Two of the dondan, Dondan Siak Bigimang duwoh Asang Bigana andDondanSibunyuahhowever,showedadifferentstructure(Figure3):

[<Placement>ÎnitiatingEvent^]SequentEvent^[Finale^ InitiatingEvent^] [SequentEvent^][FinalEvent]Figure3.GSPofDondanSiakBigimangduwohAsangBiganaandDondanSibunyuah

Thetwodondanarepartofalongernarrativeandareconsideredaslegend

bytheBidayuhBau-Jagoicommunity.TheyarestoriesofBidayuhwarriors.Infact,



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DondanSibunyuahisacontinuationofDondanSiakBigimangduwohAsangBigana.Acloseranalysisofthesedondanrevealedthattheybothconsistedofanumberofshortrelatedstorieswithinthem,unliketheothereightdondanwhichconsistofonecompletestoryontheirown.

ElementsoftheDondanGspandTheirSemanticAttributes

As stated in the earlier section, the obligatory elements of the dondan GSP arePlacement, Initiating Event, Sequent Event and Final Event while the optionalelementsareBeliefs,ExplanationandMoral.Thefollowingdiscussionwill focusontheobligatoryelementsfirstfollowedbytheoptionalelements.TheObligatoryElementsoftheDondanGSP

Placement.

The Placement element of the GSP relates to the part where the characters areintroduced, as well as the spatial and temporal elements of the story (Patpong,2011). Within Placement, there is Person Particularisation, which introduces theprotagonistandFraming,whichdescribesthetemporalandspatialframeofthetale(Hasan1984).

Placement in the dondan consist of the Semantic Attribute of PersonParticularisation. This is where the storyteller introduces the characters andprovides some background information on the main characters. For example, inDondan Lomow, a brief introduction of Lomow as an orphan with a deformedappearanceisgiven.

Lomow noh tie eh neh,wat itih yoh noh tie eh neh. Sinok eh ogik pak ehsamak eh doik, onak tumang, onak patu. Lomownoh tie eh neh, dah lahbutak, yoh bikuku, ro’o da’angbori sadik-sadik eh, doik ro’o duwohnya’a.Sinokehgabikutuaktibannya’a.Onakmiskin,onakbutak.Lomowisanorphan.Lomowisblind,disfiguredandstaysaloneinhishouse.Hismotherdoesnotopenthedoorforanyone.

(DondanLomow)

InDondanManukRuwui, the storyteller relates the storyofhowahumanPrincess becomes a half human half pheasant being while in Dondan Ronai, thestorytellerprovidesadescriptionofwhoRonaiisandhowshebecamepregnantbydrinkingthemagicalwaterfromtheyamleaf.AnotherexampleisinDondanSikauBungak whereby the main character, Sikau Bungak is introduced as the son of afarmer. The births of the main characters are explained in both Dondan SiakBigimangduwohAsangBiganaandDondanSibunyuah.

Inthreeofthedondan,DondanPironukJajiRaja,DondanPironukOdiNubohandDondanOyung duwoh Diyak, the introduction of the characters is very brief.Forexample,inDondanPironukJajiRajaandDondanOyungduwohDiyak,onlythe



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differenttypesofanimalsarementionedtoshowthattheyarethecharactersinthedondan:

Singa,rimoung,gajah,yohmokdo’ot,rusa,pironuk Lion,tiger,elephantandalsowildboar,deer,mousedeer

(DondanPironukJajiRaja)

Sikaliogikoyungduwohdiyakmoktu’ibidinganOncemonkeyandtortoisehavebeenfriendsforlong

(DondanOyungduwohDiyak)

ThesamecanalsobeseeninDondanPironukOdiNubohandDondanDo’ot,where only a brief statement is given in introducing the main character in thedondan.

Dekdiokwithwatehneh,pironuknohbikayuholudeh,sadik-sadikehdiokneh,yohnangeh.Thisishowitwas,mousedeersaileditsboat,allalone,singing

(DondanPironukOdiNuboh)

dondando'otnohtieehneh,pabilado'otnohmotakodimandekumoheh.mandekumohsamakeh.Thestoryofwildboariswhenwildboargoesandeatsatsomeone’spaddyfield.

(DondanDo’ot)

TheSemanticAttributeofFraming,whichaccording toHasan (1984,1996)specifiesthetemporalandspatialdescriptionofastory,isnotexplicitlymentionedwithinthePlacementelement. Theaudiencecanassumethatthesetting is inthejungleorinthevillage(athome),basedonwhathappenedinthedondan:

Duwohna’antuanputeriodinyukuopikien.TwoPrincesseswenttocatchfish

(DondanManukRuwui)

For instance, in thephraseodi nyukuop ikien in theexcerpt above,means“tocatchfishusingatoolknownassukuop”.Itisatypeoftriangularbasketusedtocatchfishinariverorstreaminthejungle,usuallynotfarfromthevillage.Itisnotafishing tool for catching fishat sea.This indicates that theeventhappenednearastream,notfarfromthevillage,mostprobablyinthejungle.



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Therearealsootherevidencesinthedondanwhichshowedthattheeventshappenedinthejungle:

limoungbutak,kominmodon,batianehlimoungbutak,komingmokbulahtongatopatehponu.nyohmokkayaktobanlimoungnohponu.tu'ui-tu'uiehyohmohnogtolun,samahbitobanodopehduwohponu,samahbilabudekaluangbanir.Blindtiger,modongoat,theylefttheirhometown.Notlongafterthat,theyreachedthe jungle,togethertheywalk,togethertheysatbytherootsofabanyantree.

(DondanSiakBigimangduwohAsangBigana)dondando'otnohtieehneh,pabilado'otnohmotakodimandekumoheh.mandekumohsamakeh.Thestoryofwildboariswhenwildboargoesandeatsatsomeone’spaddyfield.

(DondanDo’ot)

Banirreferstothehugerootsofthebanyantreewhichcouldonlybefoundinthejunglewhileumohreferstothericefieldwhicharealsousuallysituatednearjungle.

The analysis of the Placement element indicates that the SemanticAttributes of Person Particularisation and Framing exist in Bidayuh dondan. BothSemanticAttributesarebriefandsimple.ThespatialframecanbeaplaceorplacesfamiliartotheBidayuhcommunity;eitherintheirownvillagesorinthejungleneartheir villages.This shows that the spatial framehas tobea locationknown to thecommunitytoenablethemtorelatetoit.Thetemporalframeontheotherhand,isnotexplicitlystated.

Initiatingevents.

Oneof theobligatoryelements in fairy tales is InitiatingEvent (Hasan,1984). Theanalysisofthedondan,basedonHasan(1984)andTan(2009),revealsthatdondan’sGSParerealisedbySemanticAttributes thataresimilar toTan’s (2009)withsomevariation.Figure4showstheInitiatingEventthatgivesrisetothebeginningofthedondan.



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Figure4.SemanticAttributesofInitiatingEventsinthedondan

EachoftheInitiatingEventbeginswithasituationthattriggersaProblemindicatingthat the focal point of the dondan is a problem. Based on the analysis of theInitiatingEvents inthedondan,theseproblemsariseduetotheneedsofthemaincharacters. TheProblemsinthedondanaredueto(A)Lack,(B)Obligationand(C)Ordeal.

Themostcommonproblemfoundinthedondanis(A)Lack.TherearetwotypesofLacks(A)inthedondan:thelackofmaterialthings(a)andkinship(b).Lackof food (1) is the commonest form of problem. The following excerpts from thedondanindicatestheLackoffood:

Tibulit tukiattanak,yohmantanak.Maadkerongitkanih,yohmantubik.Yohsuakmantubik.Tibulitmo’mu’unka’angtanak.Onikowo’demanpakeh pe nyampaguh ngan to’man danih, doik nak de nyam to’man tanakdatik,modudnyamotinnyekdakeh,ponaibijaknyambobaknyedakeh.Pitarnyamnyekdakehinneh.Houselizardlookaroundthedirt;iteatsthedirt.Gouptotheskyandtheyare eating rice. It took eats rice; House lizard then went down to Earth.Wonderingwhat is the foodeatenby thepeopleup there, as it seems sogood.Unlikewhatweeathereonearth.Theheartbecomeswisebecauseofit,themouthiswisebecauseofit.Itmakesonefeelclever,itsaid

(DondanTiburit)

bila yoh biumuh noh tiyak neh, yoh mok dusahman bisowak-sowak. yohmok, 'nok,okunyakman, ' ineh. 'makdiyokman, samakmu'gituangehnuok,'insinokeh.



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Whentheyare farming, theydonotbother toeat foryears.Thesonsaid,‘mother, I want to eat,’ he said. ‘Do not eat first, your father has notfinishedplanting,’saidthemother.

(DondanSikauBungak)

Sikalioyungnang,"idoh"ineh,'barak-barakmunotokodikarikpinguman,"ineh.Thenmonkeysaid,‘no’,itsaid.‘therewillbealotforustolookfood.’


The Lack of food is evident inDondan PironukOdi Nuboh, DondanOyungduwohDiyak,DondanTiburitandDondanSikauBungak.TheLackoffoodiscausedbytheneedforit.InDondanPironukOdiNuboh,theneedforfoodmadethegroupof animals vigilantly guard their food from being stolen by the Tiger, whereas inDondan Oyung duwoh Diyak, the need for food has led to Tortoise and Monkeystealing from the human farm and the same is told in Dondan Tiburit, wherebyHouselizardstolericegrainsfromtheStarsinsky.

IndondanSikauBungakhisneedforfoodledtohimaskinghisparentsforfood,butbecausetheyweretoobusyfarming,thisneedwasnotmet,resulting inalsointheLackforfood.ThiscouldalsoberelatedtoanotherformoflackwhichisLackofKinship, that is, the lackofattentiongiven toSikauBungakbyhisparents.LackofKinship is also indicated inDondanSibunyuah,wherebySibunyuah losthisfatherwhowaskilledbytheevilmonsterKutang-katung.

TheotherLackfoundintheanalysisisLackofObject.InthecaseofRonai’sson inDondanRonai,hewantedaspinning top.ThisLackcouldalsoberelatedtoLackofKinshiponceagain.Sincehewasborn,Ronai’ssonhasnevermethisfather.Asindicatedintheexcerptabove,thishasledtohimneedingaspinningtop.

Problems in the dondan may also arise due to Obligation (B) which isdescribed inDondan Sikau Bungak. In the dondan, themother promised to giveSikauBungakfoodassoonashisfatherfinishedworking,butthispromisewasnevermet:

'mak diyok man, samak mu' gituang eh nuok, ' in sinok eh. aluak-aluaksamakehnuok,'nok,okunyakman,'ineh.idohdi'manadonpu'unehneh.pak eh itiak SikauBungak. 'makdiyokman, ' in eh, 'samakmu' aluok sakobuaknuok,'ineh.‘Donoteatfirst,yourfatherhasnotfinishedplanting,’saidthemother.Andyet the father is stillworking.Againandagainheasked for food, ‘donnoteatyet,yourfatherhasnotfinishedplanting.’

(DondanSikauBungak)

AsfortheattributeofOrdeal(C),thisisfoundinDondanAyangwherebythemaincharacterhadtoovercometheobstaclesofthebig floodandhowtosurviveaftertheflood.



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AnotherattributeofOrdealfoundisintheproblemofphysicalappearance.This is evident in Dondan Manuk Ruoi and Dondan Lomow whereby both maincharacterswere pictured as being defected in their physical appearance. Lomowwasdescribedasimperfect,deformed,blindanddeafwhileinDondanManukRuwuitheprincessisdescribedashalfhumanandhalfpheasantandmissingafinger.

BasedontheanalysisoftheSemanticAttributesintheInitiatingEvent,thefocusof thesedondanareproblemswhicharisesdue to thedifferentLacksof themaincharacters.TheseLacksarerelatedtotheneedforfoodandsurvival.Besidesthat,Lackofkinshipisalsodiscovered,whichisagainbasedontheneedforparentalattention and love. This may have led to the Problem of Obligation which isextractedfromtheparents.OrdealisanotherSemanticAttributefoundandthisisbasicallyduetotheforceofotherssuchastheneedtorevengeandtheneedtolookphysicallyattractiveornormal.

This study indicates similarities with Tan’s (2009) Semantic Attribute ofInitiatingEventbutwithadditionalonessuchasRevengeandPhysicalAppearancewithin the Ordeal Semantic Attribute. Lack of Kinship arise only because ofparental/childrelationship.

Sequentevents.

Sequent Events is theunfoldingof theplotof theoral folknarratives and cover alarge portion of the dondan. According to Tan (2009), in Sequent Events, theproblemwhich was found in the Initiating Event is handled and this is known asComplication. Based on the dondan studied, there are two areas in whichComplications occur, that is Test and Solution. Tan (2009) stated that inGrimm’sFairy Tales, these two are notmutually exclusive. A Testwould be followedby aSolutionbutnotviceversa.Thesameisalsodiscoveredintheanalysisofthedondan.TheSemanticAttributesfortheSequentEventofthedondancouldbesummarisedinFigure5.

Figure5.SemanticAttributesofSequentEventsofthedondan

Outofthe12dondan,onlyonedidnothavetheSemanticAttribute(D)Test

and that isDondan Lomow. In the dondan, the Problem in the Initiating Event is



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solved immediately. Lomowwasaskedtokillandeat thebirdKonang. Hedidsoandinstantlychanged.Intheotherdondan,theTestisfollowedbySolution.TheseTest comes in the form of obstacles that may hinder the main characters fromreachingtheirgoals.ThesemanticattributesforTestareawarningoracurseandafight or a battle. TheWarning/Curse attribute could be found inDondanManukRuwui andDondan Ronai as in both stories there is the element ofwarning frommagical beings, whereas the Fight/Battle attribute could be found in DondanSibunyuah.

Yoh mok mu’un ligang kulit kosad labuk tiyak, Sibunyuah notok bah eh.Obuak.Yohmokkobosehtiyakneh.HegoestoseetheskinoftheheadandSibunyuahcutstheheadoff.

(DondanSibunyuah)The Solution in thedondancomes in the formof Trickery orHelp from an

Agent with Magical abilities. Three of the dondan’s Solution is in the form ofTrickery –Dondan Pironuk Odi Nuboh, Oyung duwoh Diyak and Pironuk Jaji Raja,while the rest of thedondan’s Solutionwere due toMagical Intervention or helpfromanAgentwithMagicalpowers.InthecaseofSikauBungak,hewashelpedbyhisdeceasedgrandfatherwho is living in thesky. Thesame is true forRonaiwhoobtained his spinning brass top from his father who is believed to be a celestialbeingresidinginthesky.LomowishelpedbyKonang,amagicbirdsendsbyTopa,aGodwhilebothSibunyuah;Sibunyuahwashelpedbyhisuncle.

Finalevents.TheFinalEventsofthedondanisanEvaluationoftheComplications.Basedonthedondananalysed, thereare twosemanticattributes realisedbyEvaluation, that is,Punishment(F)andVictory(G)whichareatoppositeends.However,insomeofthedondan, some Punishment are followed by Victory. Figure 6 illustrates the FinalEventfoundinthedondan.

Figure6.SemanticAttributesofFinalEventinthedondan



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TheSemanticAttributeofPunishmentcomesintheformoftransformation,usually a negative one. In the dondan, Punishment is the consequence of doingsomething which is forbidden. For example, in both Dondan Manuk Ruwui andDondanSiRonai,themaincharactersweretransformedintobirdsbecausetheydidnot heed thewarning set by the spirits, in this case, the Spirit of the Pheant andSpirit of the Moon (Moon King), respectively. In Dondan Ayang, the SemanticAttribute of Punishment is revealed whereby the main character’s children diebecause he did not heed the warning of the omen birds. This indicates thatPunishment in the dondan comes in the form of negative consequences due toignoringorviolatingthecustomsandtaboos.

TheSemanticAttributesofVictorycanbesaidtoreflectpositivegainsinthedondan.Inthedondanstudied,Victorycomesintheformofwinningsomething;itcanbeafightoracontestsuchasinDondanPironukJajiRajaandDondanSibunyuahwhereby themousedeer inDondanPironuk Jaji Rajabecameking and inDondanSibunyuah, Sibunyuahmanaged to kill the monster Kutang-Kating and avenge hisfather’sdeath.

Victory is also found in the form of gaining an object such as inDondanPironukOdi Nuboh whosemain character,mousedeer eventually gets all the fish.This is also seen inDondan Tiburit where house lizardmanaged to steal the ricegrainsfromtheStarsintheskyandgivetothepeopleonEarthforthemtoeat.

Victoryisdescribedasgettingoutofabadsituationandobtainingfreedomsuch as inDondan Oyung duwoh Diyakwhen the tortoise stuck in themud holemanaged to trick the wild boar to push him out of the mud hole. The SemanticAttributeofVictoryisalsoreflectedinthepositiveoutcomeofchangeoffatesuchas in Dondan Lomow and Dondan Sikau Bungak. Lomow changed into perfecthumanbeingswhileSikauBungakrelivedhisdeadparents.

TheOptionalElementsoftheDondanGSP

ThethreeoptionalelementsasstatedearlierareBelief,ExplanationandMoral.Thefollowingdiscussionwillfollowthisparticularorder;startingfromthemostnumberofoccurrencestotheleastnumberofoccurrences.BeliefFour of thedondan has the optional element of Belief at the end of thedondan.Beliefisdefinedasthementalrepresentationorknowledgethatbecomesasourceandinfluencesthebehaviourofaperson.Itisalsoanideathatpeoplethinkistrueanddidhappenatsomepointoftimeinthepastandisthereasonwhythingsareassuch nowadays (Sigel & Kim, 1996). As the dondan function as a source ofexplanationtothebeliefsofthepeopleandtothephenomenonoftheworld,theycontainexplanations for their beliefs.DondanRonai for example, explains abeliefamongtheBidayuhthatabirdwouldcryoutduringafullmoon:

Ngannya’anyaguduwohupihnehnya’abikiyakduwohbisuomneh,‘kiyak,suom,kayaksuom’.Onakenduwohburannohney,kiyakduwohsuom.



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Whenpeoplegoto takesago, thebirdswouldmakethesound ‘kiyak’and‘suom’,callingtothemoon.

(DondanRonai)

Anotherbelief isfoundindondanOyungduwohDiyak,whereit isbelievedthatinordertocatchawildboar;onemustdigaholebecausewildboarsareknowntodigholesinthegroundtolookforotintanah,theheartoftheEarth.

Ngan nya’a dek no’uh eh, nai rubang pakai takap do’ot, ra’an eh noyuda’angeh.Peopleintheoldendays,makeaholetocatchwildboar,becausetheyliketodiginsidethehole.


InDondanManukRuwui,thebeliefisthatpheasantscouldonlybefoundinthe mountains and human beings cannot hunt and eat these pheasants becausetheywereoncebelievedtobehumanandhavehumanspirits.

Nganehadin,manukruwuinya’aogikdapoddekdorodjakehmeh.Nganogiknya’adeknouhehidohdikngaboshruwuitiyakneh.Naionimanruwui,binatangdekbokonaluakagikgeh.Inehsobabasalehruwuinohogiksokmanusia,mokuoknohponaijajiiengtiyak.Untilnow,pheasants couldonlybe found in themountains.People in theolden days do not kill the pheasant. Why kill pheasants when there areother animals. That is why the origin of pheasant is from human, whoturnedintoaspirit.

(DondanManukRuwui)

Another belief of the Bidayuh that is found inDondan Ayang whereby itstatedthereasontheBidayuhbelieveintheomenbirds.

Nohnganotto’KutiegBriang togakoyuhdeadoh-adohdemunohneh. Soitihsotonganto’naiadatto’ulih-ulihto’diktogandemunoknehThat is why for us, the birds Kutieg and Briang are the real thing. That iswhereourcustomscomefrom.Andwecannotleaveourcustoms.

(DondanAyang)

ExplanationExplanationisaminorelementfoundintwoofthesedondan:DondanLomowandDondanRonai.Itisnotpartofthedondananditcouldoccuranywhereinthestory,especiallywhen it is considerednecessary toexplain someof the terms related tothestory,suchasculturalelementsandterms.



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Yohmokkobosgangaluakehkanokganda’angsigalungeh.Sigalungnoh

nouh eh neh, topat nya’a nyoma gan supit, nyikon sonuk, yoh mok sa’atdanok.

Itthendied;heputsaltonitandputitinthesigalung.Asigalungisaplace

where people in theoldendays keep their blowpipe, keep their ladle, heleftitthere.

(DondanLomow)Itcanalsobeusedtoprovideanexplanationregardingthecharacterinthedondan. Dayungnoh tieehneh,onakkopang.Doik samaheh, ro’oduwohsinokeh

geh,mohtongnyomageh. Thegirlisanorphan.Shehasnofather;shestayswithhermotheruntilshe

growsup.(DondanRonai)

MoralOnlyonedondanhadaMoralelement incorporated into it. ThisMoralelement isstatedexplicitlyandisfoundattheendofDondanSikauBungak.

Ngan eh nyaa doik so’on bila onakmitiakman,mak dusah nginman dekonaknyehnek.Porih.Thatiswhy,whenyourchildaskforfood,youmustgivefood.

(DondanSikauBungak)

CommunicativePurposeofDondan

Based on the GSP analysis of these dondan, it is clear that the communicativepurpose of these dondan,which is to disseminate cultural knowledge and moralvalues is achieved through the obligatory elements aswell as the inclusion of theoptionalelements.TheobligatoryelementsespeciallytheSequenceEventgenerallypresentwaystohandledifficultsituationsintheformofTestandSolution.TheTestis presented in the formofWarningor Curse aswell as Fight andBattles. This isthenfollowedbytheFinalEventswhichrevealsthattherearesomeconsequencesforeveryactiontakeneither intheformofVictoryorPunishment.For instance, inAnimal Tales where the Problem is Lack of something, the Solution is throughTrickery and the main characters managed to get themselves out of difficultsituationsandgetthematerialtheywanted.

The optional elements, however, reveal a lotmore on the communicativegoal. Thebelief,explanationandmoral inthedondanrevealedthepurposeofthestory being told and this is often told directly to the audience. For example, in



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stories whereby the main characters ignore or violate taboos and warning, theyweretransformedintoanimalsorsomeoneintheirfamilydies.Thisshowsthattheconsequencesof violating and ignoring the customswould result in bad luck. Thisemphasises the importance of customs and traditions within the Bidayuhcommunity.

ThisstudyshowsthatthedondanachieveditscommunicativegoalwhichistodisseminateculturalknowledgeandtoteachthevaluesdeemedimportantbytheBidayuhBau-JagoibasedontheGSPofthedondan.

Conclusion

Thisstudyimpliesthatthedondanachieveditscommunicativepurposewhichistoprovide moral values and cultural knowledge to members of its community andespecially the younger generations. The GSP of the dondan is similar to that ofEnglish Fairy Tales in terms of the obligatory elements but differs in terms of theoptional elements. Although Hasan (1984) stressed that whatmakes a particulargenre is theobligatoryelements, this studydiscovered that theoptional elementsplay a role in the cultural aspectswherebymoral values, beliefs and customs areexplained in these elements. This is where the communicative purpose of thedondanisestablishedandreflected. The Semantic Attributes also share similarities with English Fairy tales,however,somevariationisfoundespeciallyintheSequentandFinalEvents.Basedon the analysis, these Semantic Attributes are more culturally related thus thedifferences. The communicative goal of the Bidayuh dondan is to educate theyoungergenerationsbyprovidingculturalvaluestothem.Besidesthat,itisalsototeach them the important cultural knowledgewhichmay be lost. From the dataanalysis,thiscommunicativegoalisachievedinandthroughthedondan.

Forfutureresearch,itisrecommendedthatmoreresearchbedoneonthisand with emphasis on the lexicogrammatical items are analysed to gain a betterunderstandingoftheSemanticAttributesofthedondan.

Acknowledgement

We would like to thank the Malaysian Education Ministry for granting us theFundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) which enabled us to carry out thisproject.WewouldalsoliketothanktheBidayuhBau-Jagoistorytellers,EncikRagoanakRapong fromKampungSkibangandEncikDaweganakRaweh fromKampungStass, Bau, as well as the Bau-Jagoi Heritage Foundation andMajlis Adat IstiadatSarawakfortheirsupportandco-operation.

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Halliday,M.A. (1985).Spokenandwritten language.Melbourne,Australia:DeakinUniversityPress.

Halliday,M.A.,&Hasan,R.(1989).Language,contextandtext:aspectoflanguageinasocialsemioticperspective.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

Hasan,R.(1984).Thenurserytaleasagenre.NottinghamLinguisticsCircular,13,71-102.

Hasan,R.(1996).Waysofsaying:waysofmeaning.London,England:Cassell.Holbek, B. (1987). Interpretation of Fairy Tales. Danish Folklore in a European

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Lynch-Brown,C.&Tomlinson,C.M.(1996).Essentialsofchildren'sliterature.Boston,MA:AllynandBacon.

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Ridu,R.S.,Jitab,R.,&Noeb,J.(2001).KingSilimanandotherBidayuhfolktales.KotaSamarahan,Malaysia:UniversitiMalaysiaSarawak.

Swales, J. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings.Cambridge,England:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Tan,X.F.(2009).Semanticattributesandlexicogrammaticalpatterns:Genreanalysisof theeventsectionsofGrimm's fairytales.Retrievedfromhttp://journal.acs-cam.org.uk/data/archive/2009/200901-article7.pdf


InterpretingtheHumanBeingMetaphorsinEkegusiiPopSongsUsingtheCognitiveSemanticsFramework

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INTERPRETINGTHEHUMANBEINGMETAPHORSINEKEGUSIIPOPSONGSUSINGTHECOGNITIVESEMANTICS

FRAMEWORK

VictorOndaraNTABO1NaomMoraaNYARIGOTI2

MosesGatambukiGATHIGIA3DepartmentofLanguages,KaratinaUniversity

P.O.Box1957-10101,Karatina,Kenya

[email protected]*[email protected]

3gatambukimoses@gmail.comManuscriptreceived18June2018Manuscriptaccepted23October2018

ABSTRACT

The paper explores the human being metaphors in Ekegusii pop songs (EPS).ComposersofEPSusehumanbeingmetaphorstoconveytheirmessageindifferentperspectives.ItispossibleforthemeaningofthehumanbeingmetaphorstoeludetheaudienceofEPSbecause language isbothembodiedand situated ina specificenvironment. Therefore, the meaning of the metaphors need to be objectivelyinterpretedtorevealthemessageofthecomposers.ThestudypurposivelysampledChristopher Mosioma’s (Embarambamba) EPS amasomo (education) and the lateOntiriBikundo’sobwanchani(love)basedonthesongs’richnessinmetaphors.TheMetaphor Identification Procedure Vrije Universiteit was used to identify 54metaphors in the EPS by four coders (including the researchers). The concept ofconceptual mapping, which is a fundamental tenet of the Conceptual MetaphorTheory, was employed to understand the source domains in terms of the targetdomains.Theidentifiedmetaphorswereclassifiedintofourconceptualdomainsofhuman being, animal, plant and object using the principle of the Great Chain ofBeingMetaphor. The paper then identified eight human beingmetaphors for thepresentstudy.Theresearchfoundthathumanbeingmetaphorsareimportantwaysof conceptualizing other human beings in society. In addition, metaphors areimportant tools of communication and should be explained using a cognitivesemanticsframework.ThefindingsofthestudywillbenefittheaudienceoftheEPS,ethnographersandmetaphortheoriststoconceptualiseEPSandculture.



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Keywords:Humanbeingmetaphors,Ekegusiipopsongs(EPS),cognitivesemantics,Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT), Metaphor Identification Procedure VrijeUniversiteit(MIPVU),GreatChainofBeingMetaphor(GCBM)

Introduction

A human being is simultaneously themost known and unknown object in society(Krikmann, 1998). Tolle (2005) notes that the human being concept is an excitingarea of study because of its complexity and simplicity. There are metaphors in aperson’sconceptualsystem(Lakoff&Johnson,2003)hencemetaphorsgovernourevery day functioning. Laura (2004) postulates that a human being exists bydifferentiating self from others and by connecting self to others. A person,therefore, can be understood bymaking reference to another personwhich givesrise to the human beingmetaphors in the conceptual system. Human beings areindeedimportantmembersthatconstituteasocietyandtheyaremeansofcreating,affecting and making statements about other people’s identity. The aim of thisstudy, therefore, is to analyse the human beingmetaphors in Ekegusii pop songs(henceforth,EPS)usingthecognitivesemanticsframeworktoobjectivelyrevealthemessageofthecomposers.

CognitiveSemantics(CS) isabranchofCognitiveLinguisticswhichprovidesthat there isa relationshipbetweenexperience,embodiedcognitionand language(Evans,2007). TheCSalsopostulates thatmeaningsaremanifest inourmind inaconfiguration that has its unique rules (Gardenfors, 2003). Meaning, therefore, isinseparablyrelatedtothehearer’smemoryandexperience.TheCSalsopointsoutthatmeaningconstruction isa conceptualisation.Wordsandother linguisticunits,according to Saeed (1997), do not encode meaning but are foundations forconstruction ofmeaning in a particular context. This paper seeks to establish theassociation among Ekegusii, meaning and the mind to conceptualise the humanbeingmetaphorsinEPS.

Metaphor, which is pervasive in everyday language (Lakoff & Johnson,1980),playsavitalroleinhumanthought,reasoningandunderstanding.LakoffandTurner(1989)arguethatmetaphorsarecrucialwaysthathumanbeingsemploytoconceptualise abstract concepts. According to Barcelona and Valenzuela (2005), ametaphor is a cognitive mechanism in which one experiential domain is partiallymapped so that the second domain is partially understood in terms of the first.Aksan (2006) also argues that the structure of a conceptualmetaphor consists ofmappings between source domain and the target domain. The domain of humanbeing,therefore,alsotransfersthesemanticaspectsofhumanbeingsinrelationtootherpersons as pointedout in this study.Ametaphor, thus, is a creativewayofdescribingonethingbyreferringtoanotherwhichhasthequalitiesthatonewantstoexpress. Lakoff and Johnson (1980)alsonote thathumanbeings’processesarelargelymetaphoricalandthehumanconceptualsystemismetaphoricallystructuredanddefined.

ThepresentstudyemployedthefolkconceptionoftheGreatChainofBeingMetaphor (GCBM) to classify themetaphors in EPS into four conceptual domains.ThisisbecausetheGCBMnormallyguidesinclassifyingmetaphors(Kövecses,2002).TheGCBMisentrenchedinthephilosophyoftheancientGreek,Neoplatonists,the



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EuropeanRenaissanceandthe17thandearly18thcenturies.Kövecses(2002)positsthat themain provision of the GCBM is that all things in the universe have theirplaceinadivinelyplannedorder.Kövecses(2002)furthernotesthatthehierarchyisconsidered to be a vertical chain in which each category of things occupy theircorrespondingplacesonthebasisoftheirattributes.TheGCBMalsostressesontheinterrelations between animate and inanimate entities which form a constituentchain link (Laura, 2004). Krzeszowski (1997) argues that each chain is defined byspecific attributes, which, however, can be metaphorically inherited. Kövecses(2002)conceptualisestheGCBMisinthefollowingverticalchain:

HUMAN:higherorder,attributesandbehaviorANIMALS:instinctualattributesandbehaviorNATURALPHYSICALTHINGS:naturalphysicalattributesandnaturalphysicalbehavior

Krzeszowski (1997) extends the chain by addingGOD at the apex position

which is consistent with the Christian tradition highlighted in the Old Testament.Therefore, the hierarchy in the GCBM is: GOD, followed by COSMOS/UNIVERSE,SOCIETY, HUMANS, ANIMALS, PLANT, COMPLEX OBJECTS and NATURAL PHYSICALTHINGSinthatorder.TheGCBMwasusefulinthisstudybecause,aspointedoutbyLakoffandTurner(1989),itisatoolofgreatpowerandscopeasitallowspeopletounderstandgeneralhumanbehavior.

ThedatainthisstudywascollectedfromEPS.Sullivan(2013)positsthatpopsongs are the ever-changing music which appeals to the public. Listening to popsongshasbeenwithoutanydoubtenjoyedasapastimeallovertheworld(Nishina,2017). Composers normally usemetaphors to express subjective emotional states(Scruton,2005).Althoughthepopsongsappealtoamassaudience,themeaningofthemetaphorsmayeludetheaudienceoftheEPS.Popsongshavealsolargelybeenneglected as a viable source of data (Nishina, 2017). This is because pop songstudies,asnotedbyTagg(2015), isoftenconfrontedwithanattitudeofbemusedsuspicion which suggests that people feel that there is something weird abouttaking“fun”seriouslyor finding“fun” in“seriousthings” (p.1).ThispaperseekstoanalysethehumanbeingmetaphorsinEPStoobjectivelyrevealthecriticalmessageofthecomposersofEPS.

ThestudypurposivelyselectedChristopherMosioma(Embarambamba)andthe late Ontiri Bikundo’s EPS amasomo (education) and Obwanchani (love)respectively. This is because the songs have gained acclaim in Kenya as they arepopularrequestsongsinEkegusiiFMstationsbecauseofthemetaphoricallanguageused and witticism. Embarambamba’s EPS amasomo (education), which wasreleased in 2015, encourages students to embrace education to reap its benefits.Bikundo’s song is about a fictitious male character named Bikundo whometaphoricallydescribeshisromanticloveaffairwithhisbelovedwife,Kwamboka.

Ekegusii is a Bantu language spoken by Abagusii in Kisii and NyamiraCounties (Aunga,2011).Guthrie (1971) categorisesEkesusii as E42alongsidemostKenyan and Ugandan Bantu languages. Maho (2008) further classifies it as JE42following Guthrie’s label. Kenya Nation Bureau of Statistics (2010) gives an



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approximation of Ekegusii speakers of 2,205,669. It is closely related to Bantulanguages families: Shashi, Zanaki, Ngurimi, Ikisu and Kuria. Abagusii make upapproximately6%oftheKenyanpopulation.Cammenga(2002)notesthattherearetwodialects inEkegusii: theRogoro (Northern)andtheMaate (Southern)dialects.The Rogoro (Northern) dialect is spoken in Kisii and Nyamira Counties while theMaate (Southern) dialect is spoken in Kisii County (Obwoge, 2014). The northerndialect is the standard form which is in written works and taught in school(Nyakundi,2010).TheRogoro(Northern)andtheMaate(Southern)dialectsdifferinthe aspects of speech sound, vocabulary and sentence structure but the dialectshavenotpresentedvariationsinmeaning.

StatementoftheProblem

Music ismeaningful topeopleand ismuchmorethananobjectofentertainment.Pop songs, for instance, is a vital way of revealing who human beings are.ComposersofEPSusehumanbeingmetaphorswhichcomparepeoplenotonly tothe statusandoccupationofotherhumanbeingsbutalso tohumanconditions insociety.AlthoughtheaudienceofEPSenjoyslisteningtothesongs,themeaningofthe human being metaphors used may be elusive. Therefore, the human beingmetaphorsinEPSneedtobeanalysedtorevealthemessageofthecomposers.Thisstudy, therefore, employs the cognitive semantics framework toobjectively revealthemeaningofthehumanbeingmetaphorsintheEPS.

Themotivation for undertaking a studyon thehumanbeingmetaphors inEPSisbecausethehumanbeingdomainintheGCBMisavitallinkinallthelevelsofthe GCBM (Krikmann, 1998). Besides, human beings are known to be complex insociety because according to Krikmann (1998), they are simultaneously the mostknown and unknown objects. Human beings are also the most typical targetdomains of metaphors within the GCBM. This study, thus, is important incomprehendingthemessagewhichis inreferencetohumanbeingsintheselectedEPS.

The study on pop songs is influenced by the following factors: first, popsongs have a popular appeal. Hence, the mass audience should be helped tounderstandthemessageinthepopsongsbyundertakingthepresentstudy;second,composers of pop songs employmetaphors to conveypoetic ideas and subjectiveemotionalstatesthroughpurelymusicalmeans(Scruton,2005).Thereis,therefore,aneedtoanalysethecomposers’useofmetaphorsinEPStoobjectivelyrevealtheintendedmessage.Finally,popsongshavelargelybeenignoredasaviablesourceofdata (Nishina, 2017). This study, therefore, illustrates that pop songs are worthstudying because they portray who human beings are in terms of attitudes,behaviours,andimpressions.

ThestudyonEkegusiiismotivatedbyarecommendationbyUNESCO(2006)thatAfricanindigenouslanguagesneedtobeanalysedandpreserved.MostAfricanlanguages face the risk of being assimilated by regional languages like French,English and Kiswahili. Majority of the African countries are now engaged indiscoursesofnationalism,educationandeconomicdevelopment.Thesediscoursesarenormallydoneusingdeveloped languages likeEnglishandFrenchwhichmight



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lead to the death of indigenous languages. Although UNESCO mentions Elmoro,Yaaka, and Omotik as African languages at the risk of suffering language death,EkegusiiandotherAfricanlanguagesneedtobeanalysedtopreservethem.

TheoreticalFramework

The study is based on Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) Conceptual Metaphor Theory(CMT). The CMT has several tenets. First, the CMT uses two conceptual domainswhicharethesourcedomainandtargetdomain(Kövecses,2002;2005).Thesourcedomainismappedintothetargetdomaintoaidinthecognitionofmetaphors.Thesource domain consists of a set of literal entities, attributes, processes andrelationshipslinkedsemanticallyandapparentlystoredtogetherinthemind(Gibbs,2011).Gibbs(2011)furthernotesthatthetargetdomaintakesitsstructurefromthesource domain. This means that the target domain has relationships, betweenentities,attributesandprocesseswhichreflectthosefoundinthesourcedomain.

Second, the CMT also provides that metaphor operates at the level ofthinking.Similarly,CameronandLow(1999)notethatametaphorisamatterofthemind.This impliesthatthemind is inherentlyembodiedandthatreason isshapedby the body (Lakoff& Johnson, 1999). Therefore, phenomena that can be tasted,seen, heard, felt and smelt are easier to understand and categorised than thosewhichcannotbetasted,seen,heard,feltandsmelt.

ThecommonlyusednotationintheCMTisacapitalisedmnemonicwiththetargetdomain stated first and linked to the sourcedomain via thecopula isoras(Lakoff&Johnson,1980).Thatis,theTARGETDOMAINIS/ASSOURCEDOMAIN.Forexample,OMONTON’OBOCHARA(AHUMANBEINGISFOOLISHNESS).TheCMTwasusedinstudyingthemappingsofthesourcedomain(SD)tothetargetdomain(TD)toidentifytheunderlyingmeaningofthehumanmetaphorsintheEPS.Inordertointerpret themetaphors in EPS, the generic GCBM, which normally guides in theconceptualisation of metaphors (Kövecses, 2002), was used to classify themetaphorsintoconceptualdomains.

ResearchMethodology

The paper employed the qualitative methodological approach, which includestechniques andmeasures that do not produce numerical data (Kothari, 2004), tostudy the human beingmetaphors in EPS. The purposive sampling techniquewasusedtoselecttheEPSamasomo(education)andobwanchani(love)forstudybasedon the songs’ richness in metaphors. In the purposive sampling, a researcherhandpicks desirable and reliable data for the study (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill,2007).Aftertheselectionofthesongs,theyweretranscribed,translatedintoEnglishand analysed for metaphors. The Metaphor Identification Procedure VrijeUniversiteit (MIPVU) was also utilised to identify metaphors in the EPS by fourcoders,includingtheresearchers.TheMIPVUwasdevelopedbymetaphorscholarsatVrijeUniversity,Amsterdam(Steenetal.,2010).A lexicalunitwasconsideredametaphorRelatedWord (MRW) if its contextualmeaningcontrastedwith itsbasicmeaning. Thecodersalsoclassifieda lexicalunitasametaphorafterthreecoders



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marked the lexical unit as ametaphor. Each coder assigned 0.25 or 25% to eachlexicalunitwhichwasconsideredmetaphorical.Ifthreecoderswereinagreement,the study multiplied 0.25 times three to attain 0.75 which is 75%. According toCameron(2003),awordwhichattains75%intheinter-raterreliabilitytestismarkednotunanimousbutacceptableasametaphor.Atotalof54MetaphorRelatedWords(MRWs)were identifiedusing theannotationguidelinesadapted from theMIPVU.TheMRWswere further classified into four conceptual domains of human being,animal,plantandobjectsusingtheGCBM. In theconceptualdomainofAHUMANBEINGISAHUMANBEING,eightmetaphorswereidentifiedfromtheMRWswhichformthescopeofthepresentstudy.

ResearchFindings

ThispaperidentifiedeightmetaphorsintheconceptualdomainofAHUMANBEINGISAHUMANBEINGinEPS(Table1).López(2009)arguesthathumanbeingsoccupya vital position in the folk conception of the GCBM. It is, therefore, consideredacceptable to compare human beings with either the status and occupations ofother human beings or human conditions like insanity. The comparison, however,presents varied levels of approbationor disdaindependingon themetaphorused(López,2009).Tolle(2005)notesthatthenatureofhumanityisaninterestingtopicbecauseofhowcomplexyetsimpleitcanbecome.Tolle(2005)furthergivesreasonsforhisclaimbypointingoutthathumanbeingstendtogetmoreconfusedwiththeirveryownnature.Humanbeings,therefore,canbeusedto illuminatetheattitudesand characteristics of other human beings in society. The various humanbehaviours, impressions, attitudes, conditions, occupations and status arehighlighted in the human being metaphors in Embarambamba’s amasomo(education)andthelateOntiriBikundo’sobwanchani(love)EPS.

Table1MetaphorsofahumanbeingIsahumanbeingInEkegusiipopsongsNo. Ekegusii Gloss Conceptual

Domain1 Omonton’omwalimu Ahumanbeingisateacher HumanBeing2 Omonton’obobarimo Ahumanbeingisinsanity HumanBeing3 Omonton’obochara Ahumanbeingisfoolishness HumanBeing4 Omontoabwekaine

omooniaamakaraAhumanbeingresemblesacharcoalseller

HumanBeing

5 Omonton’omonyagitari Ahumanbeingisaphysician HumanBeing6 Omonton’ekingi Ahumanbeingisaking HumanBeing7 Omonton’oborema Ahumanbeingisdisability HumanBeing8 Omonton’obotaka Ahumanbeingisapoverty HumanBeing

In this study, the human being metaphors considered are those that are

contrastedwiththestatusandoccupationsofotherhumanbeingslikeateacherandhuman conditions like: insanity, foolishness, disability and poverty as displayed inTable 1. It can also be noted that the human being conceptual domain in EPS



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involvesmany embodied experienceswhich validates Lakoff and Johnson’s (1999)assertionthatthemindisinherentlyembodied.

Metaphor(1)suggeststhatahumanbeingcanbeunderstoodbasedontheoccupationofanotherhumanbeing,forinstanceateacher.Taack(2018)positsthatthe roles of a teacher are multifaceted which include: surrogate parent,disciplinarian,mentor,counselor,bookkeeper,rolemodelamongothers.Theactoflabelingahumanbeingasateacher,thus,drawsapositivemetaphorconnotation.Therefore:

(1) Omonton’omwalimu–‘ahumanbeingisateacher”.

Embarambamba in the EPS amasomo (education) sings that the studentsthatembraceeducationare liketeachers.Theword like isametaphor flag (Mflag)whichalertsthelanguageuserthatsomeformofcomparisonorcontrastisatplaybetweentheconcreteSDandtheabstractTD.Goatly(1997)notesthattheMflagsaresignalswhichincludewordslikeandasandtheyareusedtodenotethatsimilesare indicatorsofpotentialmetaphors. Inmetaphor (1),omonto (ahumanbeing) istheTDwhileomwalimu (a teacher) is theSD.Therefore,oneof thecorrespondingconceptualmappings of the SD corresponding to the TD is: the roles of a teachercorresponding to how a student is perceived. This insinuates that the studentswhom Embarambamba conceptualises as teachers are knowledgeable and,therefore, can mentor and counsel others like teachers do. The singer furthersuggests that the students who have embraced education have become valuablemembersofthesociety.

Instantiation (2) contrasts a human being with human behaviours,conditionsandattitudesinordertounderstandthem.Forinstance, insanity,whichisahumanconditionmedicallyreferredtoasapsychiatricdisease(Corrigan&Penn,1999), is equated with a human being in Embarambamba’s EPS amasomo(education).Thus:

(2)Omonton’obobarimo–‘ahumanbeingisinsanity’.

In (2),Omonto (ahumanbeing) is theTDwhileobobarimo (insanity) is the

SDaspertheCMT.Therefore,oneofthecorrespondingconceptualmappingsoftheSD corresponding to the TD in this case is: behaviours of an insane human beingcorresponding to how another human being is perceived. Insanity is a humancondition which is normally associated with behaviours and attitudes which areconsideredabnormalinsociety.Insanepeopleareconsideredsocialmisfitsastheymayposeathreattooneselforothers.Insanityis,therefore,acontemptuoustermusedtodescribepeoplewhodonotconformtosocietalnorms.In(2),Ebarimo(aninsane person) insinuates a student and insanity represents the behaviour of thestudent.EmbarambambaintheEPSamasomo(education)singsthatastudentwhofails to effectively embrace education is contrasted with insanity. Thisconceptualisationisaclearwayofemphasizingthepainfulratherthantheenjoyableaspect of education. Themetaphor, therefore, is used to advise students toworkhard in their studies to reap thebenefits associatedwitheducation.Metaphor (2)alsodiscouragesstudentsfromadoptingtheunpleasantapproaches, ideas,beliefs,



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principles and attitudes thatmay not help them to effectively imbibe knowledge.Thismappingalsosuggeststhatthestudentwhoislabeledasinsanityisdevaluedinsociety.

AhumanbeingisalsocomparedwiththehumanconditionoffoolishnessinEPSashighlighted inmetaphor (3).Brudevold (2015)notesthat foolishpeoplearenormally undermined in society for being considered incapable of following theprescribedsocietalvaluesandnorms.Therefore:

(3)Omonton’obochara–‘ahumanbeingisfoolishness’.

Ayduk andMischel (2002) argue that foolishness is a situation in which a

humanbeing fails to carryout theexpectedactiondespite the individual knowingtherightthingtodo.Inthiscase,thefoolishhumanbeingisunwiseand,therefore,lacks a good senseof judgement. Metaphor (3) is negatively employed to label ahuman beingwho lacks the ability tomake a prudent choice. Bikundo in the EPSobwanchani(love)lamentsthathiscriticsnegativelyconceptualisehimasobochara(foolishness). This is in reference to the physical qualities of his wife whichapparently do not appeal to his critics. Bikundo is, thus, derogated as a foolishpersonforfallinginlovewithapersonwhodoesnotconform,intermsofphysicalattributes, to his critics. Bikundo, however, dismisses those who loathe him byclaimingthateyarareotakaritekororera(pepperyoudonoteatshouldnot irritateyou).Bikundo’sassertionauthenticatestheproverbialmetaphorthatbeauty lies inthehandsofthebeholder.

Inmetaphors (4), anMflagwordwhich is “resembles”, is used to contrastonehumanbeingwithanotherwhoisomooniaamakara(acharcoalseller).Goatly(1997)notesthatanMflagwordalertsalanguageuserthatagivenexpressioncouldbemetaphorical because of the presence of comparison or contrast between thesourceand the targetdomains.Metaphor (4)highlights anegative connotationascharcoal burning and selling, according to Jones (2015), is associated withdeforestation,landdegradationandclimatechange.Thus:

(4) Omonto abwekaine omoonia amakara –‘a human being resembles acharcoalseller’.

Embarambamba intheEPSamasomo (education)singsthatastudentwho

fails to productively use the knowledge gained through education resembles acharcoalseller.In(4),ahumanbeing(astudent)istheTDwhileomooniaamakara(a charcoal seller) is the SD as per the CMT. The conceptual correspondencebetween the SD corresponding to the TD is: human destructive activities on theenvironment corresponding to human beings’ unpleasant habits. Therefore, astudentwhoresemblesacharcoalseller isonewhofailstopreserveknowledgebynot productively using it. Two examples of devastating effects of felling trees forcharcoal include: first, animals and human beings may suffer since trees providethemashadefrommiddayheat;second,herbivorousanimalsmaystarvetodeathastreeswhicharedestroyedforcharcoalareasourceoffood.Metaphor(4)isalsousedtodemeanthestudentswhofailtoeffectivelyembraceamasomo(education)



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and thus can be associated with illiteracy. This is because lack of sufficienteducation, in this case, is correlated with omoonia amakara (a charcoal seller).Charcoal sellers normally propagate the vice of deforestation for selling charcoal,which is a product of trees. Both deforestation and illiteracy are examples ofchallenges many developing countries endeavour to alleviate. Charcoal is alsocharacterised as dust and dirt which stain surfaces. Human beings who fail toembrace education are, therefore, negatively labeled as dirty as they cannotfavourablycompeteforthelimitedemploymentandeducationalopportunities.

Metaphor(5)isemployedintheEPSamasomo(education)toappreciativelyconceptualise the scholars who productively use the knowledge earned througheducation. Physicians all over theworld, for example, are known to among otherrolesdiagnoseandtreatdiseasesthataffecthumanbeings.Scholarswhousetheirknowledge and experience to provide solutions to the various challenges whichhuman beings face in society are given a special mention in the EPS amasomo(education)bybeingequatedwithphysicians.Thus:

(5)Omonton’omonyagitari–‘ahumanbeingisaphysician’.

Embarambamba in theEPSamasomo (education) sings thata scholarwhoprevails on children to study is indirectly comparedwith a physician. In this case,omonto (ahumanbeing) istheTDwhileomonyagitari (aphysician) istheSDusingtheCMT.OneofthecorrespondingconceptualmappingsoftheSDcorrespondingtotheTDis:therolesofaphysiciancorrespondingtothepleasantrolesofascholar.Ascholaris,therefore,conceptualisedasavaluablememberinsociety.Aphysicianinsocietyisnotonlyknownasaneducator,communicatorandresearcherbutalsoasamanager of the health care of the citizens in society. Embarambamba is, thus,thrilledwithascholarwhomhepositivelylabelsasaphysicianformentoringothersinsocietytoembraceeducationtoliveafruitfullife.

A king metaphor, as in (6), is also used to conceptualise a human being.AccordingtoPine(1992),aking is thesovereignheadofastate inamonarchy. Aking,thus,mayexercisethehighestauthorityandpowerinastate.Therefore:

(6)Omonton’ekingi–‘ahumanbeingisaking’.

The late Ontiri Bikundo correlates his guitarist, Nyaoga with a king as hesings“Nyaogan’ekingi(Nyaogaisaking)”intheEPSobwanchani(love).Foss(2012)notes that a king normally reigns for life or until abdication. Bikundo, therefore,praises his guitarist, Nyaoga for his prowess, competence, experience and highlyspecialisedskills inplayingaguitar.Bikundoalsonotesthathisguitaristappealsatall times which is line with the tenure of a king who reigns until either death orabdication.Bikundoalsoattributesthepopularityofhissongobwanchani (love)tohisguitarist’shilariousguitarskillswhomhereportstobeanindispensablememberofhiscrewasheconsidershimtobethesourceofstability,admiration,inspirationand a symbol of continuity. Nyaoga, therefore, is a symbol of admiration toBikundo’s fans.Bikundofurthernotesthathisguitarist isunequalled intheregion.ThisisacomplimentwhichappealstoBikundo’saudiencewhomarvelsathishighlyskilledcrewandthuscherisheshisEPSobwanchani(love).



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Thehumanconditionofdisabilityisusedtoconceptualiseahumanbeingasdepicted inmetaphor (7). Thismetaphor is a clear illustrationhow loverswhoareunable to materially care for their loved ones are ridiculed in society. Barcelona(1995)positsthatloveisanactofdependencyasloversneedeachotherandcannotlivewithoutoneanother.Thus:

(7)Omonton’oborema–‘ahumanbeingisdisability’.

Bikundo employs metaphor (7) to beseech his wife, Kwamboka to becommittedintheirmatrimonyandtoignorethemaliciouspeoplewhocomparehimwithoborema(disability).Disabilityisanimpairmentwhichcausesrestrictionsonaperson’sabilitytotakepartinwhatisconsiderednormalinsociety(Woodin,2006).Woodin(2006)furtherarguesthatdisabledpeoplearedemeanedbecauseoftheirlimitations to take part in most activities undertaken by those people who areconsidered normal. Metaphor (7) is appropriately used to illustrate how ebirema(disabled people) aremarginalised in society. Bikundo sings thatmalicious peopleconceptualizehimasoborema(disability)whichsignifiesthatBikundoisstigmatisedinhissocietyfor lackingthematerialcapacitytocareforKwambokainaccordancewiththesocietalexpectations.

The Obotaka (poverty) metaphor (8) is also used to negatively describe ahuman being in EPS. Korankye (2014) notes that Africa is the world’s poorestcontinentdespitebeingtherichestinnaturalresources.Itis,therefore,commontoequateahumanbeingwithobotaka (poverty) in theAfricanset-upas indicated inmetaphor(8).Thus:

(8) Omonton’obotaka–‘ahumanbeingispoverty’.

In theEPS,obwanchani (love),Bikundoprevailsonhis lover,Kwambokato

upholdhermatrimonydespiteherhusband’s(Bikundo)impoverishedstate.GruskyandKanbur(2006)positthatinthedominantwesterndefinitionofpoverty,levelsofincomeareusedtomeasurepoverty.Thepooraredefinedasthosewhofallbelowagiven income or consumption level (Lipton & Ravallion, 1993). The poor are,therefore, associated with deficiency in financial and material worth. Sociallyconstructed terms are normally designed to derogate the people equated withobotaka (poverty) which include: lazy, parasitic and animalistic. Metaphor (8) isrelevantlyusedtoexpressBikundo’sselfreproachforhisinabilitytomateriallycarefor his wife, Kwamboka. According to Underwood (2009), falling in love withsomeonecausesaphysicalattractionthatmotivatesonetogooutof theirwaytoprovidetheneedsofthe lover.Bikundo,therefore,endeavoursto implorehiswifenot to abandon him despite his present inability tomaterially care for her. He isoptimisticthathewouldbeabletomeetthematerialneedsofhiswifeinthefuture.

DiscussionofFindings

Thisstudyrevealsthatmetaphorisausefulcognitivemechanismofconceptualisinga human being in EPS.This is informed by the fact that human beings conceptualsystemisinextricablylinkedto,andinformedbylanguage(Lakoff&Johnson,1980).



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ThestudyidentifiedeightmetaphorsintheconceptualdomainofAHUMANBEINGIS A HUMAN BEING in EPS. The presence of metaphor in EPS echoes Lakoff andJohnson’s(2003)argumentthatmetaphorispervasiveinlanguageanditisdifficulttoconceiveaconceptfreefrommetaphorsbecausemetaphorisubiquitousnotonlyin language but also in thought and action. Other past studies authenticate thefinding that metaphor is a vital linguistic and cognitive feature of humanunderstandingwhichinclude:(Gathigia,2016;Krisnawati,2014;Machakanja,2006;Nyakoe, Ongarora & Oloo, 2014). For example, Krisnawati (2014) notes thatmetaphors exist and they are encountered in human beings’ daily life and areconceptualisedinhumanthoughts.Metaphor,therefore,providesawindowonthewayslanguageisstructuredandonthewayshumanbeingsthinkandlearn.

Second,thepaperalsoshowsthattheCMTbyLakoffandJohnson(1980)iseffectivelyemployedtoconceptualisethehumanbeingmetaphors intheEPS.Oneof the principles of the CMT is that human beings’ conceptual system ismetaphoricallystructuredsuchthatoneconceptisunderstoodbymeansofanother(Lakoff&Johnson,2003). Kövecses (2010)alsopointsout thatunderstandingoneconceptintermsoftheotherisreferredtoasmappingwhichcanbeinterpretedbyconstituent elements of the target domain and those of the source domain. Thefindings of this study are in consonance with past studies on the conceptualmetaphor (Ahrens, 2002;Gathigia, 2014; Kövecses, 2010; Lakoff& Johnson, 1989;Lakoff&Johnson2003;Lakoff&Turner1989).Third, the research found that the Metaphor Identification Procedure Vrije(MIPVU) is an effective method of metaphor identification in EPS. This finding isstrongly in agreementwithGathigia’s (2016) claim that theMIPVU is an effectiveframework of identifying metaphors in songs. The MIPVU provides explicit andanalytical steps for researchers to follow when identifying metaphors. Theannotatorsusedaconsistentcriterionofidentifyingmetaphorsaidedbyinter-raterreliabilitycheckingtests.Thereliabilitycheckingexercises,aspointedoutbySteen(2007), helps to reduce the element of subjectivity by the researchers. This studyalsorevealsthattheMIPVUisaneffectiveframeworkfortheidentificationofMRWsinpopsongs.

ConclusionandRecommendations

This study concludes in the following ways based on the findings and discussionabove. First, theeighthumanmetaphors identified in thispaperareappropriatelyemployed toconceptualisehumanbeings in theEPS.Thehumanbeingmetaphorsdiscussedinthispaperarethosewhichdrawacomparisonbetweenhumanbeingsand human occupations like a physician and human conditions like insanity.Metaphors are, thus, important ways of communication and should be explainedusingacognitivesemanticsframeworkwhichprovidesthatmeaningisaproductofthe mind, language and social-physical experiences. Second, the ConceptualMetaphor Theory is effectively used to account for the meaning of the humanmetaphorsintheEPSbymappingthemintodifferentkindsofconceptualmappings.Third, the folk conception of the Great Chain of Being Metaphor was useful inclassifying the metaphors in EPS into four conceptual domains, the focus of this



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studybeingtheconceptualdomainofAHUMANBEINGISAHUMANBEING.Fourth,theMIPVUisaneffectivemethodofidentifyingmetaphorsintheEPS.

Thepaper recommends that forabetterunderstandingofmetaphors, thecognitive semantics framework should be used as it provides that meaningconstruction isaconceptualisation. Inaddition, theprincipleof theGCBMandtheCMTshouldbeemployedtoanalysethemetaphors inpopsongs.Finally,an inter-rater reliability measure as suggested by Cameron (2003) should be utilised toidentifythemetaphorsinpopsongs.

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Investigatingtheimplementationofblendedlearninginaparagraphwritingcoursetopromotestudentengagement

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INVESTIGATINGTHEIMPLEMENTATIONOFBLENDEDLEARNINGINAPARAGRAPH

WRITINGCOURSETOPROMOTESTUDENTENGAGEMENT

AnggriMUHTIA1SUPARNO2SUMARDI3

EnglishEducationDepartmentofGraduateProgram,UniversitasSebelasMaretJl.Ir.SutamiNo.36A,Surakarta,JawaTengah57126,Indonesia

[email protected]

[email protected][email protected]

Manuscriptreceived:6September2018Manuscriptaccepted:22December2018

ABSTRACT

Blendedlearning,theinstructionalapproachintegratingonlinelearningintoface-to-face learning, is one of the approaches gaining widespread acceptance amongeducationalpractitioners.Oneofitsadvantagesistopromotestudentengagement,which is viewed beneficial to ensure deep learning among students and addresssome educational issues. Although there is no specific formula for engaging allstudents intoacourse,blendedlearningisbelievedtoenablestudentengagementfurtherawaythanwhatispossibleinaface-to-faceinstruction.ThispaperreportsacasestudyconductedatauniversityinIndonesia.Thepurposeofthestudywastoinvestigatetheimplementationofblendedlearninginaparagraphwritingcoursetopromote student engagement. Data were collected through observations,interviews, and document analysis, and analysed using Miles, Huberman andSaldana’s(2014) interactivemodel. Itwasrevealedthattheinstructionalstrategiesin the course focused on the benefits of face-to-face learning as the maininstructionalmethodwhiletheonline learningwasthesupplementarytoreinforcestudents’knowledgeandunderstanding.Theimplementationofblendedlearninginthe course was able to promote student engagement particularly through theactivitiesofuploadingcoursematerials,onlinewritingassignments,onlinequizzes,student-teacherconferencing,classdiscussion,andgroupwork.Keywords:blendedlearning,paragraphwritingcourse,studentengagement



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Introduction

Advanced technologieshave theirplace in shaping the21steducation.Oneof thebreakthroughs the technologieshaveestablished ineducation is theemergenceofe-learningoronlinelearning.Thislearningmethodhasbeenviewedasapromisingwaytoimprovethequalityofteachingandlearning.TheInternettechnologies,likeWeb 2.0 technologies, become more established as the instructional tools toenhancestudentengagementandfostermoreparticipatory learningactivities.TheNationalResearchCouncil&InstituteofMedicinestatedthatstudentengagementisconsideredoneof the solutions to addressing educational problems, such aspoorachievement, boredom, and dropout (2004, as cited in Fredricks, Blumenfeld, &Paris, 2004). Stein and Graham (2014) asserted that “instruction that does notengage learnerswillnotbeeffective in the long run” (p.51).Studentengagementcouldensuredeeplearningamongstudents(Downing,Spears,&Holtz,2014). Online learning alone, however, is considered not sufficient becausestudents have different learning preferences and there are practical skills stillrequiringhands-onexperiences(EpignosisLLC,2014).Moreover,traditionalface-to-face instruction is still preferred by contemporary students. Stein and Graham(2014) admitted that there is no exact formula for engaging all students into acourse because students have different interests, aims, and limitations. Providingthe students with multichannel learning method is apparently one of the bestoptions to engage students. This multichannel learning method, called blendedlearning, is seen as the instructional approach that could provide the answers forenhancing student engagement and learning experience. It is believed to enablestudent engagement further away than what is possible in face-to-face learningalone (Wankel & Blessinger, 2013). Additionally, the instruction taking place bothonlineandface-to-facecanprovideamixofapproachesthatallowsall learners toengageinmeaningfulways(Stein&Graham,2014). Ma’arop and Embi (2016) asserted that in spite of immense support inliteratureforextensiveacceptanceofblendedlearning,educationpractitionersarestill trying to find the appropriate ways in implementing blended learning. Inaddition, integrating technology into teachingpractices seemsnotmuchappealingtoteachers.Teachersstillstrugglewiththe integrationoftechnology intoteachingand learningpractices,andsome look resistant to it (Howard,2013),whichmakesthem labeled “risk averse”. Indeed, using technology in teaching and learningprocess may have some risks; it might just waste teaching time and jeopardizestudents’achievement if theapproachuseddoesnotworkasexpected. Insteadofstaying in familiar traditional teaching methods, a writing lecturer at an EnglishDepartment of an Islamic University in Indonesia took the challenge byimplementing blended learning using technology in a paragraphwriting course topromotestudentengagement,whichwasthecaseinvestigatedinthisstudy.

There are someprevious studies revealing the successful blended learningprogramsinwritingcourses.Purnawarman,Susilawati,andSundayana(2016)foundthat integratingonline learning througha learningmanagementsystem(LMS) intothe face-to-face instruction increased student engagement in the writing course,particularly through the use of a feature on the LMS called Note menu which



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facilitated the students with interactivity and meaningful writing tasks. Challob,Bakar, and Latif (2016) revealed that in addition to the improvement of students’writing ability and performance, the use of blended learning using online learningmodes, namely, the class blog and online Viber discussion, enhanced students’interaction and increased students’ motivation in learning, which indicated theimprovement of student engagement. These previous studies apparently focusedmore on the learning activities on the online platforms in blended learningenvironments while this present study investigated not only the activities on theonlineplatformbutalsointheface-to-facesettingintheparagraphwritingcourse.The research question addressed in this studywas how the blended learning in aparagraph writing course was implemented to promote student engagement.Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the implementation ofblendedlearninginaparagraphwritingcoursetopromotestudentengagement.

LiteratureReview

BlendedLearningSome scholars have suggested the concepts of blended learning. Bersin (2004)definedblendedlearningasatraditionalteacher-ledinstructionsupplementedwithelectronicformats.LittlejohnandPegler(2007)assertedthattheterm“blending”inthe pastwas for instructional practices integrating various kinds of resources andactivities, but recently it has been linked to e-learning so blended learning is thecombination of e-learning and traditional instructional methods. Thorne (2003)stated that blended learning blends online learning with traditional methods oflearning.Meanwhile, Garrison and Vaughan (2008) viewed blended learning as “adesignapproachwherebybothface-to-faceandonlinelearningaremadebetterbythepresenceoftheother”(p.5).Itcanthereforebeinferredthatblendedlearninginrecentdaysisdefinedasaninstructionalapproachthatcombinestraditionalface-to-facelearningandonlinelearning,inwhichbothcomplementoneanother.

Different scholars, however, propose different ideas of blended learning.Garrison and Vaughan (2008) argued that blended learning is not an addition ofonline learning into traditional learning method but “restructuring and replacingtraditionalclasscontacthours”(p.5).Meanwhile,Thorne(2003)suggestedthatonelearningmethodcanbe“asupplement toother typesof trainingand learning” (p.47). Twigg (2003) identified several models of blended learning: supplemental,replacement,emporium,andbuffet.Amongthesemodelsthesupplementalmodeland replacement model are apparently the most relevant models of blendedlearning (Auster, 2016). The supplemental model is in line with Thorne’s (2003)interpretationofblendedlearningwhilethereplacementmodelsuitswhatGarrisonandVaughanhaveproposed.

StudentEngagementThere are various interpretations of the term “student engagement”. Stein andGraham (2014) referred engagement as “the emotional and mental energy that



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students are willing to expend during a learning experience” (p. 51) while Astin(1999) defined it as “the amount of physical and psychological energy that thestudent devotes to the academic experience” (p. 518). Shernoff (2013) definedstudentengagementas“theheightenedsimultaneousexperienceofconcentration,interest,andenjoymentinthetaskathand”(p.12).MartinandTorres(2016)usedthetermtodescribe“themeaningfulstudentinvolvementthroughoutthelearningenvironment”. These diverse definitions show that there is no definite, agreeddefinition of student engagement. Indeed, the holistic concept of studentengagementisdifficulttoconstructbecauseof“themulti-dimensional,dynamicandtemporalcharacteristicsofstudentengagement”(Zhang&McNamara,2018,p.23).From the interpretations suggested by the scholars, we define the studentengagement ina simplewayas themeaningful student involvementanddevotionduringalearningexperience.

Reviewingfromresearch literature,Fredricks,Blumenfeld,andParis (2004)identified three types of student engagement, which are interrelated to oneanother:

1.Behavioralengagement,referringtostudents’adherencetoclassroomrulesand

behavioral norms such as attendance and absence of negative behavior, andstudent involvement in academic tasks including student effort, persistence,attention,andcontributiontoclassdiscussion.

2.Emotional engagement, referring to affective reactions such as interest,enjoyment,happiness,sadness,boredom,anxiety,orasenseofbelonging.

3.Cognitive engagement, referring to students’ investment in learning whichincludes a desire to meet and exceed the requirements and a preference forchallenge, andbeing strategic or self-regulatedwhichmeans student strategiestoremember,organize,andunderstandmaterials.

Frompreviousresearch,somescholarsalsoreviewanddigestthestrategies

for fostering student engagement through instructional practices andexperiences.ThefollowingtableshowsstrategiesproposedbyWankelandBlessinger(2013),andSteinandGraham(2014).

Table1Strategiesforfosteringstudentengagementproposedbyscholars

WankelandBlessinger(2013)

SteinandGraham(2014)

1. Offeringdifferentchannelsofcommunicationtoindividualizethelearningexperiencebyparticipantpreference.

2. Creatingtheactivestudent-studentcollaborationandparticipation

3. Providingfeedbacktothe

1. Engagingheartandmind.• Face-to-faceforengagingheart(affective)andmind(cognitive)

• Onlineforengagingmind(cognitive).2. Designinghumaninteraction.• Face-to-face:activeparticipationinclass.

• Online:noconstraintsbytimeandplace.



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studentonthecontentandprocesslevel.

3. Engagingthroughcontentinteraction.• Staticcontent:e-books,web-pages,etc.• Dynamiccontent:simulation,onlinetutorial.

4. Engagingthroughthecombinationofinteractions.• Student-instructor:personalthroughface-to-face,email/message,oringroupthroughaclasslectureanddiscussion.

• Student-student:discussion,groupwork.

• Student-content:readingtextbooksanddigitalcontent.

Thefollowingisthesummaryofthestrategiessuggestedbythescholars,whichareusedtoidentifythestrategiesthatthelecturerusedintheinstructionalactivities.

1. Offering different learning and communication channels, face-to-face andonline,toindividualizelearningexperience.

2. Creatingtheactivestudent-studentcollaborationandparticipationeitherinface-to-facechannelorononlinechannel.

3. Creating the active student-instructor interaction either in face-to-facechannelorononlinechannel.

4. Providingthecontentinteraction,eitherstaticordynamiccontent.5. Providingfeedbacktothestudentonthecontentandprocesslevel.

Almostallthethreetypesofengagementareincludedineachstrategy,butthelevelof one type may be greater than the other(s). Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris(2004) stated that the three types of student engagement are interrelated to oneanother.LearningManagementSystem(LMS)Theselectionofonlineplatformforblended learningisessentialtominimisemoreworkload and technical problems the academics would encounter during theinstructional process. E-learning software such as Learning Management System(LMS) is one of decent choices as it works like social media while providing thefeatures for classmanagementandadministration. The LMS isused to createandassigncoursematerial,tracestudentprogress,andassessaswellasreportstudentoutcomesonline.Notonlydoesitenablestudentstoaccessmaterialsthroughtheirmobiledevices,suchas laptopandsmartphone,andgetconnectedtodataandtoone another but it also enables teachers to diversify their teachingmedia and becreativewith their teaching resources. Fenton (2018) listed thebesteight learningmanagement systems in 2018, namely, Google Classroom, Schoology, Edmodo,



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Quizlet, Canvas, Moodle, Blackboard, and D2L Brightspace. Of these platforms,teacherscanchooseonefortheirclasses. Schoology as one of the most popular online learning platforms keepsimprovingitsservicesbyprovidingthetoolseasytooperate.Asasocialnetworkingdevice, Schoology works like Facebook in which users are able to haveconversations, sendmessages, update statuses, and share information within thenetwork.Asalearningmanagementsystemitsystematicallyintegratestheactivitiesofcontentdevelopment,assessment,andmoresothattheteacherscanspendlesstime on administrative tasks andmore on instructional activities. It also providesbeneficialtoolsforinstructionalfeedbacks,suchasfortheassignmentsthatcannotbe automatically assessed like writing.When a piece of writing is submitted, theteacher can utilize the rich text editor tool to give comments and other kinds offeedbacktothestudentwork.ApproachestowritingThree approaches and one synthesised approach to writing are available forteachers toselectanduse in teachingwriting.Product-basedapproach focusesonlinguistic knowledge (e.g., vocabulary, syntax, and cohesive devices) and the endproduct.Nunan(1999)explainedthatthisapproachconcentrateson“tasksinwhichthe learner imitates,copies,andtransformsmodelprovidedbytheteacherand/orthetextbook”(p.272).Ithasfourstagesincludingfamiliarisation,controlledwriting,guidedwriting,and freewriting.Process-basedapproachemphasises thestagesofwriting development. Brown (2001) asserted that this approach includes “theprocessofprewriting,drafting,revising,andediting”(p.337).Thetypicalmodelofthisapproachinvolvesprewriting,composing/drafting,revising,andediting. The third approach is genre-based approach which focuses on linguisticknowledge and the communicative purpose of a writing genre. Hyland (2003)describes three main stages of a genre-based approach, which include modeling,joint construction, and independent construction. The approach synthesises theexisting approaches, especially the process and genre based approach, to get thestrengthsofoneapproachtocomplementtheweaknessesoftheother.BadgerandWhite(2000)proposedthestagesofasynthesisedorprocessgenreapproachthatlead froma situation to a text, namely, situation, purpose, considerationofmodefieldtenor,planning,draftingandpublishing,andtext.

MethodologyParticipantsTheparticipantsofthisstudyweresixundergraduatestudentsandone lectureroftheEnglishdepartment,theFacultyofTeacherTrainingandEducationatanIslamicuniversity in Indonesia. The six students were selected purposively among 27students of a paragraph writing class, based on their level of English proficiency,high,medium,low.ThestudywasconductedfromMarchtoJuly2018.



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DataCollectionandAnalysisProceduresQualitative research was used as the approach in this study, and the type of thequalitative research was a case study. Harrison, Birks, Franklin, and Mills (2017)asserted that case study research is effective for researching and understandingcomplex issues in real world settings. Data were collected through observations,interviews,anddocumentanalysis.Theinterviewswithopen-endedquestionswerecarriedoutonsixstudentsandonelecturerwhiletheobservationswereconductedduring face-to-face and online learning processes in the writing course. Thesupporting data were taken from some documents including syllabus, students’writingassignments,anddigitaldocumentsfromSchoology.

DatawereanalysedusingMiles,HubermanandSaldana’s(2014)interactivemodel of data analysis. Three major steps of the analysis consist of datacondensation, data display, and drawing and verifying conclusions. Datacondensation involves the process of selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting,and/or transforming the data from field notes, interview, documents, and otherempiricalmaterials,whichoccursrepeatedlythroughoutthestudy.Datadisplayisacompressed assembly of information that allows conclusion drawing and action,helpingtheresearcherunderstandwhatishappeningandtodosomethingeithertoanalyzefurtherortotakeaction.Drawingandverifyingconclusionsarecarriedoutfrom theonsetof data collectionby identifyingpatterns, explanations, and causalflows. The three steps are interwoven before, during, and after data collection inparallelform.

FindingsandDiscussion

CourseDescriptionThe ParagraphWriting is a 2-credit university course which is an introductory towriting course series consistingofBasicWriting, ParagraphWriting, EssayWriting,andAcademicWriting.BasicWritingistheprerequisitecourseforParagraphWritingand so forth. The topics covered in the Paragraph Writing course included theelements of a paragraph, process of paragraph writing (pre-writing), process ofparagraphwriting (developingparagraph),unity,coherence,descriptiveparagraph,process paragraph, classification paragraph, definition paragraph, comparison-contrastparagraph,cause-effectparagraph,andopinionparagraph(seeAppendix).The ParagraphWriting, offered in semester four, consisted of fourteen scheduledmeetings for instructions and twomeetings formid-test and final-test. Each 100-minute meeting was set face-to-face while the online learning was thesupplementarywithoutreplacinganyface-to-facesession.Theface-to-facemeetingwas held once a weekwhile the online learningwas provided for students to doanytime and anywhere with a deadline set for each online assignment. Theapproachtowritingusedinthiscoursewasaprocess-basedapproach,whichcouldbeseenfromthesyllabus,classobservation,andteacher’sstatement,butthestepswere simpler including pre-writing, organising, andwriting,while the steps of the



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typical process approach include pre-writing, composing/drafting, revising, andediting.

StudentEngagementinMainInstructionalActivitiesFromtheobservations intheclassroomandonSchoologytherewereseveralmainactivitiesconductedbythelecturertopromotestudentengagement.Uploading course materials. All course materials were uploaded online onSchoology based on the topics one by one a few days before each face-to-facemeetingsothatstudentscouldaccessanddownloadthematerialsbeforeaclass.Intheinterviewthelecturerstated:

The materials including the syllabus are uploaded before face-to-faceinstructions. Students can read the materials anywhere and anytimethroughtheirphonesand learnthematerialsthataregoingtobeusedforthenextmeetingsothattheycanbewellpreparedforthecourse.(L)

During the observation in the classroom, it could be seen that several studentsseemed to have pre-read the materials because they already completed theexercisesrelatedtothetopictobediscussedinthemeeting,andtheylookedmoreprepared for deeper discussion about the topic (a type of paragraph). It is in linewithwhatBowyerandChambers(2017)statedthatifthematerialsareuploadedonthe online platform for pre-reading, the classroom time can be used to focus ondeeper analysis or discussion of the course topics. Moreover, Stein and Graham(2014) asserted that uploading the materials enables students to access thematerials anytime and anywhere, creating the content interaction to enhancestudents’cognitiveengagement.However,somestudentssaidthattheyrarelyreadthematerialsbeforeaclass.Onestudentsaid:

SometimesIpre-readthematerialsbutmostofthetimeIpreferlisteningtothelecturer’sexplanationfirst.(S1)

For suchacaseGarissonandVaughan (2008) suggested that thepre-class readingactivityshouldbefollowedbyaself-assessment,quiz,ordiscussionsothatstudentswouldbeencouragedtoreadthematerialsbeforeaclassinordertocompletethetasks. However, overall the student participants appreciated the course materialuploading for its practicality and easy access, and stated that it made it easy forthemtolearnthematerialsanytimeandanywhere;before,during,orafterclass.



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Figure1.Studentsusedtheirhandphonestoviewcoursematerials

Online writing assignments. When the course topics came to the types ofparagraph, the lecturer assigned students to write a different type of paragraphevery week after each face-to-face instruction. The work was submitted onSchoologybutnotthroughSubmissiontoolbutpostedanddisplayedontheUpdatespagewhereeveryclassmembercouldsee.Thelecturersaid:

Students can do thewriting practices outside classroom hours and submittheirworkonSchoologysothattheycanreadeachother’sworkand learnfromeachother’,andIcangivefeedback.(L)

From the observation onSchoology, it could be seen that therewere interactionsbuiltbetweenstudentsandteacher,andamongstudentsontheUpdatespage.Onthispageeveryonecouldpost theirwork,givecomments,andpress“like”button,andthelecturercouldgivefeedbackonstudents’work,asshowninFigure2.Suchinteractions and feedback enhanced student engagement (Stein & Graham, 2014;Wankel & Blessinger, 2013). The writing assignments were not graded directlybecause they were intended to be the writing practices. It is in line with whatGarrisonandVaughan(2014)statedthatassigninggradescanbedemotivating,soitis better to give actionable feedback that students can apply to the next writingexercise.



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Figure2.Theinteractionandfeedbackonastudent’swork

The lecturer stated that displaying students’ writing assignments wasintended tomotivatestudents towriteand to readeachother’spiecesofwriting,and during the observation most students seemed motivated although a fewstudentsmightbe lessmotivated. It is similarwithwhatBerger (2003) stated thatmakingworkpublictoone’speersisoneoftheinterventionstoincreasemotivationand engagement. Generally, the activity of online writing assignments, includingdisplaying and giving feedback on students’ work, increased student engagementbehaviorally,emotionally,andcognitively.

Online quizzes. Online quizzes were given three times in early meetings, namelyidentifying the topic sentences of several paragraphs, paragraph unity, andtransition signals for coherence. These quizzes were given after the classinstructions,andcouldbecompletedoutsideclassroomhours.Thelecturersaid:

I do not give the quiz everyweek because it iswriting so the quizzes areused to strengthen what needs to be reinforced, such as the transitionwordsthatstudentsneedtoknowalotandunitylikewhichsentencedoesnotfitintheparagraph.(L)

The lecturer’s statement indicated that the quizzes were intended to develop in-depthunderstandingofwhathadbeenlearned.Thiskindofactivitycanalsobeusedas the way to check student understanding of the content (Briggs, 2014). In thefollowingface-to-facemeetingtheteacherdiscussedthequizwithstudentsthroughteacher-studentconferencingandgavesomecommentsasthefeedbacktostudent



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work. This allows students to significantly reinforce their perceived learning ofcontentknowledge (Shernoff,2013).Figure3 showsaquizaboutparagraphunity,whichaskedstudentstoidentifythesentencethatdidnothavethesameideawiththeothersentencesinatext. All student participants showed positive responses to the online quizzes.Onestudentsaid:

Throughtakingthequizzes Icangetnewinformationand Ialsocanassessmyknowledge. Inaddition,sincetheonlinequizzesallowmetoretakethequizzesseveraltimesinordertoattainthe100score,theretakemakesmerememberthematerial.(S1)

This student’ statement indicated that the quizzes helped the student assess andretain the knowledge she already learned and to obtain new information. Inaddition,theformatofthequizzeswhichwasmultiplechoiceswasfavorable.Davis(2018) reveals that the repeatable quizzing can improve knowledge retention andstudentmotivation.

Figure3.Aquizaboutparagraphunity



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Student-teacherconferencing.Whenaskedthereasonwhyusingblended learningfortheparagraphwritingcourse,thelecturersaidthatshehopedbysubmittingthewritingassignmentsonlineonSchoology,thestudentscouldlearnfromeachotherbyreadingeachother’spiecesofwriting,andshecouldgivenecessaryfeedbacktostudents’work.DuringtheobservationsintheclassroomandonSchoology,itcouldbeseenthatthefeedbackwasgivennotonlyonSchoologybutalsointheclassroomthrough teacher-student conferencing. Students’ pieces of writing/paragraphspostedonSchoologyweredisplayed in frontof the class throughaprojector. Thelecturer gave feedback on some of students’ paragraphs and students askedquestionsrelatedtothefeedback.Thisactivitywasdoneatthebeginningofface-to-facesessionintheclassroombeforeanewtypeofaparagraphwasintroduced.

The feedback was mostly about the ideas and the organisation of theparagraph but vocabulary, grammar and mechanics were also discussed. Spencer(2015) stated that the teacher-student conferencing about students’ work couldguide students in self-reflection, provide needed advice, and review mastery ofstandards. Wankel and Blessinger (2013) asserted that providing feedback to thelearneronthecontentandprocesslevelcouldenhancestudentengagement.Groupwork.Theexercisesintheclassroomweremostlydoneinpairsorgroups.Asrevealedduringtheobservationintheclassroom,studentsweredividedintogroupsandaskedtoworkingroupstoidentifytheelementsofamodelparagraphanddrawtheoutlineoftheparagraph.Then,theymadetheoutlinefortheirownparagraphswith the steps of finding a topic, generating ideas through brainstorming, andmakingtheoutlinefromtheideasgathered.Groupworkwasconductedtodevelopactiveandcollaborativelearning.Onestudentstated:

Doing the exercises together with friends is very helpful. My friendssometimessuggestideasIneverthinkabout.(S1)

Althoughduringtheobservation intheclassroomitcouldbeseenthatthereweresome students less active in group work, in general most students activelyparticipatedingroupwork.Thisgroupworkmadethecoursebecamemorestudent-centered because students could share ideas and knowledge together. A similarfinding was reported by Challob et al. (2016) who found that group work andcollaborationwere the positive factors in learningwriting, and through the groupwork and communication within the group, students could decrease their writinganxiety. Wankel and Blessinger (2013) stated that student engagement can bepromotedthroughtheactivestudent-studentcollaborationandparticipationinpairorgroupwork.Class discussion. Class discussion was one of the dominant activities in theclassroom.During theclassobservation it couldbeseen thatafter introducing theday topic, the lecturer showed the class a model paragraph of a new type ofparagraph and asked students to identify the paragraph for the topic sentence,supporting sentences, and concluding sentence. The results were then discussedtogetherandstudentsappreciatedthisactivity.Onestudentstated:



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The discussions are usually carried out after group work and exercises.Through the discussions we can ask questions and deepen ourunderstanding.(S1)

Anotherstudentrevealed:

Not all ofmy friends ask questions but the discussions over the results ofourworkclarifymisunderstoodconcepts.(S6)

From these students’ statements it could be revealed that class discussion coulddeepen understanding of the content and clarifymisconceptions. It is in linewithwhat Twigg (2003) asserted that discussion sessions can reinforce what studentshave learned and clear upmisconception. It is corroboratedby Stein andGraham(2014), stating that class discussions provide “opportunities for teachers to directstudent exploration of a topic, and for students to test ideas, ask questions, anddebatepoints”(p.150).

In addition to the aforementioned learning activities, the studentengagement couldalsobeenhanced through thecommunicationafter classhourscarriedoutthroughSchoology.Severalstudentssaidthattheysometimesaskedthelecturerforsomethingtheydidnotunderstandwhetheraboutthelessoncontentorabout the assignment submission through the direct message on Schoology. Itincreased student-teacher interaction that could promote student engagement(Stein&Graham,2014). Ingeneral, the lecturer focusedthe instructionsongroupwork, discussions, and student-teacher conferencing activities in the face-to-facelearning channel. On the online platform students could obtain or download thematerials, take quizzes, and do/submit the writing assignments as well as givingcomments/feedbackoneachother’piecesofwriting.

Sincetheaccesscode isneededto joinaclassonSchoology, itcanbesaidthattheonlineclassisaclosedsystem.Ononehanditisgoodforstudentsafetybutontheotherhandit limitsthestudentaccesstowideraudienceasaglobalvillagecommunity (Catapano, n.d.). However, this drawback could be solved by invitingother students fromother classesorevenother countries toparticipate in sharedgroups.Allthestudentparticipantslookedenthusiasticwhenofferedthepossibilityforhavingonlinediscussionswithotherstudentsfromothercountries.TheysaiditwouldbegreatbecausetheycouldlearnandpracticenotonlytheEnglishlanguagebut also others’ culture and communication manners. It is indeed possible to dosuchdiscussions,forexample,aclassfromPhilippine,Malaysia,orSingapore,whereEnglish is their second language, getting connected to a class from IndonesiathroughasharedgrouponSchoology.

Conclusion

Student engagement can be intensified through the combination of two differentlearningchannels,whichiscalledblendedlearning.Forwritingcoursewhichneedsalotofpractice,theclasstimeonface-to-facesettingisconsideredrelativelyshortor



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evennotenough.TheuseofSchoologyastheonlineplatformthatsupplementsthelearning in face-to-face setting can provide more time and increase studentengagement.Itisfrequentlyadmittedthatthereisnosinglebestmodelforblendedcourses, but teachers can learn which combination of approaches works best fordifferent students and different subjects through experience. Although the use ofSchoologyastheonlinelearningplatforminthestudiedclasswasnotoptimal,onlyfor uploading course materials, submitting assignments, giving quizzes, andcommunicating ina limitedway, thecombinationof theonline learningmodeandface-to-facelearningmodepromotedstudentengagementintheparagraphwritingcourse, particularly through the activities of uploading course materials, onlinewriting assignments, quizzes, student-teacher conferencing, groupwork, and classdiscussions.

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Appendix

Syllabus

CourseName : ParagraphWritingCourseCode/Credits : PBI2311/2CreditsSemester : 4Status : CompulsoryPrerequisite : BasicWritingSkillCourseDescription : Thiscourseisdesignedtoequipthestudentswiththe

skilltobeabletowritedifferenttypesofparagraphs.Thiscoursealsointroducesthestudentstosomepre-writingtechniques,elementsofparagraph,unity,andcoherence.Thetypesofparagraphsselectedforthiscoursearedescriptive,explanation,comparisonandcontrast,cause–effect,andopinionparagraphs

GeneralObjectives : Todevelopstudents’abilityinwritingdifferenttypesofparagraphsinEnglishasthebaseforthestudentstowriteacademicessays

TeachingandLearningModes

: Blendedlearning(face-to-faceandonline)

CourseOutlineWeek Topic Subtopic Indicatorofachievement1 Introduction Courseoutline

AssignmentsRules&regulation

Thestudentsknowtheobjectives,thetopicscoveredinthecourse,thereferences,andtheassignmentsforthecourse

2

Elementsofaparagraph

Topicsentence(position,criteriaofgoodtopicsentence)SupportingdetailsConcludingsentence

Thestudentsareabletoidentifytopicsentence,supportingdetails,andconcludingsentenceThestudentsareabletowriteagoodtopicsentence

3 ProcessofParagraphwriting(pre-writing)

ChoosingatopicDevelopingideas(brainstorming,listing,clustering,freewriting)Planningaparagraph(outlining,organizing)

Thestudentsareabletochooseatopic,anddevelopideasthroughbrainstormingandfreewritingThestudentsareabletomakeanoutlineofaparagraph

4

ProcessofParagraphWriting(writingsupportingsentences)

DevelopingaparagraphTechniquesofsupport(facts,example,personalexperience,anecdotes)

Thestudentsareabletowritesupportingdetailsthroughvarietyoftechniques



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5 Unity Controllingideaand

supportingsentencesThestudentsareabletowriteaunifiedparagraph

6

Coherence

SmoothflowofideasLinkingdevices

Thestudentsareabletowriteacoherentparagraphusingappropriatelinkingdevices

7

Descriptiveparagraph

PhysicaldescriptionOrderoforganization

Thestudentsareabletowriteadescriptiveparagraph

8 MidTest 9

Processparagraph OrganizationChronologicalconnectors

Thestudentsareabletowriteaprocessparagraph

10 Classificationparagraph

OrganizationLogicalsequence

Thestudentsareabletowriteaclassificationparagraph

11

Definitionparagraph

OrganizationConnectors

Thestudentsareabletowriteadefinitionparagraph

12

Comparison-contrastparagraph

BlockorganizationPointbypointorganization

Thestudentsareabletowriteacomparison-contrastparagraph

13

Cause-effectparagraph

OrganizationConnectors

Thestudentsareabletowriteacauseeffectparagraph

14

Opinionparagraph ExpressingViewpoint/attitudeDevelopingarguments

Thestudentsareabletowriteanopinionparagraph

15 Classproject Classbulletin(optional)

16 Finaltest

References:

1. TheProcessofParagraphWritingbyJoyM.Reid2. TheProcessofCompositionbyJoyM.Reid3. Blueprints1:CompositionSkillsforAcademicWritingbyKeithS.Folseetal.4. IntroductiontoAcademicWritingbyAliceOshima&AnnHogue5. EssentialofEnglishbyAnnHogue6. ParagraphDevelopmentbyMartinL.Arnaudet&MaryE.Barrrett7. WriteWellbyBarliBram


TheStudyofSyntacticandSemanticfeaturesofVerbsinProblemStatementSectionofMasterTheses

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THESTUDYOFSYNTACTICANDSEMANTICFEATURESOFVERBSINPROBLEMSTATEMENTSECTIONOF

MASTERTHESES

SeyedFoadEBRAHIMI1

MansoorHOSSEINZADEH2

EnglishDepartment,ShadeganBranch,IslamicAzadUniversity,Shadegan,Iran

[email protected]*

Manuscriptreceived20April2018Manuscriptaccepted25November2018

ABSTRACT

The present study was carried to investigate the realisation of verbs in problemstatementofEnglishLanguageTeaching(ELT)theses.Toreachthisobjective,40ELTtheses,werechosenfromreliabledatabases(ProQuest).Thecorpuswasreadcarefullytoidentify thegrammaticalverbs.Then, the identifiedverbswereclassifiedbasedontenses, aspects and voices. Tenses comprise three tenses of present, past andfuture. Aspects consist of simple, progressive and perfect. Voices can be eitheractiveor passive. To analyse thedata for the semanticmeanings of the identifiedverbs, Biber et al.’s (1999) classification was used. After scrutinising the problemstatementsoffortytheses,thedata,itwasfoundthattheverbsofdifferenttenses,aspects, voices and semanticmeaningswereused. The findingswerediscussed togiveaclearpictureofhowverbsareusedinproblemstatementsoftheseswrittenbynativewritersofEnglish.Thefindingsmayhelpinstructorstoequiptheirstudentswiththeabilitytousetheverbsappropriately inwritingtheproblemstatementoftheirtheses.Keywords:Problemstatement,thesis,verb,semanticmeaning,syntacticfeature

Introduction

Instudents’educationalprocess,thesisisthefinalstageoftheMaster’sdegreeandprovidesstudentswiththeopportunitytoshowthattheyhavegainedthenecessaryskillsandknowledgeinordertoorganiseandconductaresearchproject. Itshoulddemonstrate that they are skilled in identifying an area, or areas, suitable forresearch:settingresearchobjectives;locating,organisingandcriticallyanalysingtherelevant secondary data and authoritative literature; devising an appropriate



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research methodology; analysing the primary data selected and drawing on theliterature in the field; drawing conclusions; and if appropriate making relevantrecommendationsandindicationsofareasforfurtherresearch.Inthefirstchapterofathesis,writersusuallyhavetostatetheproblemthatmotivatesthemtoconductthe study. Thus, problem statement (PS) acts as an anchor point in a thesis thatotherpartsofthesisshouldbelinkedto.ThePShasthepurposeofconvincingtheadvisory committee and examiners about the importance of topic underinvestigation.Creswell (2012)pointsoutthatthePSsection isapartof thesis thatcontainsthetopicofthestudy,theresearchproblemanditsjustificationisbasedonthe existing literature deficiencies or shortcomings, and the importance ofaddressing a problem for diverse audiences. According to Metoyer-Duran andHernon(1994),PSservesthefunctionof“crystallizingtheissue,theessenceofwhatI amdoing” (p. 107). Karbach (2010, p. 89) declares that thewriter is required tointroduceanacademicproblemandanswerthequestion“What Iwanttoprove?”Nenty (2009) points that everything in the study has to be a presentation,exploration or proof of the problem. She adds that “the heart of any researchprojectistheproblem”and“researchersgetoffastrongstartwhentheybeginwithan unmistakably clear statement of the problem” (p. 21). The importance of PSrequires the writers to write it in a clear and understandable way. Due to theimportance of PS in thesis writing, the present study aims to investigate thesyntactic and semantic features of verbs used in PS of thesis written by nativewritersofEnglish.

LiteratureReview

Although thePS isapivotal section ina thesis, thereare rather limitedstudiesonthis section (Jalilifar, Firuzmand, & Roshani, 2011; Ibrahim & Nambiar, 2011;Nimehchisalem, Tarvirdizadeh, Pidary, & Nur Izyan, 2016). Jalilifar et al. (2011)studied the rhetorical structure of PS in theses and proposals in the discipline ofappliedlinguistics.Theyanalysed100PSsectionsusingSwales’(1990)CARSmodel.TheyfoundthatonlythreestepsintheCARSmodelweretreatedasoptionalwhileothers were considered obligatory. The optional steps were claiming centrality,outliningpurposes,andquestionraising.IbrahimandNambiar(2011)focusedonPSin ESL postgraduate students’ writing of proposals or thesis. Their data collectionwas through semi-structured questionnaires, interviews and document analysis.Their findings highlighted the difficulty students faced in reading and synthesisingprevious studies. Their problem was mostly in finding the main point of earlierstudiesandparaphrasingthem.Theyconcludedthattheproblemsreportedintheirstudy originated from rhetorical structure differences between L1 and English.Nimehchisalemetal.(2016)studiedthePSsectionofIranianMasterDegreethesesfortherhetoricalstructureusingCARSmodel(Swales,1990).Theiranalysisof30PSswritten by TEFL Iranian students suggested that students have problems inpresenting the significance of their study in the PS section. They pointed out thatlackofawarenessof therhetorical structureof thePScouldbe thesource for theproblemsofIranianTEFLstudents’PS.



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Based on the review of previous studies, there is still a gap of knowledgethatneedstobefocusedonasthemainfocusintheliteraturewasontherhetoricalstructureofPSandlinguisticfeaturesofthissectionhavebeenneglected.Thus,thisstudy aims to explore the syntactic and semantic featuresof verbsused in thePSsectionsofthesesfromdisciplineofEnglishLanguageTeaching(ELT).Therefore,thisstudyaddressedthefollowingquestions:

(1) What are the syntactic features of verbs used in the PS part of theses

writtenbynativewritersofEnglish?(2) What are the semantic meanings of verbs used in the PS part of theses

writtenbynativewritersofEnglish?Thefocusonverbsissignificantbecauseoftheircomplexityinbothsyntacticalandsemantic features,whichmakes themchallenging fornon-native speakers (Englishas a second or foreign language) to learn and use in theses (Holmes, 1983, 1988;Stubbs,1985).Inthisregard,WaardandPanderMaat(2012)pointthatthefocusonverbispivotalinacademicwritingasitcanactasadifferentiatingfeaturebetweentexts pertaining to experimental results and texts pertaining to more abstractconcepts.Thus, this study is significant since the researcher is going to investigatethetypesofverbsusedinthePSoftheses.

Methodology

CorpusThecorpususedforthisstudyconsistedof40ELTtheseswrittenbynativewritersofEnglish.Acomprehensive listofdifferent thesespublished in the fieldofELT from2011-2016were selected from Proquest database. Of these, 40 ELT theses whichhad been examined in a university in located in countries in which English is themother tongue were selected. From each thesis, the PS section was chosen foranalysis of how verbswere utilised. Tomake the corpus data comparable, all thechosentheseswerematchedinlength.AnalysisFrameworkThePSswereanalysedforsyntacticfeaturesthatincludetense,aspect,andvoiceofverbs.Tensecomprisesthethreetensesofpresent,pastandfuture.Aspectconsistsof simple, progressive and perfect. Voice can be either active or passive. Theselections of these syntactic features are due to that these features are mostlymentioned inwriting instructions on academicwriting (Hinkel, 2004). Beason andLaster(2000),intheirguidetogrammarandusageoffeaturesinacademicwriting,providedadescriptionoftense,andAxelordandCooper(2001)devotedfivepagestotheuseoftenseandvoiceintheirpopulartextbookforacademicwriting.

Toanalysethecorpusforthesemanticmeaningsofthemainverbsusedinthe PS section of theses, Biber et al.’s (1999) classification was used. This



107

classification includes a broad range of semantic meanings (Zhang, 2015). Theirclassificationincludessevensemanticdomainsasfollows:

1) Activity verbs which are concerned with what people do (e.g., use, give,

make,build,perform,measure)2) Communication verbs involving such communication activities as speaking

andwriting(e.g.,describe,discuss,debate,argue,introduce,suggest)3) Mental verbsdescribingcognitive statesandactivities (e.g., know,believe,

remember, understand, consider, design, study, investigate), which alsoincludeattitudinaloremotionalstates(e.g.,prefer,love,enchant)

4) Verbs of existence or relationship denoting a relation or a state existsbetween entities (e.g., include, represent, define, link, associate, relate,influence)

5) Verbs of facilitation or causation indicating a new state of affairs broughtabout(e.g.,cause,allow,require,need,influence)

6) Verbs of simple occurrence reporting the occurrence of events (e.g.,develop,grow,increase,andchange)

7) Aspectualverbsdenotingthestageofprogressofeventsoractivities (e.g.,keep,continue,andhold)

Thedatawereanalysedforfrequencyoftense,aspectandvoice.Following

this, the main verbs were analysed for their semantic meanings. A sample of 20theses was checked by two experts in the area of ELT, in order to increase thereliabilityandvalidityofanalysis.

ResultsandDiscussion

Table (1) presents basic results about the verbs includes the frequency andpercentageofverbsintermsoftense.Table1Frequencyofthetenseofverbs

Frequency Percentage

Future 23 5%Past 81 17%

Present 365 78%Total 469 100.0

Table 1 shows that 469 verbs were used in 40 theses (PS), of which 365

(78%) were the present tense, 81 (17%) were the past tense and 23 (5%) of theverbswerethefuturetense.Theprevalenceofthesimpletensecouldbebecauseofacknowledging ventures in postulations, for example,making theme speculations,showingtheexaminationhole,sketchingoutpurposes, illustratingvitaldiscoveriesandsuggestions,anddemonstratingtheproposalsstructure(Examples1-5).



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Example 1:Whilemuch of what we learn about our world comes through visualmeans,ineducationpeoplestillgiveprecedencetoverbalcommunication.Example 2: Words and numbers are rigid and specific, but creative individualsconveytheirinnervisualconceptsindiverseways.Example3.Despitethesepossibilities,English/languageartsteachersarereticenttoinstruct their students in thenon-verbal skills inwhich they themselveshave littletraining.Example 4:However, it seems that even after 10 years of English teaching in theelementary school, concerns surrounding teacherqualifications inEnglish teachingarestillverystrong,particularly thoserelatedtoteachers’ lackofEnglish languageproficiency.Example 5:These inconsistent findings suggestaneed for further researchon therelationshipbetweenthetwo,insteadofsimplyassumingacausalrelationshipasinthepreviousstudiesinTESOL.

The secondmost common tense in PS of ELT theses was the past simple

because thesis writers mostly construct their studies on previous ones, and seekgapsintheexistingliterature(Examples6-7).

Example6:Asaresultofsuchsociopoliticalatmosphere,despitestrongdebatesonitsappropriatenessandeffect,Englishwas introduced intotheelementaryschoolsin1997by loweringthegrade level forbeginningEnglisheducationatschool fromgradeseventogradethreeExample7:FerrisandHedgcock(2005)explainedthat:.....Table(2)presentsbasicresultsabouttheverbsincludesthefrequencyandpercentofverbsintermsofvoice.Table2Frequencyofthevoiceofverbs

Frequency PercentagePerfect 64 14%Simple 405 86%Total 469 100.0

Table2shows469verbswereusedin40theses(statementoftheproblempart),ofwhich405(86%)weresimpleverbs,64(14%)usedtheperfecttense.Thefrequentuse of the present perfect in ELT theses suggests these writers’ preference forclaiming the centrality of their study. They also prefer to convince editors andreviewers that the investigated topic has been the concern of researchers over aperiodoftime(Examples8-11).Example8:Asmentionedpreviously,NCTEandIRA(1996)haverecognizedtheneedtoteachvisualliteracyintheEnglish/languageartsclassroom.Example9:Inadditionmanystates,includingKansas,haveincludedvisualliteracyintheir English/language arts standards and their standards for licensure inEnglish/languagearts.



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Example 10: Since 1994, when the seventh government had stated its nationalpolicyassaekyehwa [internationalizationorglobalization], theKoreangovernmenthas emphasized that Koreanpeople should develop the ability to communicate inEnglish.Example 11: To be fair, in order to address this problem, the government hasprovided in-service training programs on English teaching (e.g., 120-hour basicprogram,60hoursormoreadvancedprogram,overseastraining)since1996.

As shown in Table 3, 469 verbswere used in 40 theses (statement of theproblem part), of which 415 (88%) were active verbs and 54 (12%) were passiveverbs. In this respect,Mohsenzadeh and Ebrahimi (2017) stated that active verbsexpressmeaningmoreemphaticallyandvigorouslythantheirweakercounterparts,verbs in the passive voice, which lack strength because their subjects receive theaction instead of doing it. The lower incidence of the passive voicemight suggestthatinmuchscientificwriting,thepassivevoiceproperlyputstheemphasisontheexperiment, participants, or process being described, not on the researcher(Mohsenzadeh&Ebrahimi, 2017). Examples 12 to 13 show theuseof thepassivevoice.

Table3Frequencyofpassiveandactivevoices

Frequency Percentage

Active 415 88%Passive 54 12%Total 469 100.0

Example12:Whilepre-schoolandelementary-agechildrenareencouragedtodraw,soonafterstartingformaleducation,studentsfindvisualactivitiesreplacedbywordand number exercises, which are highly ordered and conventionalized forms ofexpressioncomparedtovisualexpressionExample13:Infact,visualthinkingandlearningareoftentranslatedintoverballanguageinordertoconveyideastoothersinanunderstandableway

Table 4 shows that 469 verbs were used in 40 theses (statement of theproblempart) semantically, ofwhich 67 (27%)were activity verbs, 67 (27%)werecommunication verbs, 40 (16%) were mental verbs, 45 (18%) were verbs ofexistence or relationship, 18 (7%) were verbs of facilitation or causation, 11(4%)wereverbsofsimpleoccurrence,and2(1%)wereaspectualverbs.Table4Frequencyofsemanticmeaningofverbs

Frequency PercentageActivity 67 27Aspectualverbs 2 1Communicationverbs 67 27



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Mentalverb 40 16Verbofsimpleoccurrencereporting 11 4Verbsofexistencerelationship 45 18 Verbsoffacilitationorcausation 18 7

Total 250 100.0 Themostcommonverbtypewas“mental”inbothcorpora.Thegreateruseof mental verbs in the ELT theses analysed might be imposed by the rhetoricalfunctionsofELTthesesmovesandsteps.Inbothcorpora,thesekindsofverbswereused to report earlier studies and state the aim of the study. Such verbs arecommonlyused in sentences thatpresents aimor information, claimor argumentfromliteratureasshowninExamples14-17.Example 14: The relationship between the native-English-speaking universityteachers' perceptions of English teachingwith the importance in cultural learningand communication, and their instructional practice needs to be investigatedregardingEnglish-as-a-foreign-language.Example15:thisstudyexaminedthepreparationoffutureSLWteachersinmaster'slevelacademicprogramsintheteachingofEnglishasaSecondLanguage(MATESOL)anditsrelatedfields.Example 16: African American audiences of post-Civil Rights Era Black genre filmsbelievethatthefilmsareanoppositionalculturalpracticetomainstreamstatusquoAmericangenrefilms.Example 17: Though no shortage of studies on alternative preparation programsexists (Darling-Hammond, Chung, & Freelow, 2002; Grossman & Loeb, 2008), toolittleisknownabouttheintersectionofsecondarylevelmainstreamACteachersandlinguisticallydiversestudents.

Conclusion

Thisstudyexaminedthetypesofverbsusedin“PS”sectionofELTtheseswrittenbynativewritersofEnglishaswellasthesemanticandsyntacticfeaturesoftheverbsused. The results concerning syntactic structure indicated that in ELT theses, thesimple present was the predominant tense. This appears to be because writerspresent facts, define entities, state aims andoutline purposes in theses; thus, theuse of this tense is motivated by the rhetorical functions of moves and steps oftheses. To conclude, writers need to be aware that tenses can help editors andreviewerstojudgetheskillandknowledgeofthewriter,andtheycanplayapivotalrole in the realisation ofmoves and stepswithin the theses. Regarding voice, theactivevoicewaspredominant,whichmaybeexpectedgiventhatitisthepreferredtone in thesis writing. This is especially evident in the statement of the problemsection,wherewritershave toclaim thecentrality, significanceand importanceofthe study. This requires creating structureswhere the subject is the performer ofactions. Such structures are the norm in thesis writing, and this needs to behighlightedfornovicewriters.



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Concerningthesemanticmeaningofverbs,threekindsofverbswereusedespeciallyfrequently:mental,activity,communication,andexistenceorrelationshipverbs. Thesekindsof verbsarehelpful in realising the stepsandmovesof theses;thus,writersneedtobeawarethattensesofverbscanhelpeditorsandreviewerstojudgetheskillandknowledgeofthewriter,andtheycanplayapivotalroleintherealisationsofmovesandstepswithinthethesis.ThefindingsofthisstudymayactasagoodguidetohelppostgraduatestudentstowritePSsectionbyselectingverbsthatarecorrectsyntacticallyandsemantically.Moreover,thefindingsofthisstudycouldbeusedtohelpsyllabusdesignersandinstructorstoincludeguideonhowtoselectverbsinwritingPSintextbooksandteaching.

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