The Ethical Dimensions of International Student Recruitment and International

Research Cooperation

Professor Lesleyanne Hawthorne

International Association of Universities Vilnius -

2010 International Conference

24-26 June 2010

Decision to Study Internationally: Stage 1 of a Global Career Trajectory?

Key drivers (sending and receiving countries):

1.

Demography2.

Capacity-building

3.

Addressing workforce maldistribution

and under-supply4.

Domestic skills base versus knowledge economy needs

5.

Compensation for out-migration

Case studies:‘Indigenisation’ of Gulf State and select African workforces

Declining Fertility Rates by Select Country

2.2: Mexico2.1: US1.9: France1.8: Norway, Australia, UK1.7: Netherlands1.5: Canada1.51.4: Switzerland1.3: Germany, Italy, Spain, Czech Republic, Japan1.1: Republic of Korea0.9: City of Shanghai (recent Asian fertility declines….)

Japan:

Set to experience a 70% population reduction in 40 years, with more than 40% of citizens aged 65 years or over

Canada: Scale of reliance on skilled migration

Source: Health At A Glance 2007 – OECD Indicators (2008), OECD, Paris; Matsutani, M (2008), ‘Radical Immigration Plans Under Discussion’, The Japan Times, 19 June, Tokyo

Top 10 Global Destinations for International Students by 2008

(Higher/ Vocational Education)

Destination Country International Students Enrolled in Higher/ Vocational Education

1. US 623,805 (2008)2. Australia 389,373 (2008)3. UK 389,330 (2008)4. France 260,596 (2008)5. Germany 246,369 (2007) 6. China 223,499 (2008)7. Japan 123,829 (2008)8. Canada 113,996 (2007)9. Singapore 86,000 (2007)10. Malaysia 72,000 (2008)11. South Korea 63,952 (2008)12. New Zealand 39,942 (2007) Source: Compiled from data provided in International Student Mobility: Status Report 2009, V Lasanowski, The Observatory on Borderless Higher Education, UK, June 2009

FOCUS 1: International Student Demand for Biomedical Training

1.

Source countries:Prioritisation by field - medicine

Scale of government sponsorship

Global destinations

Risks – return?

Outcomes on return - bonded service/ skills transfer?

Malaysia medical student case study:Private versus public international flows (Bumiputra policy)

Length of service on qualification

Medical practice location

International Student Demand for Biomedical Training: The Ethical Context….

2. Receiving countries:Differential selection procedures (eg public versus private students)

Academic readiness (‘need’ versus ‘merit’)

Access and progression (English ability/ academic transition)

Student motivation (retention)

Source country opportunity (migration)

Case studies:Botswana student repatriation (eg from Ireland)

Select Gulf States’ scholarship student preparedness (eg New Zealand)

Retention (eg private medical students in Australia)

International Student Demand for Biomedical Training: The Ethical Context….

3. Third country opportunity:Student motivation for international study

Global choices

The issue of ‘individual agency’

Private versus sponsored student choices

Case study:Singaporean recruitment of private Malaysian medical students qualifying in Australia

Pathways to internship and permanent resident status

Select Ethical Challenges – International Medical Student Recruitment

Major immigrant-receiving countries:Canada

Australia

UK

Issues:Better to recruit and use international students?

Better to import fully-qualified migrant professionals?

Risk of skills wastageGreater loss to countries which fully-resourced their training

EXAMPLE: Australia’s Level of Reliance on Migrant Professionals by Field (2001 & 2006)

Compared to Canada (2001)

Occupation 2006% Overseas-Born

In Australia

2001% Overseas-Born

In Australia (cf Canada)

Engineering 52% 48% (50%)Computing 57% 48% (51%)Medicine 45% 46% (35%)Science 37% (36%)Commerce/ business 40% 36% (27%)Architecture 36% (49%)Accountancy 44% 36% (35%) Arts/ humanities 31% (24%) Nursing 25% 24% (23%)Teaching 25% 20% (15%) Source: 2001 and 2006 Census data analysis, Australia and Canada; The Impact of Economic Selection Policy on Labour Market Outcomes for Degree-Qualified Migrants in Canada and Australia, L Hawthorne, Institute for Research on Public Policy, Vol 14 No 5, 2008, Ottawa

AUSTRALIA

Australia’s Policy Transformation 1999+: Selection Criteria Favouring

International Students

CANADA

Language testing

Credential screening

International student selection

Occupational demand

International Student Response to Skilled Migration Opportunity by 2004

0

3,000

6,000

9,000

12,000

15,000

18,000

Offshore Onshore

Other occupations

Tradespersons

Professionals

Managers

International Students as a Migration Resource All Sectors: 474,389 (October 2008) Rising to 620,000 (March 2010)

Nationality 2008

Enrolments % of TotalGrowth on YTD

August 2007China (38% migrate) 112,172 23.6% 18.8%India (66% migrate) 80,291 16.9% 47.4%Republic of Korea 31,667 6.7% 3.6%Malaysia 20,449 4.3% 6.3%Thailand 18,564 3.9% 9.8%Hong Kong 16,827 3.5% -5.0%Nepal 14,605 3.1% 101.8%Indonesia 14,071 3.0% 4.1%Vietnam 13,367 2.8% 62.7%Brazil 12,493 2.6% 26.4%Other Nationalities 139,883 29.5% 9.2%Total Enrolments 474,389 100.0% 18.5%

International Medical Students and Australia’s Migration ‘Critical Skills List’

(2009)

ASCO Number Occupation Shortages - Professional 2312-11 Anaesthetist 2381-11 Dentist 4315-11 Electronic Equipment Trades 2312-15 Emergency Medicine Specialist 2129-17 Engineer - Chemical 2124-11 Engineer - Civil 2125-11 Engineer - Electrical 2125-13 Engineer - Electronics 2126-11 Engineer - Mechanical 2127-11 Engineer - Mining 2126-13 Engineer - Production or Plant Engineer 4114-15 Aircraft Maintenance Engineer - Avionics 4114-11 Aircraft Maintenance Engineer - Mechanical 4431-13 Gasfitter 2311-11 General Medical Practitioner 2391-11 Medical Diagnostic Radiographer 2312-17 Obstetrician & Gynaecologist 2383-11 Occupational Therapist 2382-11 Pharmacist (Hospital) 2382-15 Pharmacist (Retail) 2385-11 Physiotherapist 2388-11 Podiatrist 2312-27 Psychiatrist 2122-11 Quantity Surveyor 2325-11 Registered Mental Health Nurse 2324-11 Registered Midwife 2323-11 Registered Nurse 2413-11 Secondary School Teacher 2312-79 Specialist Medical Practitioners NEC 2312-25 Specialist Physician

The Study-Migration Nexus: Outcomes for International Medical Students in Australia

Potential resource:

Number (2009):Around 3,000

Major sources:Malaysia, Singapore, Canada, Botswana…

Sponsorship:Around 30%

Ineligible for migration to Australia (ethical bar)

Retention:Around 70%

Ethics and Global Policy Experimentation: ‘Two Step’

Student Migration

The growing OECD model (in the context of demographic shift):

1.

Facilitating international student entry2.

Work rights during study

3.

Certainty of access to stay on qualifying (with family)4.

Liberalisation of field of qualification and sector

5.

(In select countries) Uncapped immigration categories6.

Global promotion (eg British Council, IDP Australia)

Finessing ‘the package’: Fast-track access to permanent residence / citizenship

Comparator Countries: Canada’s Level of Reliance on Foreign Health Professionals = 24,315 Skilled Category Arrivals in 2008

Canada

2007 2008

Physicians: Temporary 1,498 1,627Permanent 1,137 1,444Nurses: Temporary 576 1,108Permanent 665 853Nurse Assistants/ Live-in Caregivers: Temporary 13,746 12,864Permanent 2,841 4,909Pharmacists/ Allied Health: Temporary 218 282Permanent 692 710Dentists: Temporary 69 77Permanent 210 250Dental Technicians: Temporary 84 92Permanent 107 99 Source: Table prepared by L Hawthorne based on data purchased from Citizenship and Immigration Canada August 2009

The Canadian Experience Class (September 2008+)

The new model:

1.

Prioritises

on-shore pathway:Students/ temporary workers

2.

Category: Skilled class/ all disciplines

3.

Numbers:Uncapped

4.

Selection criteria:Tighter than for ‘standard’ skilled migrants (eg English/ French ability)

UK Dependence on Medical and Nursing Migration

2000:Around 250,000 health and care workers in the UK = foreign-born (nearly six out of ten of foreign nationality)

Sixty per cent originated from countries outside the European Economic Area (EEA)

38,560 foreign nurses

27,750 medical practitioners

27,710 care assistants

Five tier migration system:Students – start at Tier 4

Progress to Tier 1 and 2

FOCUS 2: International Student Demand for Biomedical Research Training -

The Ethical Context

1.

Source country priorities:Capacity-building momentum

National development funding

Sponsorship

Demand: University sector, government sector, clinical infrastructure

Case study:Singapore: PhD qualified allied health professionals/ hospital needs (eg Changi)/ expansion as global biotech and clinical hub

International Student Demand for Biomedical Research Training: The Ethical Context (….)

2. Destination countries –

capacity to deliver appropriate training?Student selection (‘needs’ versus academic preparedness)

English ability

Priority fields (driven by home country needs or host country availability?)

Differential academic pathways compared to host countries

Training mode (onshore versus offshore, split programs)

Workplace demands in sponsorship contexts versus study context (skills transferability?)

Indonesian case study:Medical education in the context of ‘massification’

Prior training (eg internship access/ nursing clinical training)

Work-study pressures (given the necessity to contribute at home)

Ethical framework requirements: research projects

International Student Demand for Biomedical Research Training: The Ethical Context (….)

3. Suitability of PhD training models:Case study: Malaysian split PhD program (UK, Australia)

2+2 years

Student selection (versus those awarded ‘full’ overseas PhD programs)

Reduced fees (but more complex supervision processes?)

Dual supervision (home/ abroad) – availability? adequately matched?

Potential challenges:Student movement – beneficial?

Research infrastructure - in each country?

Work demands in-country - versus study priorities?

Supervisory process – potential complexity

Host institution - incentives?

Students – attraction to stay in more developed research infrastructure?

EXAMPLE: Return Home or Retention? USA and

International PhD Students

Overall international student numbers:2006- 07: 582,984 ($US14.5 billion industry)

2008-09: 671,616

Top 5 sources: India, China, South Korea, Canada, Japan

Growth: +16%, +10%, +10% (past 3 years)

Recent policy trends:‘Claw-back’

New strategic initiatives: China, Morocco, Chile etc

‘Vigorous efforts at the national, state and campus levels…’ including high level global promotional visits

Research incentive

Recruitment and Retention of International PhD Students –

USA

Doctoral student enrolments and retention:

World PhD student share (13.5% → 28.3% by 2003)

Fee access/ cross-subsidisation

China, India – 85-95% retention (at least 5 years)

Pathways into permanent residence (HIB+ Visa)

Case study: National Institutes of Health

The demand for lab scientists (‘backbone’)Filling the gap – domestic PhD career trajectories

Sources: Science and Engineering Indicators 2008, National Science Foundation, February, Washington; Marginson, S & Van Der

Wende, M (2007), Globalisation and Higher Education, Education Working Paper No 8, Directorate for Education, OECD,

Paris; International Students in the United States, Open Doors Report 2007, Institution of International Education (IIE), 13 November 2007, Washington DC; ‘Foreign Scientists at the National Institutes of Health: Ramifications of US Immigration and Labor

Policies’, S Diaz-Briquets

& C Cheny, International Migration Review Vol

37 No 2, Summer 2003; ‘Immigration in High-Skill Labour Markets: The Impact of Foreign Students on the Earnings of Doctorates’, George J Borjas, Working Paper 12085, National Bureau of Economic Research, March 2006; ‘Stay Rates of ForeignDoctorate

Recipients From U.S. Universities: 2005’, Michael Finn, Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, 2007; Open Doors Report (2009), http://www.wystc.org/docs/blog/?p=943

(accessed June 2010)

Ethical Issue 1: Human Resource Use versus Wastage

Ethically better to recruit mature skilled migrants, or train retain students?

Case Study: Medical Outcomes for 1996-2001 Medical Migrants to Canada and Australia

South Africa:

81%

employed in Canada (81% in Australia)

√UK/Ireland:

48% employed in Canada (83%

in Australia)

India: 19%

employed in Canada (66% in Australia)

HK, Malaysia, Singapore:

31% employed in Canada (59% in Australia)

Eastern Europe: 8%

employed in Canada (24% employed in Australia)

China:

4%

employed in Canada (5%

in Australia)

Source: The Impact of Economic Selection Policy on Labour Market Outcomes for Degree-Qualified Migrants in Canada and Australia, L Hawthorne, Institute for Research on Public Policy, Vol 14 No 5, 2008, Ottawa

Ethical Issue 2: Individual Agency for Global Medical and Health Workers –

Limit? Impacts?

Ethically appropriate to limit global study/ mobility in select fields?

Case Study: Nurses/ doctors in Africa:Rural → urban

Public → private

Poor → rich

Unsafe → secure (disease, law and order)

Employment conditions → remuneration, quality of practice, training, workload, facilities, promotion, health service quality etc

Living conditions

Family choice → children’s education, spouse career (etc)

Source: Working Together for Health – The World Health Report 2006, WHO, France

Ethical Issues 3 and 4: Academic Selection and Progression/ Training Outcomes

What duty of care is owed by education provider countries?

Education challenges:Student versus source country and host country motivations? (aligned or conflicting)

Purpose and mode of selection? (sponsored cohorts versus privatestudents/ onshore versus split mode)

Relevance of study? (content and mode)

Readiness and support for study? (duty of care - academic and language transition needs)

Ethical frameworks/ critical reasoning capacity/ use of sources

Certainty of academic progression? (if inadequately resourced)

Skills transferability on return? Infrastructure, incentives

Career trajectory challenges:What is the obligation of provider countries?

Certainty -

Scale of Future Global Demand: Study and Career Trajectories in High Priority Fields

Traditional population structure Emerging population structure