Chapter-1

VILLAGE ECOSYSTEM AND ITS LINKAGE WITH THE

NATURAL RESOURCES

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Forest linked livelihood needs

Forests in the Himalaya are under pressure, through both internal

and external forces, with adverse impacts on the fuelwood, fodder and

other daily needs of the forest dwellers, and also on forest based

government revenues (Eckholm, 1982; Singh eta/., 1984; Ramakrishnan et

a/., 19992). Increasing flow of outside population in the form of tourists has

further added the pressure on the forest resources (lves and Pitt, 1988;

Thapa and Weber, 1990). Studies have shown that deforestation in

Himalaya has implications for agriculture not only in the adjoining hills and

mountains, but also in the plains far below (Pandey and Singh, 1984;

Mahat eta/., 1986; Virgo and Subba, 1994; Maikhuri eta/., 1997).

1.2 Traditional agroecosystems

Mountain societies are dependent upon traditional complex multi

species agroecosystems organized in space and time (Ramakrishnan,

1992; Swift et a/., 1996). Though highly energy efficient, with little or no

energy subsidies from outside (contrast with modern agriculture receiving

32

inorganic fertilizers and other chemical inputs), economic productivity is low

(Altieri, 1983; Maikhuri and Ramakrishnan, 1990, 1991; Maikhuri, 1996;

Semwal and Maikhuri, 1996). However, with high biodiversity within, these

agroecosystems are suggested to cope with environmental uncertainities,

in a reasonable way (Ramakrishnan, 2001 ).

Agriculture in the Himalaya and elsewhere is closely linked with the

forest ecosystems. Traditional agroecosystems are sustained through the

energy-flow from the adjoining forest ecosystems. Since, agriculture in the

traditional societies is highly dependent upon the natural resource base,

farmyard manure and human labour, quality of the forest from where they

extract the natural resource becomes highly important (Tsegye, 1997;

Datta and Virgo, 1998; Ellis-Jones, 1999; Sen eta/., 2000). Studies have

shown that agroecosystems located in natural resource rich areas are

generally more energy efficient than those located in resource poor areas

of the mountains (Maikhuri, 1992, 1996; Semwal and Maikhuri, 1996).

Hence, this study compares two agroecosystems, one from a resource rich

and another from a resource poor forested area.

1.3 Earthworms as indicators of soil fertility

Earthworms are the most common species of soil macrofauna and

are widespread. The beneficial effects that earthworm can have on soil

structure, fertility and plant production through their feeding and burrowing

activities are well documented (Lee, 1985). For example, earthworms can

improve the incorporation of organic matter below the soil surface, increase

33

the number of water stable soil aggregates, improve water infiltration,

aeration and root penetration (Lee and Foster, 1991; Lee, 2000).

Earthworms have been shown to be indicator of soil fertility, through many

studies, such as under shifting agriculture (Bhaduria and Ramakrishnan,

1989, 1991 ), settled farming (Tiwari and Mishra, 1995; Bhaduria et a/.,

1997), and from natural forest ecosystems (Bhaduria eta/., 2000). Senapati

using earthworms as soil fertility indicator (1984) has evolved earthworm

based ecotechnology for soil fertility improvement (Senapati et a/., 1999). In

this study, earthworms population dynamics was evaluated both in

agricultural and natural ecosystems, as indicator of soil fertility. The major

external pressure in this region is related to tourist flow passing into more

interior mountain areas of Nepal (Carpenter and Zomer, 1996; Boker and

Kolmair, 2000). There are studies available in the Himalayan region linking

village ecosystem operations under varied levels of natural resources

availability (Pandey and Singh 1984; Maikhuri and Ramakrishnan, 1990,

1991; Semwal and Maikhuri, 1996). Some studies are also available on the

impact of the tourism from Indian Himalayas (Rai and Sundriyal, 1997;

Maikhuri, 2000), and from the Nepal region (Shrestha, 1989; Boker and

Kolmair, 2000). These impacts have the implications for both forest

ecosystesms and for the food production systems (agriculture). Local

communities have adapted to avail natural resources and its degradation,

in a variety of different ways, for obtaining their livelihood needs. This study

therefore attempts to compare natural and human managed

agroecosystems operating under different tourism related pressure in the

34

village T amafok (less impacted and referred as TF hereafter) and the

village Madimulkharka (more impacted and referred as MM hereafter).

Study area and Climate:

The study area (27°12'N to 87°27'E) covering 24.69 km2

,

representing part of Piluwa watershed including two villages, namely

T amafok and Madimulkharka are studied here. Land use pattern of the

study area is forest 41.9%, agriculture land 54.4%, grassland 2.3%, and

1.4% under other uses. The altitude ranges from 2200 to 3100 m, with

sloping lands of 15- 45 °. The region is reported to be one of the high birds

diversity areas of Nepal (Ali, 1977), and is suggested to be the last

remaining Rhododendron forest stand of a size that is viable from the point

of conservation (Shrestha, 1984). Currently, this area is under

consideration as a Rhododendron (Rhododendron arboreum) Conservation

Area, particularly because this species represents the national flower

(MOPE, 1998). This area leads on to the Makalu Barun Conservation Area

towards the north-west, and Kanchenjunga Conservation Area towards the

north-east closer to the Qomolongma Nature Reserve in Tibet,

Autonomous Region, P.R. China. For this reason, the present area is

considered as the habitat corridor of many rare and endangered wildlife

species, and at the same time falls along the popular trekking route for

tourism to Kanchenjunga - Makalu range, and also Mt. Everest in the

north. The dark brown -black mountain soil, which is acidic (pH 4.3- 5.3)

has a high proportion of sand/silt, and is podozolic. The climate can be

35

Ma..p 1.. hEGEND Di•lrlcl Boundary

VDC Boundory

Hlvor

Main loot traiL'

CONTOUR INTERVAL 100 METRES

Mir.or lvol troll

School

Contour

Spot hoi9hl 3034

Sollltmtnl

forest

L;r~ ..

divided into three distinct seasons - cold winter from November to March

with an average maximum temperature of 17°C and a minimum of - 2°C,

monsoonic rainy season extending from May to October with an average

maximum temperature of 25°C and a minimum of 1 0°C, and a short

summer during April and May with an average maximum of 24°C and a

minimum of 8°C.

2. METHODS OF STUDY

2.1 Site selection:

Site selection was done based upon a Participatory Rural Appraisal

involving local elders, and confirmed by a Rapid Habit Assessment (IUCN,

1998) done in order to ensure comparable topographic and altitudional

conditions. Focus Group Discussion (Chambers, 1994), Personal interview

and Questionnaire Survey (Ardales, 1992) were carried out to evaluate

resource use pattern, size of land holdings, land use and socio-cultural

practices pertaining to village ecosystem and its linkage to natural

resources followed by a 12 months household level sample analysis, for

confirmation.

2. 2 Forest

Vegetation analysis of forest at different degradation level was done

using 30 quadrats in each of the forests, trees (10 X 10m), shrubs (5 X 5

m) and herbs (1 X 1 m). Frequency, density, basal area and Important

Value Index (lVI) of each species was analyzed (Mishra. 1968; Kershaw,

36

30 -r-----------------------------------------~-350

25 - 300

6~ ~~ 0

15 200 .§. ~ 10 150 ~ B c ~ 5 100 "(V m ~ a. E m

1-

50

~~~~~~~~~~§L~~~~~~~~-0

Month

1 ~Temperature Min l!!!i!!!M Temperature Max -+-----Rain-tall/

Fig. 1.1. Mean monthly maximum, minimum ambient temperature and

rainfall

20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Fig. 1.2. Soil temperature °C

1973; IUCN, 1998). Regeneration of tree spec1es were calculated by

counting the seedlings (height up to 20 em) and sapling (height > 20 em

but DBH < 10 em) per unit area following Sundriyal and Sharma (1996).

Diversity Index (R) was measured following Shannon and Wiener (1949)

and concentration of dominance (cd) of species was calculated following

(Simpson, 1949) for observation of strongest control/cover of species over

space.

Earthworms were extracted by digging twenty 25 X 25 X 25 em soil

monoliths, hand sorted and preserved in 5% formalin (Zazonc 1971;

Bhaduria and Ramakrishnan, 1991), for subsequent identification. Biomass

values were taken on fresh-weight basis. Composite soil samples of 0 - 15

em and 15 - 30 em depth were collected, and air dried for subsequent

physico-chemical analysis for characterizing soil features (Anderson &

Ingram, 1989).

2.3 Agriculture

Category of land holding sizes namely: small, medium and large ( < 1

ha, 1 - 2 ha, > 2 ha) respectively were set through Focus Group

Discussion (Chambers, 1994) method. Household survey was done taking

23% households (50 out of 218 households) as sample covering both the

villages (Ardales, 1992). Information was gathered on the basis of actual

observation on, category of land holdings, crop composition, labour input

(in terms of man and animal hours), seed and manure inputs, collection of

fodder, bedding material needs for livestock population, fuelwood

37

requirements, yield of crop and crop-by products and import/export of

agriculture produce. All studies on agroecosystems were based on

measurements in three replicate plots for each category, namely large,

medium and small landholdings.

The replicate samples were analyzed for calculating energy input

and output values. Input value was calculated for work done (human and

bullock) as man and bullock hours. Depending upon the human labour, it

was classified into 'sedentary', 'moderate' and 'heavy'. Per hour energy

expenditure of 0.418 MJ for sedentary work, 0.488 MJ for moderate work

and 0.679 MJ for heavy work for an adult male, and 0.331 MJ for sedentary

work, 0.383 MJ for moderate work and 0.523 MJ for heavy work, for an

adult female were used to calculate the human labour energy input into the

system (Gopalan et a/., 1989). Energy input through animal power (1

bullock hour = 3.03 MJ) was based on Mitchell (1979). Input of energy

through seeds was based on the energy expended to produce that fraction

of crop yield. The input of organic manure into agroecosystems was

converted into energy by multiplying their quantities with the standard value

given in Table 1.1. Crop and crop-by products yield values were on fifteen

sample plants from each replicate plot. Plot yield was then converted on a

hectare basis (Maikhuri & Ramakrishnan, 1990). For calculating crop

energy output, the standard values given (Mitchell, 1979; Gopalan et a/.,

1989) in Table 1 .1 were followed. The energy efficiencies of each system

were calculated as output/input ratio (Maikhuri & Ramakrishnan, 1990).

38

J Potato sowing

F

M Maize sowing

A

M Weeding potato maize

J

J Maize weeding, potato harvesting

A

s

0 r-----------~ I Maize harvest

N F

w

Fig. 1.3. Crop calendar for the mixed cropping maize-potato in village Tamafok and Madimulkharka, east Nepal

The economic efficiencies (outpuUinput ratio) for each inpuUoutput

item was calculated, based upon the current price values for each item.

Table 1.1. Energy value of different components considered in the agro­

ecosystems (values expressed as fresh weight megajoules

equivalent).

Category

Maize, dry

Maize, tender

Barley

Potato

Mustard

Green fodder

Compost

1 Mitchell, 1979

2 Gopalan et at, 1989

2.4 Nutritional level

Average energy value

MJ kg -1

14.3 1

5.3 2

14.1 2

4.05 2

22.6·2

3.9 2

7.3 1, 2

The National Planning Commission (1994-95) estimates the

minimum daily requirements of cereals to be 525 g per capita (191 kg yr - 1)

in the mountain regions, to derive an average of 2340 k calories energy per

day, whilst World Health Organization's estimate 250 kg of cereals person-

1 yr - 1. However, the local population consider the satisfactory amount of

39

cereals intake of 328 kg person - 1 yr -1 to be satisfactory level. The mean of

all these three values calculated for our assessment works to be about 250

kg person - 1 yr - 1 and was considered as 'satisfactory level'. Intake of less

than half of that quantity (125 kg person -1 yr - 1) was considered to be

'destitute level'. Based on these two, a 'tolerable level' was taken to be a

range falling between 125- 250 kg person - 1 yr -1.

3. RESULTS

3.1 Forests

3.1.1 Forest structure

A total of twenty tree species were found in the study area with a

higher species number in the> 70% canopy cover TF as compared to MM,

with only < 50% canopy cover; with eight tree species common between

the two (Table 1.2). Density and basal area were higher in TF as compared

to MM. Rhodedendron arboreum, Goldfussia penstemo-noides and Lyonia

ovalifolia were the dominant tree species in TF, whereas, Quercus

semecarpifolia, Rhododendron arboreum and Lyonia ova/ifolia were

dominant in MM.

Density of shrubs was higher in TF as compared with MM (Table

1.3). Rhamnus nipa/ensis, Daphne sp. and Arundanaria mating were

common and dominant in both the forests but with higher densities in TF.

The mean volume of standing trees was not significantly different between

the two forests (Table 1.2).

40

Table 1. 2. Density, basal area and Important Value Indices (lVI) of tree species in Tamafok and Madimulkharka forests of Tinjure Milke region, Nepal

Species Local name Density Basal area IVI Density Basal area !VI (trees ha-t) (m2 ha -1

) (trees ha -I) (m2 ha- 1)

Tamafok Madimulkharka

Berberis aristata Chutro 3 0.23 2.9 Castanopsis sp. Bhote katus 3 0.03 2.5 Goldfussia penstemo-noides Angare 117 6.7 46.6 23 3.3 33.4 hchaemun rugusum Mallido 13 0.8 3.3 Loranthus pentapetalus Kandeliso 3 2.7 5.5 Lyonia oval(folia Angeri 107 6.7 39.0 60 2.1 37.2 Osmanthus suavis Shillinge 70 3.8 21.0 3 0.03 2.5 Pilea symmeria Kamale 7 0.07 3.8 Quercus glauca Falat 10 0.7 4. 9 3 0.97 4.2 Quercus semecarpifolia Khasru 20 7.6 20.0 147 37.3 140.3 Rhododendron arboreum Laliguras 340 35.1 116.1 77 12.4 58.6 Rhododendron grande Guras 7 0.2 3.8 Rhododendron hodgosonii Guras 10 0.6 4.8 7 0.1 5.5 Symplocos pyrifolia Kho1me 10 0.3 4.2 7 0.23 4.1 Symplocos ramossima Kharane 23 1.5 12.8 3 0.07 2.6 Taxus bacata Dhyangre sallo 3 1.1 3.2 Viburnum cordifolium As are 13 0.5 7.5 Viburnum cotilifolium Bakalpate 3 0.03 2.5 Miscellaneous (n = 2) 10 1.5 7.3

Total 756 " 69.8 300 346 56.9 300 Mean± S.E. of volume of trees (m3 ha 1

): TF = 373.08 ± 88.9; MM = 371.14 ± 65.5

Table 1. 3. Density of shrub species in Tamafok and Madimulkharka forest Tinjure-Milke region Nepal

Species Local name Density (Number ha- 1

)

Tamafok

Arundanaria maling Malingo 3146 Auricularia auricula Musakane Calamus acanthospathus Betkanda 200 Daphne sp. Lokta 4066 Desmodium microphyllum Bakhreghas Rhamnus nipalensis Chillikath 32632 Miscellaneous (n = 1) 40

Total 40084

Table 1.4. Diversity and dominance of tree species ofTamafok and Madimulkharka forest, Tinjure-Milke region, east Nepal

Madimulkharka

587 160

3812 67 20222

24848

Parameters Tamafok Madimulkharka

Diversity Index (H') Trees Shrubs

Concentration of dominance ( cd)

2.61 0.915 0.258

2.4 0.854 0.266

3.1.2 Species diversity and regeneration

The diversity index for both trees and shrubs was somewhat higher

in TF compared to MM, though the concentration of dominance was

stronger in MM (Table 1.4).

Regeneration potential (total number of seedlings and saplings) was

relatively higher in MM as compared to TF (Table 1.5). However, many tree

(e.g. /schaeum rugusum and Quercus glauca) species found in the adult

stage did not have any seedlings/saplings. Seedling and sapling

distribution did not correspond to the mature tree distribution. Berberis

aristata and Viburnum cordifolium were the dominant regenerating species

in TF, whereas, Viburnum cotilifolium and Rhododendron arboreum were

the dominant regenerating species in MM.

3.2 Agroecosystems

3.2.1 Landholding pattern

The detailed structure of the villages under study is presented m

Table 1.6. Average landholdings, cultivated land and fallow land are all

higher in the resource rich village TF compared to village MM. However,

livestock holding was higher in village MM compared to TF village. In MM,

self-employment through small business was more important activity than

TF.

The percentage of big landholders was more in village TF, whereas,

small landholders formed the majority in village MM (Table 1.7). A larger

41

Table 1.5. Sapling-seedling density of tree species ofTamafok, Madimulkharka forests, Tinjure-Milke region, Nepal Species Tamafok

Berberis aristata Castanopsis sp. Eurya cerasifolia Ficus nerrifolia Garuga pinnata Goldfussia penstemo-noides Lyonia ovalifolia Loranthus pentapetalus

Mahonia acanthifolia Osmanthus suavis Quercus semecarpifolia Rhododendron arboreum Symplocos pyrifolia Symplocos ramossima Viburnum cordifolium Viburnum cotilifolium Miscellaneous (n=2)

Total

(Number ha-1)

4932

533 133 13

67 147 360 80 587 1573 2399

200

11024

Madimulkharka (Number ha-1

)

1346 27 40 27 27 693 866 13

67 1280 1626 1586 387 1067 120 2026

11198

Plate 1. Tamafok, non-degraded forest with Siddhasthan sacred grove at the top

Plate 2. Bringing bedding material from the community forest for livestock use

Table 1.6. Selected ecological and socio-economic attributes of the villages under study Parameters

Altitude (masl) Major ethnicity Water source for agriculture Average family size Total land per household (ha)± S.E. Cultivated land per household (ha) ± S.E.

Fallow land per household (ha) Land under other uses (ha) Livestock holding per household Human density ha- cultivated land Livestock density ha-1 cultivated land Adult population with additional employment (%)

Small business Daily wages/services

Tamafok

2200-2560 Tamang Rain fed 6.95. 2.48 ± 0.36 1.03 ± 0.12 (40% of total land) 0.62 0.83 9.0 6.75 8.73

14 57

Madimulkharka

2200-2500 Chhetri Rainfed 7.19 1.91 ± 0.21 0.86 ± 0.12 (45%)

0.29 0.76 11.3 8.36 13.14 53

53 39

Table 1.7. Number of households under different landholding categories in the study villages. Value in parentheses indicates percentage of the total.

Category of land holdings Tamafok Madimulkharka

Large Medium Small

Total

23 (39) 19 (32) 17 (29)

59 (100)

30 (19) 54 (34) 75 (47)

159 (100)

Table 1.8. Percentage range ofland area cultivated out of the total available land with a given family

Category of land holdings Tamafok Madimulkharka

Large Medium Small

25-35 30-50 35-75

25-35 30-70 40-80

proportion of the available land with a given family is cultivated by small

farmers, closely followed by the medium category of farmers. The big

farmer cultivated a much smaller proportion of land available with him

(Table 1.8).

3.2.2 Agroecosystem structure and function

Agroecoystem analysis based on energy input/output has been done

for different ecological situations (Table 1.9). Human labour and organic

residue including farmyard manure are the only forms of energy input into

the system. Apart from edible output in the form of grain and tuber, some of

the biomass is used as a source of food, whilst the rest is used for organic

manure. Generally speaking natural resource poor area has higher energy

return and efficiency ratio compared to resource rich area.

Within village MM, energy input (P < 0.01) and output (P < 0.05)

increased significantly under the smaller holdings.

The agronomic yield and the total yield both was significantly higher

(P < 0.05) in village MM with the decline of landholding size, however the

difference was not significant in village TF. Whilst total energy input

increased significantly (P < 0.01) with the decrease in landholding size in

the village MM, there was no significant difference between landholdings in

the village TF.

The major energy contribution was through organic manure in all the

systems (Table 1.9 & 1.1 0).

42

Table 1.9. Total± S.E. annual energy input and output pattern and output/input ratio for the mixed cropping (values in MJ X ha· 1 yr- 1)

in study villages

Parameters Tamafok Madimulkharka

Large Landholding Medium Landholding Small landholding Large landholding Medium landholding Small landholding Inputs Human labour 224 ± 35 87± 8 105 ± 16 114 ± 12 116 ± 17 ISO± 15

Animal labour 149 ± 31 106 ± 12 94± 5. 48.3 ± 3.9 61 ± 10 92 ± 13 Farmyard manure 31638 ±54 17835 ± 1724 22191 ± 687 15432 ± 561 31965 ± 2334 33046 ± 1899 Seed 3032 ± 1573 68 ±6 855 ± 47 621 ± 65 597 ± 106 991 ± 137

Total 35044±1701 18091 ± 1716 22343 ± 761 16216 ± 642 32738 ± 2466 34278 ± 2064

Outputs Agronomic yield (Grain + tuber) 104006 ± 24425 111154 ± 818 110186 ± 7520 111075 ± 2006 227971 ± 28554 309111 ± 50827 Crop by product 120250 ± 19403 97890 ± 3538 77090 ± 7419 60433 ± 4920 131300 ± 23893 147420 ± 16362

Total 224256 ± 43828 209044 ± 4356 187276 ± 14939 171508 ± 6926 359271 ± 52447 456531 ± 65472

Output/Input ratio Edible biomass (Grain +tuber) 3 6.1 4.9 6.9 7 9

Edible biomass+ crop residue 6.4 10.3 8.4 10.6 II 13.3

Table 1.10. Percent share of energy in different input and output activities of the agroecosytems ofTamafok and Madimulkharka villages

Parameters

Input

Human labour

Animal labour

Farm yard manure

Seed

Total

Output

Grain +tuber yield

Crop by product

Total

Large

landholding

0.64

0.42

90.2

8.6

100

46.4

53.6

100

lamafok

Medtum

landholding

0.47

0.58

98.0

0.4

100

58.8

41.2

100

Madtmuikharka

Small Large landholdtng Medtum landholdtng Small landholdmg

landholding

0.45 0.7 0.35 0.44

0.40 0.3 0.19 027

95.4 95 97.6 96.4

3.7 3.8 1.8 2.9

100 100 100 100

53.2 64 63.5 67.7

46.8 36 36.5 32.3

100 100 tOO 100

Table 1.11. Total ± S.E. annual economic input output and output/input ratio for the mixed crop (maize+ potato) in two different villages (in Nepalese Rupees X ha -I yr -I: (1 US$ equivalent to75 NRs)

Parameters

Input

Human labour

Animal labour

Farmyard manure

Seed

Total

Output

Grain +tuber yield

Crop by product

Total

Output/Input ratio

Grain +tuber

Grains + crop residue

Large landholding

4063 ± 720

1227 ± 258

4013 ± 686

5980± 842

15283 ± 2805

302967 ± 32274

44250± 7462

349217± 31503

19.8

22.8

lamafol(

Medium landholding

1238 ±59

903 ± 97

2262 ± 218

80 ± 5

4483 ± 328

98979 ± 8868

29650± 1361

128627 ± 7570

22.0

28.7

Small landholding

1875 ± 300

820 ± 28

2839± 98

3232 ± 176

7840 ± 183

146740± 10576

37650± 2853

184390 ± I 3205

18.7

23.5

Large landholding

2101± 229

399 ± 3 I

1957±71

2129 ± 201

6758 ± 513

221071 ±20381

23500 ± I 804

244571 ± 19978

32.7

36.2

J'V'!a11nnul i(hari(a

Medium landholding

2068 ± 284

501± 81

4046 ± 288

1780 ± 121

8395 ± 669

457458 ± 30456

50500 ± 9190

507958 ± 38887

54.5

60.5

SmalllandholdiJig

2527± 140

755 ± 104

4149 ± 240

3602 ± 493

11033±845

66 7207 ± 70713

56700 ± 6293

723907 ±

72936

60.5

65.6

Energy output and efficiency ratios tend to be higher (P < 0.01)

under medium/small holdings compared to big holdings in both the villages.

Monetary output input ratio also followed the same trend as energy

input/output pattern in both the villages, except that the efficiency ratios

were generally higher (Table 1.11 ).

3.3 Earthworm dynamics in agriculture linked to forest

3.3.1 Species diversity in the forest

A total of ten earthworm species belonging to four families were

found in the study area (Table 1.12). Eight of them were endemic and two

exotics. Amongst the forest, more species were present in TF as compared

to MM, six species namely, Perionyx nanus (Stephenson), Perionyx

jorpokriensis (Julka) and Perionyx sp. of Megascolecidae; P/ute/lus

sikkimensis (Michaelson) and Plutellus sp. of Acanthodrillidae and

Sco/ioscolides bergitheili (Michaelson) of Octochaetidae being common to

both.

Density as well as biomass of common species was higher under TF

as compared to MM with the exception of Perionyx sp. and P/ute/lus

sikkimensis. Eutyphoeus lippus and Amynthas corticis (Kinberg) were

confined to TF forest alone.

43

Table 1.12. Density (numbers m "2) and biomass (g m ·2) of earthworm species collected at Tamafok and Madimulkharka under forest and agroecosystem in Tinjure Milke region, east Nepal (values in parentheses indicate biomass)

Species Forest

Perionyx nanus Perionyx jorpokriensis Perionyx excavatus Perionyx sp. Plutellus sikkimensis Plutellus sp. Scolioscolides bergtheili Eutyphys lippus Amynthas corticis Allobophora parva

Tamafok

49 ± 2 (6.5 ± 0.2) 81 ± 4 (2.9 ±0 .2)

3* (0.02) 89 ± 7 (10.2 ± 0.8) 43 ± 3 (20.6 ± 1.0) 186±9(46.1 ±2.1) 25 ± 2 (9.3 ± 0.8) 1* (0.1)

* Species recorded in only one month.

Madimulkharka

45 ± 5 (5.9 ± 0.6) 47 ± 5 (1.8 ± 0.2)

18 ± 1 (0.28 ± 0.03) 184 ± 8 (20.2 ± 0.9) 4 ( l. 9) 20 ± 3 (3.7 ± 0.4)

Tamafok

72 ± 6 (13.3 ± 0.8) 6* (0.24) 47 ± 1.3 (4.5 ±0.2)

7 ± 2 (0.8 ± 0.2)

15 ± 3 (1.4 ± 0.3)

Agroecosystems

Madimulkharka

12± I (3.2±0.4) 26 ± 1 ( 1.42 ±0 .6) 73 ± 5.5 (2.64 ± 0.07)

10 ± I ( 1.2 ± 0.1) 3* (1.2)

27 ± 3 (6.5 ± 0.6) 13* (1.3)

Allobophora parva Amynthas

corticis

Exotic

Lumbricidae

Megascolecidae

Earthworm

Functional group Anecic

Anecic

Endemic

Spede/amily

Plutellus sikkimensis Acanthodrillidae

Plutellus sp.

Perionyx nanus P. jorpokriensis P. excavatus Perionyx sp. Scolioscolides bergitheili Eutyphoeus lippus

Megascolecidae

" Ochtochaetidae

Functional group

·Epigeic

" Endo-eipgeic

Fig. 1.4. Exotic versus endemic and functional classification of earthworm species in Tamafok an_d Madimulkharka forest and agroecosystems of Tinjure-Milke region, east Nepal

3.3.2 Species diversity in agroecosystems

Between agroecosystems, MM showed higher species richness,

compared to TF, thus showing a reverse situation form that found within the

forests. Earthworm density was also relatively higher in MM except for

Allobophora parva (Savigny) of Lumbricidae and Perionyx nanus.

Amynthas corticis was confined to MM alone, but in larger number ( see the

contrast with the forest).

3.3.4 Seasonal variation

Population of all the species occurring in both the forests peaked (P

< 0.01) in monsoon compared to summer and winter except for Amynthas

corticis, which occurred in summer only (Fig 1.5). Unlike in the forest, two

species, Perionyx jorpokriensis and Plutellus sikkimensis peaked during the

monsoon within agroecosystems of both the villages (Fig 1.6 c,d). Perionyx

nanus, P. excavatus (Perrier) generally peaked in summer (Fig 1.6 a, b).

In the forest, Plute/lus sp. and Eutyphoeus /ippus were absent during

winter and summer respectively. Plutellus sikkimensis was absent in

summer and Plutellus sp. in summer and winter as well, in agroecosystems

Allobophora paNa, Amynthas corticis, Plultellus sp. were completely

absent in winter season. Perionyx nanus, P. excavatus, P. jorpokriensis

and Plutellus sikkimensis although present in winter their numbers were

relatively low. Allobophora parva, Amynthas corticis were found in summer

only (Fig 1.6 f, g).

44

a.

40 :

""e 30 J

ci 20 I

z 10

0 Summer

c.

151 ~ 10 E

0 5 -z 0[

St.mra'

Perionyx nanus

Monsoon

Season

Fmcnyx sp.

I rvtnscx:n

Season

E 1soo E 1000

~ 500 .5

b. --------~

I

60 50

-----1 !li!JTF II "' 40

~~~~ E 30 0

i z 20

I 10 0

Winter

.~ d.

40l

~ 1:

~j ci fvTII1 z -Wintff

Seasonal raifall

&. 0 +--"""--~-Summer ll/lclnsoon Winter

Season

·---- -----~---

Perionyx jorpokriensis

Summer Monsoon Winter

Season

Plutellus sp.

• L Summer 1\A:Jnsoon Winter

Season

II§ Rainfall mm J

Fig. 1.5 Seasonal population of earthworm species in Tamafok and Madimulkharka forests

i I

:!jTF II i•Mrv11

e.

g.

"' E ci z

150 l

'E 100 1 ci z

50 ~

0 '

Plutellus sikkimesnis

f.

Scoliscolides bergitheili

150 l

"'E 100! _._

0 soJ • z a LGEEI..... -. - --·-

Surrrrer fvlonsoon Winter Summer Monsoon

Season

Winter

30 l

:~ l Summer

Season

Eutyphoeus lippus

I Monsoon

Season

e 1soo E 1000

~ 500 c

!i!ii! Winter

h.

~ "' E

M ci z

Seasonal raifall

~ 0 +----__._""----,--Summer fvlonsoon Winter

Season

Amynthas corticis

1.5 l

o.! j 0, I

Surrrrer

I

I I

I@! Rainfall m:Till L----~~~

I i

fvlonsoon

Season

'--------------------~-__j

Winter

Fig. 1.5 Seasonal population of earthworm species in Tamafok and Madimulkharka forests

~ MM

a. b.

Perionyx nanus Perionyx excavatus

6()_ ~ 40~

~ 2~ ~-~~---~~----80

N 60 E 40 ci 20 z 0 _ _.___ --- ~- -=-

c.

~

E ci z

Summer Mons001 Winter

Season

Perionyx jorpokriensis

25 20 ~ 15 J 10 J

~ l -Summer

J Monsoon

Season

1200 'E 1ooo . E 800 - 600 I ~ 400 ~ 200

-Winter

I I I

I•JTF ,I I•MMI

d.

Seasonal raifall

OL·~"""'=a~~-

Summer Monsoon

Season

~ 10 E 0 z

Winter

Summer Monsoon

Season

Winter

Pfutellus sikkirrensis

SllTTTrff l'v1onsoa1 Winter

Season

Ia RainfaD mm J I

Fig. 1.6. Seasonal population of earthworm species in Tamafok and Madimulkharka agroecosystems onal population variation of earthworm species 1n Tamafok and Madimulkharka agroecosystems

g.

Amynthas corticis

30

~ :L j ___ ~ Summer Monsoon Winter

Season

IEJTF

l•MM[' '----'

"' E 0 z

Allobophora parva

20 c

IJTF-: i

0 .MM 1 ,

Summer Monsoon Winter

Seasson

' -------~

"' 4 l E 0

~ j z

Plutellus sp.

I Summer Monsoon

Season

1200 e 1000 .§. 800

600 i 400

[;;;] M

Winter

Seasonal raifall

~ 20g ~-""'"""""'"'--~-Summer Monsoon

Season

\a Rainfal rm1 )

Winter

I ~------------------------~

Fig. 1.6. Seasonal population of earthworm species in Tamafok and Madimulkharka agroecosystems anal population variation of earthworm species in Tamafok and Madimulkharka ag roecosystems

3.4 Meeting livelihood needs

3.4.1 From the forests and village ecosystem

An account of the forest products extracted from the community

forest is given in Table 15. Extraction of fuelwood, fodder, bedding material

and animal feed was higher for village TF as compared to village MM.

However, reverse was true for timber and medicinal plant extraction.

Preferred species for fuelwood were Goldfussia penstemo-noides and

Rhododendron arboreum. Quercus semecarpifolia, Q. glauca and Lyonia

ovalifolia were the important timber species. Average yearly fuelwood use

per family was approximately 5,000 kg, with somewhat average higher

value for village TF. Annual fuelwood consumption pattern was as follows:

Cooking (70%), Animal feed preparation (10%), House warming (9%),

Local wine/beer preparation (8%), and Social gathering I festivals (3%).

Though fodder extraction from the forest was much higher in TF than in

MM, the latter village supplements this resource from agroforestry trees

that they maintained. Therefore, the average collection per year per family

was about 10,000 kg for both the villages.

Livestock is an important economic activity (Table 1.14). Swine

husbandry being more in village TF than in MM, swine feed from the

herbaceous plant from the forest floor Arisaema tortusoum (Wall) Schott

was higher in TF. Apart from timber, minor forest products are food from

the wild, medicinal plants and fibre. Collection of medicinal plants was

significantly higher (P < 0.05) in village MM than TF. Fibre plants Giardinia

45

Table 1.13. Use of forest product per family year -I in the study area. Category Tamafok Madimulkharka

Fuelwood (kg) Fodder (kg) Timber (m~) Bedding material (kg) Medicinal plants (kg) Wild edibles (kg) Animal feed (kg) Fibres (kg)

(n=14) (n=36)

5250 4760 10720 6480 (3724) 4 4.5 4120 3140(930) 2.5 10.5 1.0 1.0 770 381 2.35 1.7

Values in parentheses indicate the resources obtained from agroforestry

Table 1.14. Livestock population by type and grazing pattern Village Cattle Buffalo Sheep/Goat

S.F. Gz S.F. Gz Tamafok (n =59) 42 200 25 88 Per household 4.1 2.0 (average) Madimulkharka 202 427 66 171 (n = 159) Per household 4.0 1.4 (average)

Note: S.F., Stall fed; Gz., Grazing

S.F. 42 3.0

207

5.9

Gz 138

735

Poultry

Captive Open 59 .269 5

154 617

4.3

Swine

13 1

26

0.7

Table 1.15. Major medicinal herbs of economic importance for domestic consumption and food supplement, collected from the forest

Species Local name Locality (mas!) Use Parts used

Abrus precatorius Lalgedi 2500-3000 Sore throat Fruit Acarus calamus Bojho 1400-4600 Cough, scabies Root Ageratum conyzoides Bakhre ghas 1800-3000 Cuts, wound Tender leaves,

stem Artemesia indica Gandhe jhar 2500-3000 Gastroenteritis, Root, leaves

appetizer Bergenia cilia/a Pashanbed 2500-3000 Muscle pain. sprain, Root

hemorrhage Cannabis sativa Bhang 1800-3000 Livestock diarrhea Leaf, fruit Coccinia grandis Golkakri 1500-4600 Pneumonia, throat Roots & fruit

sore Duabanga grandiflora Lam pate jhar 1500-3000 Cut and wounds Stem and leaves Giardinea diversifolia Allo 1500-4600 Sprain, haemorrage Roots lndigofera pulchetta Roxb. Seto phusre 2500-3000 Appetizer, poison Roots

!ahara Kampferia rotunda Bhuichampa 2500-3500 Sprain, hemorrhage Roots Lagerstroemia reginae Asareful 1800-3000 Indigestion in cattle Root extract Roxb. Lycopodium Sunthangne 1800-3000 Medicine, cosmetic Vine, flower Peracarpa camosa Kalimunte 2500-4700 Cut & wounds Stem & leaves Pleione praecox Lasunpate 2000-3000 Indigestion in sheep, Root

goat Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. Jaringo 2500-3000 Diarrhea, indigestion Root extract Picorhiza sp. White gential 2600-3000 Boils, cut, cold & Flower

cough Rheum australe Padamchal 2600-3000 Tea, medicine on Roots

body pain, sprain, hemorrhage, cut and wounds

Rorippa nasturtium- Seemsag 1500-4700 Tuberculosis Stem & leaves · acquaticum (L.) Rumex crispus L. Halhale sag 2500-3000 Jaundice Root extract Rubus ellipticus Thorny 1800-2600 Gastroenteritis Fruit

raspberry Sonchus wighitianus DC Mulapate 2500-3000 Gastroenteritis, Root and leaf

appetizer Stephania glandulifera Rato gujargano 2500-3000 Cut, wounds Roots Misk Swertia chirayta Chiraito 1500-3000 Antipyretic, blood Stem and root

pressure Trichhosanthes wallichiana lndreni 1500-3000 Cattle cholera, FMD Root extract Viscum album Hadchur 2500-3000 Sprain, bone fracture Stem & leaf Xanthium strumarium L. Bhedekuro 2200-2700 Dysentery, Roots

wormicide,diarrhoea Miscellaneous (n = 10) Chingfing 1500-4700 Analgesic , nausea, Root, stem,

diarrhea, boil, sores, leaves and fruit gastroenteritis, joints inflammation , cuts, wounds, quasiworker, marasmus, pneumonia and snake bite

Table 1.16. Mean annual income in Nepalese Rupees± S.E. per household from animal husbandry and other land use activities

Category Animal husbandry Other land uses

Tamafok (n = 14) Madimulkharka (n = 36)

937.5 ± 375 4492 ± 1766 362.5 ± 65.5 1283 ± 687

Table 1.17. Households category(%) on the basis of food availability to the local population

a. Local production only Category

Destitute level Tolerable range Satisfactory level Satisfactory level

b. Total including import Destitute level Tolerable range Satisfactory level

Tamafok (n = 14)

12.5 25.0 62.5

0 25 75

Madimulkharka (n = 36)

18.8 25.0 56.2

18.8 6.2 75

Note: Destitute level: < 125 kg person year 1; Tolerable range 125-250 kg

- 1 - 1 s . f: 1 1 250 k - 1 - 1 person year ; atls actory eve : > g person year .

Plate 3. Agroforestry practiced in a farmer's private land in village Madimulkharka

Plate 4. Fuelwood used in preparation of domestic beer

diversifo/ia (Allo) and Daphne sp. (Lokta) collected were not significantly

different in both the villages.

Annual income from the sale of livestock and its products, as well as

that comes out of other land use systems were significantly higher (P <

0.01) in village MM compared to village TF (Table 1.16).

3.4.2 Food balance situation

Based on local food production alone village TF was better off than

village MM, the latter having lesser number of households in the

'satisfactory' level category (Table 1.17 a). In both the villages a larger

proportion of household belonged to the 'satisfactory' followed by 'tolerable~

level.

If the total including import from outside sources is included, the

situation changed to some extent (Table 1.17 b). Whilst there is an

improvement in the number of households for the village MM under the

'satisfactory' category, the corresponding decline came from the 'tolerable'

range category with no impact on 'destitute' level category.

4. DISCUSSION

4.1 Forests

4.1.1 Foreststructure

The difference in structure and composition of two forests arise out

of differential disturbance regime. Forest MM which is closer to settlement

46

experiences more pressure in the form of fuelwood, fodder needs of local

population as compared to TF. Such difference in resource use accounts

for higher tree density and basal area in TF, which is less disturbed.

Besides the higher density and basal area of Rhododendron arboreum in

TF, may also be due to its social value, as this happens to be symbolic as

the national flower of Nepal. The variation of dominant species amongst

two forests can be attributed more to ecological specificity of the species

rather than the disturbance regime. Quercus semecarpifo/ia that is

dominant in the MM forest may be related to lower altitude where it is

abundant, as also shown for this and other tree species distributed on an

altitudional basis in the eastern Himalaya. On the other hand

Rhododendron arboreum occurs at higher elevations (Shrestha, 1989;

Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996; Chaudhary, 1998). The site shows tree

species richness, a characteristic of eastern Himalaya (Dobremz and

Shakya, 1975; Shrestha, 1989; Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996; Carpenter

and Zomer, 1996).

4.1.2 Forest regeneration

Seedling germination and establishments are related to available

space created through perturbation and adaptation to different light regime

(Ramakrishnan et a/., 1982). Higher tree regeneration in MM may be

accounted as due to larger openings within the forest allowing better

penetration at the ground level in MM, compared to TF. The fact that many

trees through frequent in numbers at the adult stage but not represented in

47

the seedlings is perhaps indicative of their light requirements (Borman and

Likens, 1 979; Sundriyal and Sharma, 1 996).

4.2 Agroecosystems

4.2.1 Landholdings

As prevalent in the region (Shrestha, 1 989; Baskota, 1 990; Jackson,

1 990; Jackson et a/., 1 990; Carpenter and Woomer, 1 996; Dhaka!, 1 999;

Muller-Baker and Kolimair, 2000) maize and potato are the predominant

species in the cropping systems of both the villages with over 40% of the

land under these two crop mixed farming systems. Apart from its value it

also provides crop based by product (maize shoot, potato biomass and

even maize cob) as livestock feed. As part of this landscape management,

and as part of agroforestry practices, species such as Prunus cerastides,

D.Don, Pyracantha crenu/ata, Arundinaria maling contribute towards

stability of the terraces, provide erosion control, and used as fodder for

cattle, apart from the organic residue for the cropping system itself. As part

of a land management system as in the general practice in the region

(Shrestha, 1 989; Rajbhandary, 1991, Amatya, 1 999) each farmer keeps

aside a part of land for thatch grass (lmperata cylindrica), which is used for

house construction and even as fodder.

With relatively higher population and livestock pressure over the

limited land available per household, and lesser biomass from the

degraded forest that could be recycled into agriculture, energy input in the

4R

form of farmyard manure is relatively higher in village MM compared to

village TF. Higher input of FYM in MM is facilitated through higher cattle

population that constitutes the major component of the economy here. This

is not surprising since maintaining a larger cattle population is a

compensatory mechanism for the poor returns from agriculture on the

degraded lands (Mahat eta/., 1987; Muller-Boker and Kolmair, 2000). It is

also to be noted that smaller the holding of land in village MM, more the

input of farmyard manure per unit area, since the cattle holding remains

relatively stable.

4.2.2 Agroecosystems structure and function

With lesser land area per household to manage, and the consequent

better ability to manage his land through energy subsidies and proper

weeding practices village MM was able to obtain higher economic yield per

unit area, than village TF. In contrast, larger the holding of land, higher was

the economic return per unit area in TF. This could be explained as due to

better ability of the farmer with larger land area to mobilize resource in the

form of farmyard manure.

Unlike other mountain agroecosystems of the Nepal hill (Mahat et

a/., 1987; Thapa and Weber, 1990), and elsewhere in the central

Himalayan region, India (Semwal and Maikhuri, 1996; Singh eta/., 1997),

the emphasis on the farmyard manure as an input was relatively higher

here. It may be noted that generally speaking Nepali farmers are more

49

dependent upon the animal husbandry compared to other mountain

communities (Sharma eta/., 1996; Kushwaha and Ochi, 1999).

Unlike many traditional agroecosystems in Indian Himalaya

(Maikhuri, 1996; Semwal and Maikhuri, 1996) and other regions (Tsegaye,

1997; Guo, 1999) which had higher energy value for crop by-products

(green biomass) compared with the energy values for economic yield, in

the present system, by and large reverse was the case. However, the

larger holdings in village TF showed the reverse situation.

Energy efficiency of the agroecosystems between TF and MM

showed difference. Resource rich farmers in village TF had better efficiency

in the larger holdings compared to those in the resource poor MM.

However, the reverse situation where medium and small holdings which

showed the high efficiency values in MM than TF could be accounted as

due to better weed management practices and quantities of manure input.

The higher efficiency of agroecosystem in village MM may also be due to

large number of cattle that are stall fed, and with more efficient agroforestry

practices (agroforestry is not practiced in TF). It may be noted here that

anecic and epi-anecic earthworms, which are considered as ecosystem

engineers (Lavelle, 1992; Fragoso et al., 1997), which are exclusive to

agroecosystems alone, but absent in the forest. These species such as

Amynthas corticis and Allobophora parva are more in systems of MM than

in TF, and the species A. corticis is restricted to village MM alone ( cf.

Chapter 1.3.4 also)

50

The energy efficiency compared to more traditional slash and burn

agriculture systems such as those found in north-east India (Maikhuri and

Ramakrishnan, 1990, 1991; Maikhuri, 1996), the energy efficiency in the

agroecosystem here is lower. However, considering sedentary

agroecosystems in central (Singh and Singh, 1992; Semwal and Maikhuri,

1996; Semwal eta/., 2001) and western Indian Himalayan (Singh eta/.,

1997) regions, Nepalese systems considered here are better organized

with higher energy efficiencies. Economic efficiencies also remained higher

compared to those studies and that of Sikkim Himalaya (Sharma et a/.,

2000) as well.

4.3 Earthworm dynamics

4.3.1 Species diversity

The present comparative study between natural and human

managed ecosystems suggest that species diversity of earthworms in

these eastern Himalayan systems are comparable to the richness reported

by other studies from this part of the Himalaya (Julka, 1988, 2001).

However, the species richness in the study is much higher than that

reported in shifting agriculture/fallow systems, from north-east India

(Bhaduria and Ramakrishnan, 1989, 1991 ). Species richness in natural

ecosystem was much higher compared with human managed systems

(Bhaduria et a/., 1997, 2001). There are many reports that suggest the

reduction in species richness under perturbations (Edwards and Lofty,

1982). There, it is reasonable to expect lesser species diversity under

51

agriculture than in the adjoining natural ecosystems as noticed in this

study. It is in this context, that the higher species richness and relatively

higher density of earthworm species in the relatively undisturbed forest of

TF, compared to the poorer earthworm population found in the more

disturbed and open forest areas at MM needs to be viewed. In the latter

situation both lower litter fall and lesser soil moisture retention could be

implicated (Bhaduria and Ramakrishnan, 1989, 1991 ). Fragoso et at.,

(1997) also observed earthworm abundance and distribution as being

determined by quantity, quality and timing of the leaf litter inputs into the

soil system in his studies on the Mexican and Peruvian rain forests, and

African Savanahs.

4.3.2 Seasonal variation

Seasonal increase in earthworm population with the forest and

agroecosystems during monsoon period, except for the species Amynthas

corticis, could be attributed to more favourable soil and moisture conditions,

as also observed from other parts of the Himalaya and north-eastern Hills

in India (Bhaduria and Ramakrishnan, 1991; Bhaduria et at., 2000) and

other regions elsewhere, too (Edwards, 1983; Fragoso and Lavelle, 1995;

Fragoso et. at., 1997; Valle et. at., 1997). Besides soil moisture condition,

improved microbil activity, has also been implicated for increased

population activity during the monsoon (Fragoso and Lavelle, 1992). Tiwari

and Mishra (1995) suggest that the monsoonal increase of earthworm

population could be through an increased moisture level facilitating worm

52

movement and thereby accelerating growth and reproduction, and/or by

reducing mortality arising as a direct result from desiccation.

In general, paucity of earthworm during the dry season could be

attributed to decreased moisture availability in the soil (Bhaduria and

Ramakrishnan, 1989, 1991; Fragoso and Lavelle, 1995), and shortage of

food (Tiwari and Mishra, 1995; Bhaduria et. a/., 1997; Fragoso et. a/.,

1997).

Occurrence of Amynthas corticis and Alfobophora parva only in

summer may confer an advantage on these exotic species for avoiding

competition with natives that dominate during the monsoon. The summer

peaking shown by A. corticis is in contrast to winter peaking observed for

this species from north-east India (Bhaduria and Ramakrishnan, 1991) and

that from central Himalayan Indian region (Bhaduria et. a/., 2000). With an

optimum soil temperature 12 °C required for this species, for optimal

growth and reproduction, which is found to be common to all the study sites

discussed above, the difference observed in the seasonalities could be

explained.

Unlike a broad ecological amplitude in terms of seasonality for

Plutelfus sikkimensis and Sco/ioscolides bergitheili, these occurring

throughout the year could possibly be due to a wider range of physiological

adaptability to temperature, for these two species. These two species

where they occur form dominant species within that system and are

53

reported only from the eastern Himalayan region of Darjeeling and Sikkim

(Julka, 1988).

4.3.3 Endemic versus exotic species

Whilst natural forest ecosystems were generally dominated by

I

endemics and with no exotics, the human managed agroecosystems had

some exotic species Amynthas corticis and Allobophora parva.

Perturbation of ecosystem has been suggested generally to favour

biological invasion (Ramakrishnan, 1991), as also found by many workers

for earthworm species (Fragoso, 1993; Fragoso et a/., 1995; and Fragoso

and Rojas, 1994). In fact, working with shifting agriculture in the north-east

India, Bhaduria and Ramakrishnan (1991) have shown an increase in

exotic species after slash and burn operation. However, Bhaduria et al.,

(2000) reports that biological invasion could occur in relatively undisturbed

pine forests of central Himalaya, suggesting that there could be exceptional

situation.

4.3.4 Functional guild

Earthworms are classified into functional groups, epigeic, endogeic

and anecic depending upon their foraging niche. Epigeics, which forage the

surface layers of the soil, dominate the present study sites and this could

be related to the thin mountain soil cover that characterizes the region.

With more organic input going into the agroecosystem plots in MM

through agroforestry that they alone practice and more animal dung

54

recycling, there is a tendency for spec1es like Perionyx nan us, P.

jorpokriensis and Plutellus sikkimensis to be more dominant in village MM

than in TF, due to increase in organic residue and soil fertility in the surface

layers of the soil in MM, a conclusion similar that observed by Fragoso et

a!., ( 1997). Anecic and epi-anecic exotic species Amynthas corticis and

Allobophora parva observed in agroecosystem alone and that too during

the pre-monsoon period could be attributed to their ability to tolerate water

stress by migration to lower soil layers.

4.4 Meeting livelihood needs

4.4.1 From forests and village ecosystems

Similar to other mountain environments of the Himalayan region

(Pandey and Singh, 1984; Singh eta!., 1984; Mahat eta!., 1986; Blakie,

1988; lves, 1988; Carpenter and Zomer, 1996; Bohle and Adhikari, 1988)

and mountains elsewhere in the developing Africa (Tsegye, 1999; Becker,

1999) fuelwood is extracted from the forest as one of the important energy

source used by the local people. Half of the energy needs are met from

biomass by-product from the traditional agroforestry systems (maize stalk,

fodder twigs, worn out fence poles and others). Average per family per

year fuelwood consumption in the present study was found higher

compared to another study in the same District (Bajracharya, 1983), mid­

hills of central Nepal (Mahat eta/., 1987), mid-hills of western Nepal (Fox,

1983), but similar to that for some communities of the Sikkim Himalayan

region (Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996). The higher fuelwood energy

55

consumption in this study could be partly for heating at a higher altitude

and partly for meeting tourists needs, with absence of alternate source of

energy.

Timber and fodder for animals and bedding materials are also

obtained from the forest, as for many other mountain societies (Ralhan et

a/., 1991; Ramakrishnan, et at., 1992; Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996).

However, Community Forestry User Groups (CFUGs) in the study area,

determine sustainable collection of forest resources through

restrictions/rotations established to avoid pressure on a specific forest area.

Whilst farmers in village TF rely on community forests, for their needs,

those from MM obtain about one third of their requirements from

agroforestry plots as in the case at Upper Pokhara Valley Watershed in

western Nepal, as shown by Thapa and Weber (1990) and Semewal and

Maikhuri (1996) Garhwal Himalaya, but relatively higher than buffer zone

of Makalu barun Conservation Area, Nepal as observed by Carpenter and

Womer (1996) and Garhwal Himalaya as shown by Pandey and Singh

(1984). Timber requirements for house construction and repairs is much

less; therefore extraction is not that frequent as others too, have shown

(Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996).

Though home gardens largely meet domestic needs only, a few

households produce some surplus vegetables for sale, during the tourist

season. People living in the resource poor village MM, arising out of

necessity alone have recently started tea (Camellia sinensis L.Kuntze)

56

cultivation as part of the home garden system and cultivating a medicinal

herb Swertia chiraita (Chirayto) after a light burn on some of the terraces,

for cash income. In this village MM, particular, for supplementary income,

some families also work as labourers or do some small business for cash

income. Other sources of income are through remittances coming from

youngsters migrating to places outside the region.

4.4.2 Food balance situation

Present scenario of local food production is sufficient to support

about 60% of the household in both the villages at a 'satisfactory level' ( cf.

Table 1.17). However, poverty is much higher in village MM since the

production of the land is poorer in the resource-poor village MM, they have

depended upon import through cash income which they are able to

manage through tourism. Whilst food import into village MM benefits the

richer sections (category 'satisfactory level' and 'tolerable range', cf. Table

1.17) only, the destitute level remains higher in village MM compared to TF.

It may be mentioned here that many mountain societies are

becoming more and more dependent upon food import for survival

(Ramakrishnan, 1999; Jodha, 2000).

57

5. CONCLUSION

Mountain societies such as those living in the two villages discussed

here are dependent upon forest for a variety of livelihood needs, as much

as in many societies in the developing world (Eckhojlm. 1982; lves, 1988;

Pitt, 1988; Ramakrishnan, et a/., 1992; Jodha, 2000). An aspect that is

discussed in the close linkage between agriculture and forest ecosystems

with resource flow between the two. Whilst communities living in the

resource rich forested area are able to manage their agriculture through

residue management arising out of forest litter, communities in the forest

poor area depend more upon animal dung to sustain agriculture, further

supplemented through more intensive input, too. In this study, earthworms

are looked upon as indicator species for soil fertility both in the natural and

human managed systems. As expected, under greater perturbation in the

forest (closer to MM), there is a tendency for exotics to take oler. The

tendency of exotics to take over under perturbation is more obvious in the

agroecosystem studies.

A conclusion that emerges is that diversification of the production

system more towards animal husbandry in the village MM is due to (a) the

need for a divrsified economy to compensate for reduced forest resources

here and (b) to adopt to the increased tourist flow into this village area (See

Chapter 3).

58