vicarious trauma & professional interpreters · spoken language interpreters working in various...

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VICARIOUS TRAUMA& PROFESSIONAL INTERPRETERSBy Ludmila Golovine

Information contained in these slides is confidential and proprietary to MasterWord Services, Inc.

Parameters of 2001 AIIC study:

The results of this extensive study placed interpretation in the category of high-stress professions.

Consequences: Burnout, Vicarious Trauma. Stress can pose an impediment to our performance.

Source: AIIC Workload Study Executive Summary (2001)

Psychological Physiological

Physical Performance

INTERPRETING IS A HIGH STRESS PROFESSION


Multiple studies* of job-related stress for sign language and spoken language interpreters working in various settings:• Refugee and asylum seeker services

• Mental health & therapy

• Community/public services

• Trauma & violent crime survivors care

• Healthcare & clinical settings

• Legal investigations & courtroom proceedings

*Multiple resources (please see References and Resources)

UNIQUE TRIGGERS OFVICARIOUS TRAUMA IN INTERPRETERS

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Commonly identified causes of vicarious trauma and job-related stress in language professionals:

UNIQUE TRIGGERS OFVICARIOUS TRAUMA IN INTERPRETERS

Linguistic & paralinguistic

aspects

Cultural, moral & ethical

mediation

Confidentiality vs. need to

debrief

Isolation & lack of supervision

Utilitarian view of interpreter

role


The phenomenon generally associated with the “cost of caring”.

Also referred to as:

• Compassion fatigue• Secondary traumatic stress• Secondary victimization

§State of tension and preoccupation with trauma experiences/stories§VT affects professionals through changes in their beliefs about themselves, their world, their faith, and their psychological functioning

Sources: “Vicarious Trauma. Fact Sheet #9” by the American Counseling Association (2011) and “Effects of Client Trauma on Interpreters” by Mailee Lor (2012)

VICARIOUS TRAUMA


• Impacts interpreter performance

• Increases turnover

• Affects customer experience & customer satisfaction

• Impacts the bottom line and retention

Human factor:

• Relationships

• Morale

WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT?

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The Stages of Burnout have been identified as:

BURNOUT

Sources:Understandingtheburnoutexperience:recentresearchanditsimplicationsforpsychiatry.WorldPsychiatryJournal.2016Burn-Out- StagesofDisillusionmentintheHelpingProfessions.HumanSciencesPress.

Apathy1.Frustration1.Stagnation1.Enthusiasm


• Biological, psychological, and social exhaustion and dysfunction

• Feeling like “I have nothing left to give”

A cumulative combined effect of Burnout and Vicarious Trauma:

COMPASSION FATIGUE

Burnout+

Vicarious Trauma

Compassion Fatigue

Sources:CompassionFatigueamongHealthcare,EmergencyandCommunityServiceWorkers:ASystematicReview.InternationalJournalofEnvironmentalResearch&PublicHealth,2016.Stamm,B,PhD.TheConciseManualfortheProfessionalQualityofLifeScale.2010.


HOW DO WE PROCESS INFORMATION?We filter information differently using:

• Deletion• Distortion• Generalization

Based on:• Meta programs

(unconscious filters)• Values• Beliefs• Attitudes• Memories• Past decisions

Diversity Wheel – Adapted from: Gardenswartz, Lee, and Anita Rowe. Diverse Teams at Work: Capitalizing on the Power of Diversity. Chicago: Irwin Professional Pub., 1994. Print.

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“Interpreting is more than just transposing one language to another … it is throwing a semantic bridge between two people from different cultures and thought worlds.”Source: “Reflections on the training of simultaneous interpreters: A metalinguistic approach” by Claude Namy (1977)

HOW DO INTERPRETERS PROCESS INFORMATION?


"Interpreters seem to experience vicarious trauma differently than other professionals providing aid since they do more than witness the trauma; they channel it*.”

Vicarious trauma leaves an emotional residue of exposure to clients’ distress, their pain, fear, emotional turmoil

Countertransference and shared trauma: unconscious redirection of the client's feelings upon oneself

*Source: “Vicarious Trauma and the Professional Interpreter” in Psychology Today (August 2, 2013)

HOW DO INTERPRETERS PROCESS INFORMATION?


Interpreters are often left with the burden, and power, of choosing whether their translation should (or shouldn’t) convey the covert concepts or euphemisms directly. In many settings interpreters are forced to navigate imbalances of power and control.

There is nothing more we can do for you; we’re going to make you as comfortable as possible

Source: “Consumers and Service Effectiveness: A Practice Profession Perspective” (2005) by Robyn K. Dean & Robert Q. Pollard, Jr.

BEHAVIORAL DECISIONS

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INTERPRETER IMPARTIALITY IMIA Guide on Medical Interpreter Ethical Conduct:

Impartiality: "To remain impartial, interpreters should not share personal opinions or allow personal beliefs and relationships to affect communication. Impartiality, or professional distance, does not imply lack of concern for patients and assignments but speaks to the integrity of the profession and the process."

Benefits of Impartiality for Interpreter

• Impartiality makes us better interpreters

• It helps us avoid burnout

• It promotes longevity & well-being

Benefits of Impartiality for LEP, Provider

• Message is delivered more accurately

• Interpreter is part of an interdisciplinary team promoting effective communication


Interpreters are human: Remaining professional & impartial may leave us feeling guilty.

This guilt may have cultural causes or implications.

These feelings of guilt or powerlessness add to job-related stress and must be mitigated.

PROFESSIONALISM AND STRESS:


A study revealed that 30% of interpreters’emotional difficulties were linked to dealing with service providers:

• Lack of understanding of interpreter role

• Lack of respect for the profession

• Viewed as “machines”, “conduits” or “common consumables”

• Feeling dehumanized

Source: “Interpreters’ Experiences of Transferential Dynamics, Vicarious Traumatisation, and Their Need for Support and Supervision: A Systematic Literature Review” (2016) by Emma Darroch & Raymond Dempsey

INTERPRETERS AS “TOOLS”

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Studies about interpreters revealed:

SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM EFFECTS

56% emotionally impacted by their work

67% couldn’t stop thinking about their clients’ troubles – 56% up to half an hour after sessions and 23% from several hours up to days after sessions

33% stated that work had an impact on their personal lives

28% reported difficulties in taking other assignments; described feeling weary, distracted and in emotional turmoil

Source:“Interpreters’ Experiences of Transferential Dynamics, Vicarious Traumatisation, and Their Need for Support and Supervision: A Systematic Literature Review” (2016) by Emma Darroch & Raymond Dempsey


“I also have a lot of cases that [when] I go home, I feel pretty sad about...You know, the voice needs to be heard. ...But sometimes I also kind of take it a little bit personally. I mean it’s hard to program yourself like a rock, a stone face in a courtroom and not worry about [it]."

Source:"WhoseTraumaIsIt?VicariousTraumaanditsImpactonCourtInterpreters"Sonali Rana,Purvi Shah,Kajori Chaudhuri.Proteus:NewsletterofNAJIT.Winter2009-2010VolumeXVIII,No.4

CASE STUDIES


"I can walk away from it, but I can't to some extent [be]cause I've got that knowledge.”

"if something bad happens...I think I internalize it a little bit too much, I've not yet developed that strategy that I can just cut off from it."

Source:SignedLanguageInterpreting:Preparation,Practice,andPerformance.ed.LorraineLeeson,Svenja Wurm,MyriamVermeerbergen.Routledge,2014.

CASE STUDIES

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“It’s not that I am feeling sorry for them and empathize with them, it’s that I am becoming them.” (1)

“I have to become that person, so everything what she or he says to me, I have to say it, and you know, we’re only humans, you can’t sort of completely switch yourself off or detach from emotions and when people sometimes say things like ‘oh my life is not worth living’, ‘I don’t want to live no more’, …saying things like that, I find it quite difficult because it doesn’t agree with me…”(2)

Sources:(1)“TheRoutledgeHandbookonInterpreting”editedByHollyMikkelson &ReneeJourdenais (2015).(2)“Community interpreters speaking for themselves: The psychological impact of working in mental health settings” by Clare Louise Shakespeare (2012).

CASE STUDIES


1. Raise awareness2. Develop wellness programs3. Set up mentor programs

Provide practical tools to prevent and mitigate stress:• Pre-session• In-session• Post-session

HOW CAN WE SUPPORT LANGUAGE PROFESSIONALS?


BEFORE | DURING | AFTERthe session?

What do we do

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Be prepared• Know where you are going

• Pen/paper for note taking

• Clear up any questions/instructions

• Dress code

Be on time (or early)“5 Minutes Early Is On Time; On Time Is Late; Late Is Unacceptable”

Eliminate distractions• Silence and put away your phone

BEFORE:MINIMIZE TASK RELATED STRESS


Develop a ritual • (ex, hand washing)

Mental grounding • (ex, “I am not my emotions”)

Remind yourself to only focus on the task at hand.

BEFORE:GET IN THE ZONE


Essential tool to:

• Clarify roles

• Understand the context

• Define purpose

• Discuss strategy with the provider

• Set the tone for the session

BEFORE:PRE-SESSION BRIEFING

*Source:Dohertyetal(2010).Howdoesitfeelforyou?Theemotionalimpactandspecificchallengesofmentalhealthinterpreting.MentalHealthReviewJournal,15(3),31-44.

ofinterpretersreportnotbeingbriefedpriortosessionsasparticularlydifficult*

78%

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BEFORE | DURING | AFTER5 Steps for interpreters by interpreters

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Sometimes we find ourselves feeling overwhelmed or overcome by feelings. This can affect how we perform. Ignoring our emotions will not help us mitigate their impact. To begin to diffuse a negative emotion, the first step is to take a moment to recognize what we are feeling and give it a name.

“Simply recognizing and naming an emotion quells its effect, making thoughtful management of subsequent behavior more likely.”(“When Labeling an Emotion Quiets it” – Tom Valeo, 2013)

DURING - STEP 1:RECOGNIZE AND NAME THE EMOTION


Second, inconspicuously shift your focus from the epicenter of stress using one of these techniques:

• Taking notes • Rub your hands• Focus on moving the big toe• Move your feet

DURING - STEP 2:CHANGE FOCUS

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Third, we can take a step back to assess the encounter or scenario that caused us to feel this emotion. By seeing a bigger picture that involves not only our own reaction or perception of reality but that of others involved and even the perspective of a neutral or objective observer, we gain clarity.

DURING - STEP 2:DISTANCE YOURSELF FROM THE EMOTION

Own RealityYou are fully associated into

the problem or situation

2nd PositionYou are now one step

removed from the situation

3rd PositionYou are now two step

removed from the situation


Think of re-setting and hitting “refresh” on your thoughts.

Move forward deliberately and thoughtfully while leaving the emotion and associated stress behind.

RESET

Discreet and Invisible Tools

• Take deep breaths

• Stand straight

• Look up

• Mental grounding: “I am not my emotions”

• Reset and refocus: come back to neutral

DURING - STEP 4:

Where are you?Research shows that:• 46.9% of the time our mind

is somewhere else• Focus only on the task at

hand• Be in the here and now

("A Wandering Mind is an Unhappy Mind." Matthew Killingsworth and Daniel Gilbert, Harvard University, 2011)

STEP 5:BE PRESENT

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the session?

What do we do

BEFORE | DURING | AFTER

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Tap into potential sources of support in your professional network.

Avoid professional isolation!

Debrief Partners:Are not there to make you feel better, they LISTEN.

A Debrief Partner does not:• Say “I understand...”• Claim to relate• Offer advice

Just listen…

AFTER:HAVE A DEBRIEF PARTNER


WHAT ABOUT HIPAA, Confidentiality and Ethics?

Understanding the law, the tenet of Confidentiality and the information that we must protect allows us to effectively and ethically unload our emotional burdens(sharing our experience without disclosing individually identifiable health information protected by HIPAA, etc.)

AFTER:HAVE A DEBRIEF PARTNER

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• Allow the language professional to time to heal and reset

• Be open to hearing that a language professional needs to accept a different type of assignment

• Keep an open mind and an open heart

This will lead to better outcomes (reduce turnover, improved quality of interpreting and customer service)

CREATE A COLLABORATIVE ENVIRONMENT


Cognitive• Write things down

• Review previous successes

HEALTHY COPING STRATEGIES

Behavioral• Do activities that you enjoy

Physical• Aerobic exercise

• Routine sleep patterns

• Eat well-balanced meals & drink water

• Take mini-breaks

Emotional• Name the emotion

• Give yourself permission to ask for help

Spiritual• Mediation and/or prayer

• Find spiritual support

Interpersonal• Talk with a debrief partner

• Take time to enjoy the company of trusted friend

Source: (Compassion Fatigue Educator (CFE) Certification. Figley Institute, 2012)


• http://proqol.org/uploads/ProQOL_5_English.pdf Professional Quality of Life Scale (free resource)

• https://www.naadac.org/assets/2416/sharon_foley_ac15_militarycultureho2.pdfSecondary Traumatic Stress Scale (free resource)

• https://www.wpspublish.com/store/p/3011/tabs-trauma-and-attachment-belief-scaleTrauma and Attachment Belief Scale (available for purchase through WPS Publishing*)

* MasterWord is not associated with WPS Publishing and does not promote or endorse WPS’ products or services.

WAYS TO ASSESS

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“Excellent self-care and excellent service are inextricably linked.

Take care of yourself, so you can take care of business.”

~Julie Alexander,Core Health Partners, PLL


Ludmila “Mila” [email protected]

www.masterword.comwww.masterword.com/wellness-connection

CONTACT INFORMATION

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QUESTIONS& ANSWERS

• American Counseling Association (2011). Vicarious Trauma. Fact Sheet #9. Available at: https://www.counseling.org/docs/trauma-disaster/fact-sheet-9---vicarious-trauma.pdf?sfvrsn=2

• Baillot, H., Cowan, S. & Munro, V.E. (2013). Second-hand emotion? Exploring the contagion and impact of trauma and distress in the asylum law context. Journal of Law and Society, 40(4), 509-540. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6478.2013.00639.x

• Darroch, E., Dempsey, R. (2016). “Interpreters’ Experiences of Transferential Dynamics, Vicarious Traumatisation, and Their Need for Support and Supervision: A Systematic Literature Review”, The European Journal of Counselling Psychology, 2016, Vol. 4(2), 166–190. Available at: https://ejcop.psychopen.eu/article/view/76/html

• de Bruin, E. & Brugmans, P. (2006). The psychotherapist and the sign language interpreter. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 11(3), 360-368. doi:10.1093/deafed/enj034. Available at: https://academic.oup.com/jdsde/article/11/3/360/2530033

• Dean, R. K. & Pollard, R. Q., Jr. (2001). Application of demand-control theory to sign language interpreting: Implications for stress and interpreter training. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 6, 1-14. doi:10.1093/deafed/6.1.1. Available at: http://paperity.org/p/39680780/application-of-demand-control-theory-to-sign-language-interpreting-implications-for

• Dean, R. K. & Pollard, R. Q., Jr. (2005). Consumers and Service Effectiveness in Interpreting Work: A Practice Profession Perspective. 10.1093/acprof/9780195176940.003.0011. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232581309_Consumers_and_Service_Effectiveness_in_Interpreting_Work_A_Practice_Profession_Perspective

• Doherty, S. M., MacIntyre, A. M. & Wyne, T. (2010). How does it feel for you? The emotional impact and specific challenges of mental health interpreting. Mental Health Review Journal, 15(3), 31-44. doi:10.5042/mhrj.2010.0657. Abstract available at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.5042/mhrj.2010.0657

• Dysart-Gale, D. (2005). Communication models, professionalization, and the work of medical interpreters. Health Communication, 17(1), 91-103. doi:10.1207/s15327027hc1701_6. Abstract available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15327027hc1701_6?needAccess=true

• Gardenswartz, L. & Rowe, A. (1994). Diverse Teams at Work: Capitalizing on the Power of Diversity. Chicago: Irwin Professional Pub.

• Gomez, A. (2012). Vicarious trauma and posttraumatic growth: A study of how interpreters working in psychotherapy are impacted by their work (Doctoral dissertation, Dublin Business School, Dublin, Ireland). Retrieved from http://esource.dbs.ie/bitstream/handle/10788/480/ma_gomez_a_2012.pdf

• Green, H., Sperlinger, D. & Carswell, K. (2012). Too close to home? Experiences of Kurdish refugee interpreters working in UK mental health services. Journal of Mental Health, 21(3), 227-235. doi:10.3109/09638237.2011.651659. Abstract available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/09638237.2011.651659?journalCode=ijmh20

• Harvey, M. A. (2003). Shielding yourself from the perils of empathy: The case of sign language interpreters. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 8(2), 207-213. oi:10.1093/deafed/eng004. Abstract available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/42658653?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents

• Hetherington, A. (2012). Supervision and the interpreting profession: Support and accountability through reflective practice. International Journal of Interpreter Education, 4(1), 46-57. Available at: http://www.cit-asl.org/new/supervision-and-the-interpreting-profession/

• Hsieh, E. & Kramer, E. (2012). “Medical Interpreters as Tools: Dangers and Challenges in the Utilitarian Approach to Interpreters’ Roles and Functions”. Patient Educ Couns. 2012 Oct; 89(1): 158–162. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3462307/

• Johnson, H., Thompson, A. & Downs, M. (2009). Non-Western interpreters’ experiences of trauma: The protective role of culture following exposure to oppression. Ethnicity & Health, 14(4), 407-418. doi:10.1080/13557850802621449. Abstract available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13557850802621449?journalCode=ceth20

• Kabat-Zinn, J. (2013). Full Catastrophe Living (Revised Edition): Using the Wisdom of Your Body and Mind to Face Stress, Pain, and Illness. Random House Publishing Group.

• Killingsworth, M. & Gilbert, D. (2011). A Wandering Mind is an Unhappy Mind. Harvard University.

• Lai, M., Heydon, G. & Mulayim, S. (25 May, 2015). “Vicarious Trauma Among Interpreters”, International Journal of Interpreter Education 7(1), 3-22. Conference of Interpreter Trainers. Available at: http://www.cit-asl.org/new/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/c-IJIE-71_002_Res_2015_Lai-Heydon-and-Mulayim_Vicarious-trauma.pdf

• Lor, Mailee (2012). "Effects of Client Trauma on Interpreters: An Exploratory Study of Vicarious Trauma". Master of Social Work Clinical Research Papers. Paper 53. Available at: http://sophia.stkate.edu/msw_papers/53

• Loutan, L., Farinelli, T. & Pampallona, S. (1999). Medical interpreters have feelings too. Sozial- und Präventivmedizin, 44(6), 280-282. doi:10.1007/BF01358977. Abstract and preview available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01358977

• Macdonald, Jami L. (2015). "Vicarious Trauma as Applied to the Professional Sign Language Interpreter," MontviewLiberty University Journal of Undergraduate Research: Vol. 1: Iss. 1, Article 6. Available at: http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=montview

REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

• Macdonald, Jami L. (2015). "Vicarious Trauma as Applied to the Professional Sign Language Interpreter," Montview Liberty University Journal of Undergraduate Research: Vol. 1: Iss. 1, Article 6. Available at: http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=montview

• Mackintosh, J. (2001). The AIIC workload study - executive summary. Available at: https://aiic.net/page/888/the-aiic-workload-study-executive-summary/lang/1

• Metzger, M. (2006). Salient studies of signed language interpreting in the context of community interpreting scholarship. Linguistica Antverpiensia, 5, 263-291. Available at: https://lans-tts.uantwerpen.be/index.php/LANS-TTS/article/view/164/101

• Molle, E. L. (2012). The experiences of interpreters working in a medium secure forensic mental health unit: An interpretative phenomenological analysis (Doctoral dissertation, University of East London, London, United Kingdom). Available at: http://roar.uel.ac.uk/1861/1/2012_Molle_DCounPsych.pdf

• Muller, R. T. (2013). Vicarious Trauma and the Professional Interpreter. Psychology Today, published online on 02 Aug 2013. Available at: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/talking-about-trauma/201308/vicarious-trauma-and-the-professional-interpreter

• Namy, C. (1977). Reflections on the training of simultaneous interpreters: A metalinguistic approach. In Munyangeyo, T., Rabadan-Gomez, M. & Webb, G. (ed.) (2016). Challenges and opportunities in public service interpreting, p. 21. Palgrave Macmillan.

• Rana, S., Shah, P. & Chaudhuri, K. (2009). Whose Trauma Is It? Vicarious Trauma and its Impact on Court Interpreters. Proteus: Newsletter of NAJIT. Winter 2009-2010 Volume XVIII, No. 4.

• Sande, H. (1998). Supervision of refugee interpreters: 5 years of experience from Northern Norway. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 52(5), 403-409. doi:10.1080/08039489850139436. Abstract available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08039489850139436

• Schwenke, T. J. (2012a). The relationships between perfectionism, stress, coping resources, and burnout among sign language interpreters (Doctoral dissertation, Georgia State University, Georgia, Atlanta). Available at: https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1086&context=cps_diss

• Schwenke, T. J. (2012b). Sign language interpreters and burnout. Journal of Interpretation, 20(1), 31-54. Available at: http://digitalcommons.unf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=joi

• Shakespeare, C. L. (2012). Community interpreters speaking for themselves: The psychological impact of working in mental health settings (Doctoral dissertation, University of Hertfordshire, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom). Available at: http://uhra.herts.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/2299/9156/09212294%20Shakespeare%20Clare%20-%20final%20DClinPsy%20dissertation.pdf

• Shlesinger, Y. (2007). Vicarious traumatization among interpreters who work with torture survivors and their therapists. Copenhagen Studies in language, 35, 153-172.

• Signed Language Interpreting: Preparation, Practice, and Performance. (2014). ed. Lorraine Leeson, SvenjaWurm, Myriam Vermeerbergen. Routledge.

• Splevins, K. A., Cohen, K., Joseph, S., Murray, C. & Bowley, J. (2010). Vicarious posttraumatic growth among interpreters. Qualitative Health Research, 20(12), 1705-1716. doi:10.1177/1049732310377457. Abstract available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20663936

• Stamm, B.H. (1997). Work-related secondary traumatic stress. PTSD Research Quarterly, Volume 8, Number, p.p. 1-3. Spring 1997. Available at: https://www.ptsd.va.gov/professional/newsletters/research-quarterly/V8N2.pdf

• The Routledge Handbook of Interpreting (2015). Ed. Mikkelson, H, Jourdenais, R. Routledge.

• Tribe, R. (1998). If two is company is three a crowd/group? A longitudinal account of a support and clinical supervision group for interpreters. Group Work Journal, 11, 139-152.

• Tribe, R. & Keefe, A. (2009a). Issues in using interpreters in therapeutic work with refugees: What is not being expressed? European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling, 11(4), 409-424. doi:10.1080/13642530903444795. Abstract available at: http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13642530903444795

• Tribe, R. & Lane, P. (2009b). Working with interpreters across language and culture in mental health. Journal of Mental Health, 18(3), 233-241. doi:10.1080/09638230701879102. Available at: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.465.6417&rep=rep1&type=pdf

• Tribe, R. & Thompson, K. (2008). Working with interpreters in health settings: Guidelines for psychologists. Leicester, United Kingdom: British Psychological Society. Available at: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/dclinpsy/training-handbook/chapters/handbook-pdf/SECTION_8_Appendix_9_BPS_guidance_on_working_with_interpreters_June_2013

• Tribe, R. & Thompson, K. (2009). Opportunity for development or necessary nuisance? The case for viewing working with interpreters as a bonus in therapeutic work. International Journal of Migration, Health and Social Care, 5(2), 4-12. doi:10.1108/17479894200900008. Abstract available at: http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1108/17479894200900008

• Valero-Garcés, C. (2005). Emotional and psychological effects on interpreters in public services: A critical factor to bear in mind. Translation Journal, 9(3), 1-13. Available at: http://translationjournal.net/journal/33ips.htm

• Vicarious traumatization among interpreters who work with torture survivors and their therapists (2005). Chicago School of Professional Psychology. Abstract available at: https://books.google.com/books/about/Vicarious_Traumatization_Among_Interpret.html?id=KbolngAABaillot, H., Cowan, S. & Munro, V.E. (2013). CAAJ

REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

vicarious trauma & professional interpreters · spoken language interpreters working in various...

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