vertical structure in coastal waters-fresh water run-off and tidal mixing

7/28/2019 Vertical Structure in Coastal Waters-Fresh Water Run-Off and Tidal Mixing

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Crisencio M. Paner, M.Sc.

Ph.D. in Biological Science

(Student)

Vertical structure in coastal waters:freshwater run-off and tidal mixing


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Introduction Coastal waters( which extends from the edge of the

continental shelf to the high water mark) are subjected tothe same seasonal cycles of warming and cooling as the openocean, and in temperate climates the mixed layer mayalternate between being shallow and deep in the same way asin open water.


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Introduction However, the process is greatly complicated by factors

peculiar to the coastal zone. The first of these is the shallowness, which leads to a

situation in which a relatively shallow mixed layer may

extend to the bottom.


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Introduction Since dead biological material, detritus, tends to accumulate

and decompose on the bottom, the nutrients released by itmay be carried to the surface waters and rapidly used inphotosynthesis.

The second important factor is the presence of tidal currentsthat create turbulence in the water.


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Introduction If the depth is not too great in relation to the strength of a

tidal current, tidally induced mixing may extend all the wayto the surface.

The third peculiar feature is the barrier to advection posedby the coastline itself.

For example, if surface water is driven by wind action awayfrom the coast, the only way for it to be replaced is byupwelling from below.


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Introduction Since there is a good chance that the upwelled water has

been enriched in nutrients, an upwelling area is likely to be asite of enhanced biological production.

When stratification first sets in, some phytoplankton is

trapped in a well-lighted mixed layer and production isenhanced.


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Introduction In an area where stratification has been present for a

relatively long time, the nutrients in the mixed layer maybecome depleted and their renewal from below is inhibitedby the pycnocline, so that primary production tends to bedepressed.

Hence, stratification may act in a positive or a negative wayon primary production, but its effects are always important.


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Introduction In the open ocean, stratification is almost always induced by

temperature differences between the layers. In coastal waters a very important additional factor must be

considered- namely, the flow of fresh water from the land.


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Introduction Having salinity close to zero, it is much lighter than sea

water and by lying on top of the sea water creates astratification that can be independent of temperaturedifferences between the layers.

Furthermore this surface layer, being less dense rides higher

at the sea surface, creating a slope along which water flows.


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Introduction

Since these flows depend on the buoyancy, they are knownas buoyancy-driven currents.


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Coriolis Effect Coriolis effect is an inertial force described by the 19th-

century French engineer-mathematician Gustave-GaspardCoriolis in 1835.

The effect of the Coriolis force is an apparent deflection of

the path of an object that moves within a rotating coordinatesystem.


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Coriolis Effect The object does not actually deviate from its path, but it

appears to do so because of the motion of the coordinate

system. The Coriolis effect is most apparent in the path of an object

moving longitudinally.

On the Earth an object that moves along a north-south path,or longitudinal line, will undergo apparent deflection to theright in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in theSouthern Hemisphere.


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Figure 1: In the inertial frame of reference (upper part of the picture), the black object moves ina straight line, without significant friction with the disc. However, the observer (red dot) who isstanding in the rotating (non-inertial) frame of reference (lower part of the picture) sees theobject as following a curved path due to the Coriolis and centrifugal forces present in this frame.


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Coriolis Effect There are two reasons for this phenomenon: first, the Earth

rotates eastward; and second, the tangential velocity of apoint on the Earth is a function of latitude (the velocity isessentially zero at the poles and it attains a maximum valueat the Equator).


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Coriolis Effect Thus, the Coriolis force figures prominently in studies of the

dynamics of the atmosphere, in which it affects prevailingwinds and the rotation of storms, and in the hydrosphere, inwhich it affects the rotation of the oceanic currents.


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Coriolis Effect and Ocean Currents The influence of the Coriolis force on ocean currents was

first noted by the remarkable observations of Norwegianscientist and explorer Fridtjof Nansen (18611930).

Nansen designed a vessel for the specific purpose of freezing

it into Arctic ice and allowing it to drift with the ice over ayear.


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Coriolis Effect and Ocean Currents In 1893, he positioned his 128-ft wooden ship, Fram, so that

it would freeze into Arctic pack ice 1000 km south of theNorth Pole.

Fram remained locked in the ice for 35 months.

Nansen observed that the direction of ice and ship

movement was not parallel to the wind but typically at anangle of 2040 to the right of it.


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Coriolis Effect and Ocean Currents Nansen related the problem to Vilhelm Bjerknes at the

University of Uppsala, who assigned working out the theoryto his student V. Wilfrid Ekman (1905).

Wind-driven currents deflected by the Coriolis force arenow known as Ekman currents.


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Coriolis Effect and Ocean Currents The Coriolis Effect is the force behind ocean currents and

thus affects marine life in a profound way. Many marine animals rely on currents for the dispersion and

upwelling of nutrients, both of which would be verydifferent without the Coriolis effect.


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Estuaries An estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one

or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a freeconnection to the open sea.

Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments andocean environments and are subject to both marine influences,

such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water; and riverineinfluences, such as flows of fresh water and sediment.


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Estuaries The inflow of both seawater and freshwater provide high levels of

nutrients in both the water column and sediment, makingestuaries among the most productive natural habitats in theworld.

Most modern-day estuaries were formed during the Holocene

epoch by the flooding of river-eroded or glacially-scoured valleyswhen sea level began to rise about 10,000-12,000 years ago.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocenehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene


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Estuaries Estuaries are typically classified by their geomorphological

features or by water circulation patterns and can be referredto by many different names, such as bays, harbors, lagoons,or inlets, although sometimes these water bodies do notnecessarily meet the above criteria of an estuary and may be

fully saline.


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Estuaries Estuaries are amongst the most heavily populated areas

throughout the world, with about 60% of the worldspopulation living along estuaries and the coast.

As a result, estuaries are suffering degradation by manyfactors, including sedimentation from soil erosion from

deforestation; overgrazing and other poor farming practices;


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Estuaries overfishing; drainage and filling of wetlands; eutrophication

due to excessive nutrients from sewage and animal wastes;pollutants including heavy metals, PCBs, radionuclides andhydrocarbons from sewage inputs; and diking or dammingfor flood control or water diversion.


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Estuaries

River Exe estuary River Nith estuary

Estuary mouth located in Darwin, NorthernTerritory,Australia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Exehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Nithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin,_Northern_Territoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Territoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Territoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Territoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Territoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin,_Northern_Territoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Estuary_mouth.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Nithhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:River_Nith_estuary.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Exehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Exe_estuary_from_balloon.jpg


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Classification of Estuaries Based onWater Circulation

In this type of estuary, river output greatly exceeds marine inputand tidal effects have a minor importance.

Fresh water floats on top of the seawater in a layer that gradually

thins as it moves seaward. The denser seawater moves landward along the bottom of the

estuary, forming a wedge-shaped layer that is thinner as itapproaches land.

Salt Wedge


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As a velocity difference develops between the two layers,shear forces generate internal waves at the interface, mixing

the seawater upward with the freshwater. An example of a salt wedge estuary is the Mississippi River.

Salt Wedge
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi_River


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As tidal forcing increases, river output becomes less than themarine input.

Here, current induced turbulence causes mixing of the wholewater column such that salinity varies more longitudinally ratherthan vertically, leading to a moderately stratified condition.

Examples include the Chesapeake BayandNarragansett Bay

Partially mixed
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesapeake_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narragansett_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narragansett_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay


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Tidal mixing forces exceed river output, resulting in a wellmixed water column and the disappearance of the verticalsalinity gradient.

The freshwater-seawater boundary is eliminated due to theintense turbulent mixing and eddy effects.

The lower reaches of the Delaware Bay and the Raritan River inNew Jersey are examples of vertically homogenous estuaries.

Vertically Homogenous
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raritan_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jerseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jerseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raritan_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware_Bay


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Inverse estuaries occur in dry climates where evaporationgreatly exceeds the inflow of fresh water.

A salinity maximum zone is formed, and both riverine and

oceanic water flow close to the surface towards this zone. This water is pushed downward and spreads along the bottom in

both the seaward and landward direction.

Inverse


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An example of an inverse estuary is Spencer Gulf, SouthAustralia.

Inverse
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Gulfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spencer_Gulf


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Estuary type varies dramatically depending on freshwaterinput, and is capable of changing from a wholly marine

embayment to any of the other estuary types.

Intermittent
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embaymenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embayment


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Implications for Marine Life Estuaries provide habitats for a large number of organisms and

support very high productivity. Estuaries provide habitats for many fish nurseries, depending

upon their locations in the world, such as salmon and sea trout.

Also, migratory bird populations, such as the black-tailed godwit,

Limosa limosa islandica make essential use of estuaries.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_trouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_migrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limosa_limosa_islandica&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limosa_limosa_islandica&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_migrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_trouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmon


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Implications for Marine Life Two of the main challenges of estuarine life are the variability in

salinity and sedimentation. Many species offish and invertebrates have various methods to

control or conform to the shifts in salt concentrations and aretermed osmoconformers and osmoregulators.

Many animals alsoburrow to avoid predation and to live in themore stable sedimental environment.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmoconformerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmoregulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burrowinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burrowinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmoregulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osmoconformerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salinity


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Implications for Marine Life However, large numbers of bacteria are found within the

sediment which have a very high oxygen demand. This reduces the levels of oxygen within the sediment often

resulting in partially anoxic conditions, which can be furtherexacerbated by limited water flux.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxic_watershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anoxic_waters


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Implications for Marine Life Plankton are key primary producers in estuaries. They move with

the water bodies and can be flushed in and out with the tides.

Their productivity is largely dependant upon the turbidity of thewater.

The main plankton present are diatoms and dinoflagellates which

are abundant in the sediment.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinoflagellateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinoflagellateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatomshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbidityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton


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Human Impacts Of the 32 largest cities in the world, 22 are located on

estuaries.

For example, New York City is located at the orifice of theHudson River estuary.

As ecosystems, estuaries are under threat from humanactivities such as pollution and overfishing.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overfishinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City


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Human Impacts They are also threatened by sewage, coastal settlement, land

clearance and much more. Estuaries are affected by events far upstream, and

concentrate materials such as pollutants and sediments.


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Human Impacts Land run-off and industrial, agricultural, and domestic

waste enter rivers and are discharged into estuaries. Contaminants can be introduced which do not disintegrate

rapidly in the marine environment, such as plastics,pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols and heavy metals.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_debrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_dibenzodioxinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_debris


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Human Impacts Such toxins can accumulate in the tissues of many species of

aquatic life in a process calledbioaccumulation. They also accumulate inbenthic environments, such as

estuaries and bay muds: a geological record of humanactivities of the last century.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioaccumulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioaccumulation


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Human Impacts For example, Chinese and Russian industrial pollution, such

as phenols and heavy metals, in the Amur River havedevastated fish stocks and damaged its estuary soil.

Estuaries tend to be naturally eutrophic because land runoffdischarges nutrients into estuaries.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amur_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eutrophichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amur_River


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Human Impacts With human activities, land run-off also now includes the many

chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture as well as waste fromlivestock and humans.

Excess oxygen depleting chemicals in the water can lead tohypoxia and the creation ofdead zones.

It can result in reductions in water quality, fish, and other animalpopulations.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)


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Human Impacts Overfishing also occurs. Chesapeake Bay once had a

flourishing oyster population which has been almost wipedout by overfishing.

Historically the oysters filtered the estuary's entire watervolume of excess nutrients every three or four days.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesapeake_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oysterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oysterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay


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Human Impacts Today that process takes almost a year, and sediment,

nutrients, and algae can cause problems in local waters.Oysters filter these pollutants, and either eat them or shapethem into small packets that are deposited on the bottomwhere they are harmless.


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Tidal mixing and phytoplanktonproduction

The idea that the turbulence generated by high tidalcurrents keeps the water over some shallow regions mixedall year while the quieter regions in the deeper watersbecome stratified in summer was first advanced more than70 years ago.

The lack of stratification would be expected to decreasephytoplankton productivity.


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On the other hand, dead organic matter is continuallydecomposing on and in the sediments, providing a source ofnutrients that can be mixed back into the water column tostimulate phytoplankton production.

In the open ocean initiation of the spring growth in thezooplankton population is often triggered by the upwardmigration of a large biomass of adult and late-stage copepods thathave spent the winter at depths greater than 350 m.


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Reproduction begins as soon as this population reaches surfacewaters, and grazing pressure on the phytoplankton developsrelatively early in the season.

In part this process is made possible by the rapid warming of the

surface waters after stratification.


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In tidally mixed water, warming is delayed by the lack ofstratification, and there is no population from deep waterthat can ascend to the euphotic zone and begin to feed onthe phytoplankton.


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REFERENCES Dynamics of marine ecosystems : biological-physical interactions in the oceans

Mann, K. H. (Kenneth Henry), 1923-Malden, MA : Blackwell Pub., 2006.

Introduction to marine biologyKarleskint, George.

Belmont, CA : Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning, 2010 Marine biology

Castro, Peter.New York : McGraw-Hill Higher Education, c2007.

Introduction to marine biologyKarleskint, George.Southbank, Victoria ; Belmont, CA : Thomson, c2006.

Marine biology : an ecological approach

Nybakken, James Willard.San Francisco : Pearson Benjamin Cummings, c2005.

The Marine biology coloring bookNiesen, Thomas M.New York : Barnes & Noble, c1982.

Chronobiology of marine organismsNaylor, E. (Ernest), 1931-Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Laboratory and field investigations in marine lifeSumich, James L.Sudnury, MA : Jones and Bartlett, c2009.

Marine science : an illustrated guide to scienceDiagram Group.New York : Chelsea House Publishers, 2006.

The SeaAlderton, David.United Kingdom : Ladybird discovery, 1995.

BACKGROUND OF PROF. CRISENCIO M. PANER
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Ph.D. in Biological Science (Candidate), UST

M.S. in Microbiology, UST

B.S. Biochemistry, UST

Italian Government ScholarCollege Scholar

Certificate in Education

10th Placer Licensure Exams for Teachers (1998)

20 years of experience as a teacher (College, High School, Elementary)

Expert in Internet, Computer (Software, Hardware, and Repair)

Researcher and BloggerArt Restorer/Conservator

Publication:Prime Journal of Microbiology Researchhttp://primejournal.org/PJMR/abstract/2012/may/Paner.htm

http://primejournal.org/PJMR/cont/2012/may.htm

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vertical structure in coastal waters-fresh water run-off and tidal mixing

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