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Vampire

The Vampire, by Phili p Burne-Jones, 1897

Grouping Legendar y creature

Sub grouping Undead

Similar

creatures

Revenant, werewolf

Country Transylvania, England

Region The Americas, Europe, Asia,Africa

VampireFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A vampire is a being from folklore who subsists byfeeding on the life essence (generally in the form of blood) of living creatures. Undead beings, vampires oftenvisited loved ones and caused mischief or deaths in theneighbourhoods they inhabited when they were alive.They wore shrouds and were often described as bloatedand of ruddyor dark countenance, markedly differentfrom today's gaunt, pale vampire which dates from theearly 19th century.

Although vampiric entities have been recorded in mostcultures, the termvampire was not popularized in thewest until the early 18th century, after an influx of vampire superstition intoWestern Europe from areaswhere vampire legends were frequent, such as theBalkans and Eastern Europe,[1] although localvariantswere also k nown by different names, such as shtriga inAlbania,vrykolakas in Greece and strigoi in Romania.This increased level of vampire superstition in Europe ledto what can only be called mass hysteria and in somecases resulted in corpses actually being staked and people being accused of vampirism.

In modern times, however, the vampire is generally heldto be a fictitious entity, although belief in similar vampiric creatures such as thechupacabra still persists insome cultures. Early folk belief in vampires hassometimes been ascribed to the ignorance of the body's process of decompositionafter death and how people in pre-industrial societies tried to rationalise this, creatingthe figure of the vampire to explain the mysteries of death. Porphyria was also linked with legendvampirism in 1985 and received much media exposure, but has since been largely discredited.

Thecharismatic and sophisticated vampire of modern fiction was born in 1819 with the publicatioTheVampyre by John Polidori; the story was highly successful and arguably the most influential vampof the early 19th century.[2] However, it is Bram Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula which is remembered as thquintessential vampire novel and provided the basis of the modern vampire legend. The success ospawned a distinctive vampire genre, still popular in the 21st century, with books, films, and televshows. The vampire has since become a dominant figure in the horror genre.

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Contents

1 Etymology2 Folk beliefs

2.1 Description and common attributes2.1.1 Creating vampires2.1.2 Identifying vampires2.1.3 Protection

2.1.3.1 Apotropaics2.1.3.2 Methods of destruction

2.2 Ancient beliefs2.3 Medieval and later European folklore2.4 Non-European beliefs

2.4.1 Africa2.4.2 The Americas2.4.3 Asia

2.5 Modern beliefs2.5.1 Collective noun

3 Origins of vampire beliefs3.1 Pathology

3.1.1 Decomposition3.1.2 Premature burial3.1.3 Contagion3.1.4 Porphyria3.1.5 Rabies

3.2 Psychodynamic theories3.3 Political interpretations3.4 Psychopathology3.5 Modern vampire subcultures

3.6 Vampire bats4 In modern fiction4.1 Literature4.2 Film and television4.3 Games

5 Notes6 References7 External links

EtymologyTheOxford English Dictionary dates the first appearance of the English wordvampire (asvampyre) inEnglish from 1734, in a travelogue titledTravels of Three English Gentlemen published inThe Harleian

iscellany in 1745.[3] Vampires had already been discussed in French[4] and German literature.[5] After Austria gained control of northern Serbia and Oltenia with the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, offithe local practice of exhuming bodies and "killing vampires".[5] These reports, prepared between 1725 1732, received widespread publicity.[5] The English term was derived (possibly via Frenchvampyre) from

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,вампир),[6][7][8][9][10][11] when Arnold Paole, a purported vampire in Serbia was described during thwhen Northern Serbia was part of the Austrian Empire.

The Serbian form has parallels in virtually all Slavic languages: Bulgarian and Macedonian вамп(vampir ), Bosnian:lampir , Croatianvampir , Czech and Slovakupír , Polishwąpierz, and (perhaps EastSlavic-influenced)upiór , Ukrainian упир (upyr ), Russian упырь (upyr' ), Belarusian упыр (upyr ), from OEast Slavic упирь (upir' ) (note that many of these languages have also borrowed forms such as

"vampir/wampir" subsequently from the West; these are distinct from the original local words forcreature). The exact etymology is unclear.[12] Among the proposed proto-Slavic forms are *ǫpyrь and*ǫpirь.[13]

Another, less widespread theory, is that the Slavic languages have borrowed the word from a Turk"witch" (e.g., Tatarubyr ).[13][14] Czech linguist Václav Machek proposes Slovak verb "vrepiť sa" (stthrust into), or its hypothetical anagram "vperiť sa" (in Czech, archaic verb "vpeřit" means "to thrviolently") as an etymological background, and thus translates "upír" as "someone who thrusts, bi[15]

An early use of the Old Russian word is in the anti-pagan treatise "Word of Saint Grigoriy" (RussСлов

святого Григория), dated variously to the 11th–13th centuries, where pagan worship ofupyri is reported.[1

[17]

Folk beliefs

The notion of vampirism has existed for millennia. Cultures such as the Mesopotamians, HebrewsGreeks, and Romans had tales of demons and spirits which are considered precursors to modern vHowever, despite the occurrence of vampire-like creatures in these ancient civilizations, the folkloentity we know today as the vampire originates almost exclusively from early-18th-century southEurope,[1] when verbal traditions of many ethnic groups of the region were recorded and publishedcases, vampires are revenants of evil beings, suicide victims, or witches, but they can also be creamalevolent spirit possessing a corpse or by being bitten by a vampire. Belief in such legends beca pervasive that in some areas it caused mass hysteria and even public executions of people believevampires.[18]

Description and common attributes

It is difficult to make a single, definitive description of the folkloric vampire, though there are sevelements common to many European legends. Vampires were usually reported as bloated in appea

ruddy, purplish, or dark in colour; these characteristics were often attributed to the recent drinkingIndeed, blood was often seen seeping from the mouth and nose when one was seen in its shroud oand its left eye was often open.[19] It would be clad in the linen shroud it was buried in, and its teeth,and nails may have grown somewhat, though in general fangs were not a feature.[20]

Creating vampires

The causes of vam iric eneration were man and varied in ori inal

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Vampyren, "The Vampire", by EdvaMunch.

folklore. In Slavic and Chinese traditions, any corpse that wasumped over by an animal, particularly a dog or a cat, was feared to

become one of the undead.[21] A body with a wound that had not been treated with boiling water was also at risk. In Russian folklore,vampires were said to have once been witches or people who hadrebelled against the Russian Orthodox Church while they werealive.[22]

Cultural practices often arose that were intended to prevent arecently deceased loved one from turning into an undead revenant.Burying a corpse upside-down was widespread, as was placingearthly objects, such as scythes or sickles,[23] near the grave tosatisfy any demons entering the body or to appease the dead so that it would not wish to arise frocoffin. This method resembles the Ancient Greek practice of placing an obolus in the corpse's mothe toll to cross the River Styx in the underworld. It has been argued that instead, the coin was intward off any evil spirits from entering the body, and this may have influenced later vampire folkltradition persisted in modern Greek folklore about thevrykolakas, in which a wax cross and piece of po

with the inscription "Jesus Christ conquers" were placed on the corpse to prevent the body from bvampire.[24]

Other methods commonly practised in Europe included severing the tendons at the knees or placiseeds, millet, or sand on the ground at the grave site of a presumed vampire; this was intended to vampire occupied all night by counting the fallen grains,[25] indicating an association of vampires witharithmomania. Similar Chinese narratives state that if a vampire-like being came across a sack ofwould have to count every grain; this is a theme encountered in myths from the Indian subcontineas in South American tales of witches and other sorts of evil or mischievous spirits or beings.[26]

In Albanian folklore, the dhampir is the hybrid child of thekarkanxholl (a werewolf-like creature with airon mail shirt) or thelugat (a water-dwelling ghost or monster). The dhampir sprung of a karkanxhthe unique ability to discern the karkanxholl; from this derives the expressionthe dhampir knows the lug.Thelugat cannot be seen, he can only be killed by the dhampir, who himself is usually the son of different regions, animals can be revenants as lugats; also, living people during their sleep. Dhampiraj isalso an Albanian surname.[27]

Identifying vampires

Many elaborate rituals were used to identify a vampire. One method of finding a vampire's graveleading a virgin boy through a graveyard or church grounds on a virgin stallion—the horse wouldsupposedly balk at the grave in question.[22] Generally a black horse was required, though in Albania should be white.[28] Holes appearing in the earth over a grave were taken as a sign of vampirism.[29]

Corpses thought to be vampires were generally described as having a healthier appearance than ex plump and showing little or no signs of decomposition.[30] In some cases, when suspected graves wereopened, villagers even described the corpse as having fresh blood from a victim all over its face.[31]

Evidence that a vampire was active in a given locality included death of cattle, sheep, relatives or

neighbours. Folkloric vampires could also make their presence felt by engaging in minor polterge

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An image from Max Ernst'sUneSemaine de Bonté.

activity, such as hurling stones on roofs or moving household objects,[32] and pressing on people in theirsleep.[33]

Protection

Apotropaics

Apotropaics, items able to ward off revenants, are common invampire folklore. Garlic is a common example,[34] a branch of wildrose and hawthorn plant are said to harm vampires, and in Europe,sprinkling mustard seeds on the roof of a house was said to keepthem away.[35] Other apotropaics include sacred items, for example acrucifix, rosary, or holy water. Vampires are said to be unable towalk on consecrated ground, such as that of churches or temples, or cross running water.[36]

Although not traditionally regarded as an apotropaic, mirrors have been used to ward off vampires when placed, facing outwards, on adoor (in some cultures, vampires do not have a reflection andsometimes do not cast a shadow, perhaps as a manifestation of thevampire's lack of a soul).[37] This attribute, although not universal(the Greekvrykolakas/tympanios was capable of both reflection andshadow), was used by Bram Stoker in Dracula and has remained popular with subsequent authors and filmmakers.[38]

Some traditions also hold that a vampire cannot enter a house unless invited by the owner, althou

first invitation they can come and go as they please.[37]

Though folkloric vampires were believed to beactive at night, they were not generally considered vulnerable to sunlight.[38]

Methods of destruction

Methods of destroying suspected vampires varied, with staking the most commonly cited method particularly in southern Slavic cultures.[39] Ash was the preferred wood in Russia and the Baltic states[40] ohawthorn in Serbia,[41] with a record of oak in Silesia.[42] Potential vampires were most often staked ththe heart, though the mouth was targeted in Russia and northern Germany[43][44] and the stomach in north

eastern Serbia.[45]

Piercing the skin of the chest was a way of "deflating" the bloated vampire. This is similar to the burying sharp objects, such as sickles, in with the corpse, so that they may penetrate the skin if th bloats sufficiently while transforming into a revenant.[46] In one striking example of the latter, the corpfive people in graveyard near Polish village of Dravsko dating from the 17th and 18th centuries wwith sickles placed around their necks or across their abdomens.[47]

Decapitation was the preferred method in German and western

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“The Vampire”, lithograph by R. dMoraine (1864).

av c areas, w e ea ur e e ween e ee , e n e buttocks or away from the body.[39] This act was seen as a way of hastening the departure of the soul, which in some cultures, was saidto linger in the corpse. The vampire's head, body, or clothes couldalso be spiked and pinned to the earth to prevent rising.[48]

Romani people drove steel or iron needles into a corpse's heart and placed bits of steel in the mouth, over the eyes, ears and between thefingers at the time of burial. They also placed hawthorn in thecorpse's sock or drove a hawthorn stake through the legs. In a 16th-century burial near Venice, a brick forced into the mouth of a femalecorpse has been interpreted as a vampire-slaying ritual by thearchaeologists who discovered it in 2006.[49]

Further measures included pouring boiling water over the grave or complete incineration of the body. In the Balkans, a vampire couldalso be killed by being shot or drowned, by repeating the funeralservice, by sprinkling holy water on the body, or by exorcism. InRomania, garlic could be placed in the mouth, and as recently as the19th century, the precaution of shooting a bullet through the coffinwas taken. For resistant cases, the body was dismembered and the pieces burned, mixed with water, and administered to family members as a cure. In Saxon regionGermany, a lemon was placed in the mouth of suspected vampires.[50]

In Bulgaria, over 100 skeletons with metal objects, such as plough bits, embedded in the torso hadiscovered.[51][52]

Ancient beliefs

Tales of supernatural beings consuming the blood or flesh of the living have been found in nearlyculture around the world for many centuries.[53] The termvampire did not exist in ancient times. Blooddrinking and similar activities were attributed to demons or spirits who would eat flesh and drinkeven the Devil was considered synonymous with the vampire.[54]

Almost every nation has associated blood drinking with some kind of revenant or demon, or in sodeity. In India, for example, tales of vetālas, ghoul-like beings that inhabit corpses, have been comthe Baitāl Pacīsī ; a prominent story in the Kathāsaritsāgara tells of King Vikramāditya and his nightly

quests to capture an elusive one.[55]

Piśāca, the returned spirits of evil-doers or those who died insane bear vampiric attributes.[56]

The Persians were one of the first civilizations to have tales of blood-drinking demons: creatures to drink blood from men were depicted on excavated pottery shards.[57] Ancient Babylonia and Assyria tales of the mythical Lilitu,[58] synonymous with and giving rise to Lilith (Hebrewת ) and her daughterthe Lilu from Hebrew demonology. Lilitu was considered a demon and was often depicted as subthe blood of babies.[58] And Estries, female shape changing, blood drinking demons, were said to ro

night among the population, seeking victims. According to Sefer Hasidim,

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Lilith (1892), by JohnCollier.

The 800-year-old skeleton found inBulgaria stabbed through the chestwith iron rod.[64]

s r es were crea ures crea e n e w g ours e ore o res e . ninjured Estrie could be healed by eating bread and salt given her by her attacker.

Ancient Greek and Roman mythology described the Empusae,[60] theLamia,[61] and the striges. Over time the first two terms became generalwords to describe witches and demons respectively. Empusa was thedaughter of the goddess Hecate and was described as a demonic, bronze-footed creature. She feasted on blood by transforming into a young womanand seduced men as they slept before drinking their blood.[60] The Lamia preyed on young children in their beds at night, sucking their blood, as didthe gelloudes or Gello.[61] Like the Lamia, the striges feasted on children, but also preyed on young men. They were described as having the bodies of crows or birds in general, and were later incorporated into Romanmythology as strix, a kind of nocturnal bird that fed on human flesh and blood.[62]

In Azerbaijanese mythology Xortdan is the troubled soul of the dead risingfrom the grave.[63] Some Hortdan can be living people with certain magical properties. Some of the properties of the Hortdan include: the ability to transform into an animal,invisibility, and the propensity to drain the vitality of victims via blood loss.

Medieval and later European folklore

Many myths surrounding vampires originated during the medieval period. The 12th-century English historians and chroniclers Walter Map and William of Newburgh recorded accounts of

revenants,[18][65] though records in English legends of vampiric beings after this date are scant.[66] The Old Norsedraugr is another medieval example of an undead creature with similarities tovampires.[67]

Vampires proper originate in folklore widely reported from EasternEurope in the late 17th and 18th centuries. These tales formed the basis of the vampire legend that later entered Germany and England,where they were subsequently embellished and popularized. One of the earliest recordings of vampire activity came from the region of Istria in modern Croatia, in 16[68]

Local reports cited the local vampire Jure Grando of the village Khring near Tinjan as the cause oamong the villagers.[69]

A former peasant, Jure died in 1656. However, local villagers claimed he returned from the dead drinking blood from the people and sexually harassing his widow. The village leader ordered a stdriven through his heart, but when the method failed to kill him, he was subsequently beheaded wresults.[70] That was the first case in history that a real person had been described as a vampire.

During the 18th century, there was a frenzy of vampire sightings in Eastern Europe, with frequen

and rave di in s to identif and kill the otential revenants. Even overnment officials en a ed

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hunting and staking of vampires.[71] Despite being called the Age of Enlightenment, during which mfolkloric legends were quelled, the belief in vampires increased dramatically, resulting in a mass hthroughout most of Europe.[18]

The panic began with an outbreak of alleged vampire attacks in East Prussia in 1721 and in the HMonarchy from 1725 to 1734, which spread to other localities. Two famous vampire cases, the firofficially recorded, involved the corpses of Petar Blagojevich and Arnold Paole from Serbia. Blag

was reported to have died at the age of 62, but allegedly returned after his death asking his son foWhen the son refused, he was found dead the following day. Blagojevich supposedly returned andsome neighbours who died from loss of blood.[71]

In the second case, Paole, an ex-soldier turned farmer who allegedly was attacked by a vampire y before, died while haying. After his death, people began to die in the surrounding area and it was believed that Paole had returned to prey on the neighbours.[72][73] Another famous Serbian legend involvampires concentrates around a certain Sava Savanović living in a watermill and killing and drinkfrom millers. The character was later used in a story written by Serbian writer Milovan Glišić andYugoslav 1973 horror film Leptirica inspired by the story.

The two incidents were well-documented. Government officials examined the bodies, wrote case and published books throughout Europe.[73] The hysteria, commonly referred to as the "18th-CenturyVampire Controversy", raged for a generation. The problem was exacerbated by rural epidemics oclaimed vampire attacks, undoubtedly caused by the higher amount of superstition that was presevillage communities, with locals digging up bodies and in some cases, staking them.[74]

Although many scholars reported during this period that vampires did not exist, and attributed rep premature burial or rabies, superstitious belief increased. Dom Augustine Calmet, a well-respectetheologian and scholar, put together a comprehensive treatise in 1746, which was ambiguous conc

existence of vampires. Calmet amassed reports of vampire incidents - numerous readers, includincritical Voltaire and supportive demonologists, interpreted the treatise as claiming that vampires e[74

In his Philosophical Dictionary, Voltaire wrote:[75]

These vampires were corpses, who went out of their graves at night to suck the blood of theliving, either at their throats or stomachs, after which they returned to their cemeteries. The persons so sucked waned, grew pale, and fell into consumption; while the sucking corpses gfat, got rosy, and enjoyed an excellent appetite. It was in Poland, Hungary, Silesia, Moravia,Austria, and Lorraine, that the dead made this good cheer.

Some theological disputes arose. The non-decay of vampires' bodies could recall the incorruption bodies of the saints of the Catholic Church. A paragraph on vampires was included in the second(1749) of De servorum Dei beatificatione et sanctorum canonizatione, On the beatification of the servanof God and on canonization of the blessed, written by Prospero Lambertini (Pope Benedict XIV).[76] In his

opinion, while the incorruption of the bodies of saints was the effect of a divine intervention, all t phenomena attributed to vampires were purely natural or the fruit of “imagination, terror and fear

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words, vampires did not exist[77]

The controversy only ceased when Empress Maria Theresa of Austria sent her personal physicianvan Swieten, to investigate the claims of vampiric entities. He concluded that vampires did not exEmpress passed laws prohibiting the opening of graves and desecration of bodies, sounding the evampire epidemics. Despite this condemnation, the vampire lived on in artistic works and in locasuperstition.[74]

Non-European beliefs

Africa

Various regions of Africa have folktales featuring beings with vampiric abilities: in West Africa th people tell of the iron-toothed and tree-dwellingasanbosam,[78] and the Ewe people of theadze, which cantake the form of a firefly and hunts children.[79] The eastern Cape region has theimpundulu, which can takthe form of a large taloned bird and can summon thunder and lightning, and the Betsileo people oMadagascar tell of theramanga, an outlaw or living vampire who drinks the blood and eats the nailclippings of nobles.[80]

The Americas

The Loogaroo is an example of how a vampire belief can result from a combination of beliefs, hermixture of French and African Vodu or voodoo. The term Loogaroo possibly comes from the Frenchloup-arou (meaning "werewolf") and is common in the culture of Mauritius. However, the stories of t

Loogaroo are widespread through the Caribbean Islands and Louisiana in the United States.[81] Similar female monsters are theSoucouyant of Trinidad, and theTunda and Patasola of Colombian folklore, wh

the Mapuche of southern Chile have the bloodsucking snake known as the Peuchen.[82]

Aloe vera hung backwards behind or near a door was thought to ward off vampiric beings in South Americansuperstition.[26] Aztec mythology described tales of the Cihuateteo, skeletal-faced spirits of those win childbirth who stole children and entered into sexual liaisons with the living, driving them mad[22]

During the late 18th and 19th centuries the belief in vampires was widespread in parts of New En particularly in Rhode Island and Eastern Connecticut. There are many documented cases of famildisinterring loved ones and removing their hearts in the belief that the deceased was a vampire wresponsible for sickness and death in the family, although the term "vampire" was never actually udescribe the deceased. The deadly disease tuberculosis, or "consumption" as it was known at the

believed to be caused by nightly visitations on the part of a dead family member who had died ofconsumption themselves.[83] The most famous, and most recently recorded, case of suspected vampithat of nineteen-year-old Mercy Brown, who died in Exeter, Rhode Island in 1892. Her father, assthe family physician, removed her from her tomb two months after her death, cut out her heart anto ashes.[84]

Asia

Rooted in older folklore, the modern belief in vampires spread throughout Asia with tales of ghouentities from the mainland, to vampiric beings from the islands of Southeast Asia.

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Themanananggal of Philippine

mythology.

South Asia also developed other vampiric legends. The Bhūta or Prét is the soul of a man who died anuntimely death. It wanders around animating dead bodies at night, attacking the living much like [8

In northern India, there is the BrahmarākŞhasa, a vampire-like creature with a head encircled by intesand a skull from which it drank blood. The figure of the Vetala who appears in South Asian legenmay sometimes be rendered as "Vampire" (see the section on "Ancient Beliefs" above).

Although vampires have appeared in Japanese cinema since the late 1950s, the folklore behind it

in origin.[86] However, the Nukekubi is a being whose head and neck detach from its body to fly abseeking human prey at night.[87]

Legends of female vampire-like beings who can detach parts of their upper body also occur in the Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia.There are two main vampire-like creatures in the Philippines: theTagalog Mandurugo ("blood-sucker") and the Visayan Manananggal ("self-segmenter"). The mandurugo is a variety of the aswang thattakes the form of an attractive girl by day, and develops wings and along, hollow, thread-like tongue by night. The tongue is used to suck

up blood from a sleeping victim.[88]

Themanananggal is described as being an older, beautiful womancapable of severing its upper torso in order to fly into the night withhuge bat-like wings and prey on unsuspecting, sleeping pregnantwomen in their homes. They use an elongated proboscis-like tongueto suck fetuses from these pregnant women. They also prefer to eatentrails (specifically the heart and the liver) and the phlegm of sick people.[88]

The Malaysian Penanggalan may be either a beautiful old or youngwoman who obtained her beauty through the active use of black magic or other unnatural means, and is most commonly described in local folklore to be dark or dnature. She is able to detach her fanged head which flies around in the night looking for blood, tyfrom pregnant women.[89] Malaysians would hang jeruju (thistles) around the doors and windows of hhoping the Penanggalan would not enter for fear of catching its intestines on the thorns.[90]

The Leyak is a similar being from Balinese folklore of Indonesia.[91] A Kuntilanak or Matianak inIndonesia,[92] or Pontianak or Langsuir in Malaysia,[93] is a woman who died during childbirth and beundead, seeking revenge and terrorizing villages. She appeared as an attractive woman with long that covered a hole in the back of her neck, with which she sucked the blood of children. Filling twith her hair would drive her off. Corpses had their mouths filled with glass beads, eggs under eaand needles in their palms to prevent them from becominglangsuir. This description would also fit theSundel Bolongs.[94]

Jiangshi, sometimes called "Chinese vampires" by Westerners, are reanimated corpses that hop arkilling living creatures to absorb life essence (qì) from their victims. They are said to be created w

' ' 95

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A female vampire costume

person s sou p a s o eave e ecease s o y. owever, some ave spu e e compariang shi with vampires, as jiang shi are usually represented as mindless creatures with no independe

thought.[96] One unusual feature of this monster is its greenish-white furry skin, perhaps derived frfungus or mould growing on corpses.[97] Jiangshi legends have inspired a genre of jiangshi films andliterature in Hong Kong and East Asia. Films like Encounters of the Spooky Kind and Mr. Vampire werereleased during the jiangshi cinematic boom of the 1980s and 1990s.[98][99]

Modern beliefsIn modern fiction, the vampire tends to be depicted as a suave, charismatic villain.[20] Despite the generaldisbelief in vampiric entities, occasional sightings of vampires are reported. Indeed, vampire huntsocieties still exist, although they are largely formed for social reasons.[18] Allegations of vampire attackswept through the African country of Malawi during late 2002 and early 2003, with mobs stoningindividual to death and attacking at least four others, including Governor Eric Chiwaya, based onthat the government was colluding with vampires.[100]

In early 1970 local press spread rumours that a vampire haunted Highgate Cemetery in London. A

vampire hunters flocked in large numbers to the cemetery. Several books have been written aboutnotably by Sean Manchester, a local man who was among the first to suggest the existence of theVampire" and who later claimed to have exorcised and destroyed a whole nest of vampires in the [101]

In January 2005, rumours circulated that an attacker had bitten a number of people in BirminghamEngland, fuelling concerns about a vampire roaming the streets. However, local police stated that crime had been reported and that the case appears to be an urban legend.[102]

In 2006, a physics professor at the University of Central Florida wrote a paper arguing that it is mathematically impossible for vampires to exist, based on geometric progression. According to the paper, if the first vampirehad appeared on 1 January 1600, and it fed once a month (which is lessoften than what is depicted in films and folklore), and every victim turnedinto a vampire, then within two and a half years the entire human populationof the time would have become vampires.[103] The paper made no attempt toaddress the credibility of the assumption that every vampire victim wouldturn into a vampire.

In one of the more notable cases of vampiric entities in the modern age, thechupacabra ("goat-sucker") of Puerto Rico and Mexico is said to be acreature that feeds upon the flesh or drinks the blood of domesticatedanimals, leading some to consider it a kind of vampire. The "chupacabrahysteria" was frequently associated with deep economic and political crises, particularly during the mid-1990s.[104]

In Europe, where much of the vampire folklore originates, the vampire is usually considered a fic being, although many communities may have embraced the revenant for economic purposes. In sespecially in small localities, vampire superstition is still rampant and sightings or claims of vamp

occur frequently. In Romania during February 2004, several relatives of Toma Petre feared that he become a vampire. They dug up his corpse, tore out his heart, burned it, and mixed the ashes with

[105]

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.

Vampirism and the Vampire lifestyle also represent a relevant part of modern day's occultist mov[10

The mythos of the vampire, his magickal qualities, allure, and predatory archetype express a stronsymbolism that can be used in ritual, energy work, and magick, and can even be adopted as a spirsystem.[107] The vampire has been part of the occult society in Europe for centuries and has spreadAmerican sub-culture as well for more than a decade, being strongly influenced by and mixed wigothic aesthetics.[108]

Collective noun

'Coven' has been used as a collective noun for vampires, possibly based on the Wiccan usage. An collective noun is a 'house' of vampires.[109] David Malki, author of Wondermark, suggests in Wonder No. 566 the use of the collective noun 'basement', as in "A basement of vampires."[110]

Origins of vampire beliefs

Commentators have offered many theories for the origins of vampire beliefs, trying to explain thesuperstition – and sometimes mass hysteria – caused by vampires. Everything ranging from prem burial to the early ignorance of the body's decomposition cycle after death has been cited as the cthe belief in vampires.

Pathology

Decomposition

Paul Barber in his bookVampires, Burial and Death has described that belief in vampires resulted from people of pre-industrial societies attempting to explain the natural, but to them inexplicable, procdeath and decomposition.[111]

People sometimes suspected vampirism when a cadaver did not look as they thought a normal cowhen disinterred. Rates of decomposition vary depending on temperature and soil composition, athe signs are little known. This has led vampire hunters to mistakenly conclude that a dead body hdecomposed at all, or, ironically, to interpret signs of decomposition as signs of continued life.[112]

Corpses swell as gases from decomposition accumulate in the torso and the increased pressure forto ooze from the nose and mouth. This causes the body to look "plump," "well-fed," and "ruddy"—that are all the more striking if the person was pale or thin in life. In the Arnold Paole case, an oldexhumed corpse was judged by her neighbours to look more plump and healthy than she had everlife.[113] The exuding blood gave the impression that the corpse had recently been engaging in vamactivity.[31]

Darkening of the skin is also caused by decomposition.[114] The staking of a swollen, decomposing bodcould cause the body to bleed and force the accumulated gases to escape the body. This could progroan-like sound when the gases moved past the vocal cords, or a sound reminiscent of flatulence

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passed through the anus. The official reporting on the Petar Blagojevich case speaks of "other wilwhich I pass by out of high respect".[115]

After death, the skin and gums lose fluids and contract, exposing the roots of the hair, nails, and tteeth that were concealed in the jaw. This can produce the illusion that the hair, nails, and teeth haAt a certain stage, the nails fall off and the skin peels away, as reported in the Blagojevich case—and nail beds emerging underneath were interpreted as "new skin" and "new nails".[115]

Premature burial

It has also been hypothesized that vampire legends were influenced by individuals being buried a because of shortcomings in the medical knowledge of the time. In some cases in which people resounds emanating from a specific coffin, it was later dug up and fingernail marks were discovereinside from the victim trying to escape. In other cases the person would hit their heads, noses or fwould appear that they had been "feeding."[116] A problem with this theory is the question of how peo presumably buried alive managed to stay alive for any extended period without food, water or frealternate explanation for noise is the bubbling of escaping gases from natural decomposition of b[117]

Another likely cause of disordered tombs is grave robbing.[118]

Contagion

Folkloric vampirism has been associated with clusters of deaths from unidentifiable or mysterioususually within the same family or the same small community.[83] The epidemic allusion is obvious in thclassical cases of Petar Blagojevich and Arnold Paole, and even more so in the case of Mercy Brothe vampire beliefs of New England generally, where a specific disease, tuberculosis, was associaoutbreaks of vampirism. As with the pneumonic form of bubonic plague, it was associated with b

of lung tissue which would cause blood to appear at the lips.[119]

Porphyria

In 1985 biochemist David Dolphin proposed a link between the rare blood disorder porphyria andfolklore. Noting that the condition is treated by intravenous haem, he suggested that the consumplarge amounts of blood may result in haem being transported somehow across the stomach wall a bloodstream. Thus vampires were merely sufferers of porphyria seeking to replace haem and allesymptoms.[120]

The theory has been rebuffed medically as suggestions that porphyria sufferers crave the haem in blood, or that the consumption of blood might ease the symptoms of porphyria, are based on amisunderstanding of the disease. Furthermore, Dolphin was noted to have confused fictional (bloovampires with those of folklore, many of whom were not noted to drink blood.[121] Similarly, a parallel is

made between sensitivity to sunlight by sufferers, yet this was associated with fictional and not fovampires. In any case, Dolphin did not go on to publish his work more widely.[122] Despite being dismiss by experts, the link gained media attention[123] and entered popular modern folklore.[124]

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Rabies

Rabies has been linked with vampire folklore. Dr Juan Gómez-Alonso, a neurologist at Xeral HoVigo, Spain, examined this possibility in a report in Neurology. The susceptibility to garlic and light co be due to hypersensitivity, which is a symptom of rabies. The disease can also affect portions of tthat could lead to disturbance of normal sleep patterns (thus becoming nocturnal) and hypersexuaLegend once said a man was not rabid if he could look at his own reflection (an allusion to the levampires have no reflection). Wolves and bats, which are often associated with vampires, can be crabies. The disease can also lead to a drive to bite others and to a bloody frothing at the mouth.[125][126]

Psychodynamic theories

In his 1931 treatiseOn the Nightmare, Welsh psychoanalyst Ernest Jones asserted that vampires aresymbolic of several unconscious drives and defence mechanisms. Emotions such as love, guilt, anthe idea of the return of the dead to the grave. Desiring a reunion with loved ones, mourners mayidea that the recently dead must in return yearn the same. From this arises the belief that folkloric

and revenants visit relatives, particularly their spouses, first.[127]

In cases where there was unconscious guilt associated with the relationship, however, the wish fomay be subverted by anxiety. This may lead to repression, which Sigmund Freud had linked withdevelopment of morbid dread.[128] Jones surmised in this case the original wish of a (sexual) reunion be drastically changed: desire is replaced by fear; love is replaced by sadism, and the object or loreplaced by an unknown entity. The sexual aspect may or may not be present.[129] Some modern critics h proposed a simpler theory: People identify with immortal vampires because, by so doing, they ovat least temporarily escape from, their fear of dying.[130]

The innate sexuality of bloodsucking can be seen in its intrinsic connection with cannibalism andone with incubus-like behaviour. Many legends report various beings draining other fluids from vunconscious association with semen being obvious. Finally Jones notes that when more normal assexuality are repressed, regressed forms may be expressed, in particular sadism; he felt that oral sintegral in vampiric behaviour.[131]

Political interpretations

The reinvention of the vampire myth in the modern era is not without political overtones.[132] Thearistocratic Count Dracula, alone in his castle apart from a few demented retainers, appearing onlto feed on his peasantry, is symbolic of the parasitic Ancien regime. In his entry for "Vampires" in theDictionnaire philosophique (1764), Voltaire notices how the end of the 18th century coincided widecline of the folkloric belief in the existence of vampires but that now "there were stock-jobbersand men of business, who sucked the blood of the people in broad daylight; but they were not deacorrupted. These true suckers lived not in cemeteries, but in very agreeable palaces".[133]

Marx defined capital as "dead labour which, vampire-like, lives only by sucking living labour, anmore, the more labour it sucks".[134] Werner Herzog, in his Nosferatu the Vampyre, gives this politicalinterpretation an extra ironic twist when protagonist Jonathon Harker, a middle-class solicitor, bec

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A vampire bat in Peru

next vamp re; n t s way t e cap ta st ourgeo s ecomes t e next paras t c c ass.

Psychopathology

A number of murderers have performed seemingly vampiric rituals upon their victims. Serial killKürten and Richard Trenton Chase were both called "vampires" in the tabloids after they were didrinking the blood of the people they murdered. Similarly, in 1932, an unsolved murder case in SSweden was nicknamed the "Vampire murder", because of the circumstances of the victim's death[136] Thelate-16th-century Hungarian countess and mass murderer Elizabeth Báthory became particularly iin later centuries' works, which depicted her bathing in her victims' blood in order to retain beautyouth.[137]

Modern vampire subcultures

Vampire lifestyle is a term for a contemporary subculture of people, largely within the Goth subcuconsume the blood of others as a pastime; drawing from the rich recent history of popular culturecult symbolism, horror films, the fiction of Anne Rice, and the styles of Victorian England.[138] Active

vampirism within the vampire subculture includes both blood-related vampirism, commonly refeanguine vampirism, and psychic vampirism, or supposed feeding from pranic energy.[106][139]

Vampire bats

Although many cultures have stories about them, vampire bats haveonly recently become an integral part of the traditional vampire lore.Indeed, vampire bats were only integrated into vampire folklorewhen they were discovered on the South American mainland in the16th century.[140] Although there are no vampire bats in Europe, batsand owls have long been associated with the supernatural andomens, although mainly because of their nocturnal habits,[140][141]

and in modern English heraldic tradition, a bat means "Awareness of the powers of darkness and chaos".[142]

The three species of actual vampire bats are all endemic to LatinAmerica, and there is no evidence to suggest that they had any OldWorld relatives within human memory. It is therefore impossible thatthe folkloric vampire represents a distorted presentation or memoryof the vampire bat. The bats were named after the folkloric vampire rather than vice versa; theOxford English Dictionary records their folkloric use in English from 1734 and the zoological not until 17Although the vampire bat's bite is usually not harmful to a person, the bat has been known to action humans and large prey such as cattle and often leave the trademark, two-prong bite mark on itskin.[140]

The literary Dracula transforms into a bat several times in the novel, and vampire bats themselvesmentioned twice in it. The 1927 stage production of Dracula followed the novel in having Dracula turna bat, as did the film, where Béla Lugosi would transform into a bat.[140] The bat transformation scene

' 143

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Count Dracula as portrayed by Béla Lugosi in

1931's Dracula.

"Carmilla" by D. H. Friston, 1872.

. .

In modern fiction

The vampire is now a fixture in popular fiction. Suchfiction began with 18th-century poetry and continuedwith 19th-century short stories, the first and mostinfluential of which was John Polidori'sThe Vampyre(1819), featuring the vampire Lord Ruthven.[144] LordRuthven's exploits were further explored in a series of vampire plays in which he was the anti-hero. Thevampire theme continued in penny dreadful serial publications such asVarney the Vampire (1847) andculminated in the pre-eminent vampire novel of all time: Dracula by Bram Stoker, published in 1897.[145]

Over time, some attributes now regarded as integral became incorporated into the vampire's profile: fangsand vulnerability to sunlight appeared over the course of the 19th century, with Varney the Vampire and CountDracula both bearing protruding teeth,[146] and Murnau's Nosferatu (1922) fearing daylight.[147] The cloakappeared in stage productions of the 1920s, with a high collar introduced by playwright Hamiltonhelp Dracula 'vanish' on stage.[148] Lord Ruthven and Varney were able to be healed by moonlight, alno account of this is known in traditional folklore.[149] Implied though not often explicitly documentedfolklore, immortality is one attribute which features heavily in vampire film and literature. Much the price of eternal life, namely the incessant need for blood of former equals.[150]

Literature

The vampire or revenant first appeared in poems such asThe Vampire (1748) by Heinrich August Ossenfelder, Lenore (1773) by Gottfried August Bürger, Die Braut von Corinth (The Bride of Corinth) (1797) by JohannWolfgang von Goethe, Robert Southey'sThalaba the Destroyer (1801), John Stagg's "The Vampyre" (1810),Percy Bysshe Shelley's "The Spectral Horseman" (1810)("Nor a yelling vampire reeking with gore") and"Ballad" inSt. Irvyne (1811) about a reanimated corpse,Sister Rosa, Samuel Taylor Coleridge's unfinishedChristabel and Lord Byron'sThe Giaour .[151]

Byron was also credited with the first prose fiction piece concerned with vampires:The Vampyre (1819).This was in reality authored by Byron's personal physician, John Polidori, who adapted an enigmfragmentary tale of his illustrious patient, "Fragment of a Novel" (1819), also known as "The BurFragment".[18][145] Byron's own dominating personality, mediated by his lover Lady Caroline Lamb

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unflatteringroman-a-clef , Glenarvon (a Gothic fantasia based on Byron's wild life), was used as a mPolidori's undead protagonist Lord Ruthven.The Vampyre was highly successful and the most influentivampire work of the early 19th century.[152]

Varney the Vampire was a landmark popular mid-Victorian era gothic horror story by James Malcoland Thomas Peckett Prest, which first appeared from 1845 to 1847 in a series of pamphlets generreferred to as penny dreadfuls because of their inexpensive price and typically gruesome contents.[144] The

story was published in book form in 1847 and runs to 868 double-columned pages. It has a distinsuspenseful style, using vivid imagery to describe the horrifying exploits of Varney.[149] Another importanaddition to the genre was Sheridan Le Fanu's lesbian vampire storyCarmilla (1871). Like Varney beforeher, the vampire Carmilla is portrayed in a somewhat sympathetic light as the compulsion of her is highlighted.[153]

No effort to depict vampires in popular fiction was as influential or as definitive as Bram Stoker's Dracula(1897).[154] Its portrayal of vampirism as a disease of contagious demonic possession, with its undsex, blood and death, struck a chord in Victorian Europe where tuberculosis and syphilis were comvampiric traits described in Stoker's work merged with and dominated folkloric tradition, eventua

evolving into the modern fictional vampire.[144]

Drawing on past works such asThe Vampyre and "Carmilla", Stoker began to research his new book ilate 19th century, reading works such asThe Land Beyond the Forest (1888) by Emily Gerard and other books about Transylvania and vampires. In London, a colleague mentioned to him the story of Vlthe "real-life Dracula," and Stoker immediately incorporated this story into his book. The first ch book was omitted when it was published in 1897, but it was released in 1914 as Dracula's Guest.[155]

The latter part of the 20th century saw the rise of multi-volume vampire epics. The first of these wromance writer Marilyn Ross' Barnabas Collins series (1966–71), loosely based on the contemporary

American TV series Dark Shadows. It also set the trend for seeing vampires as poetic tragic heroes rthan as the more traditional embodiment of evil. This formula was followed in novelist Anne Ric popular and influentialVampire Chronicles (1976–2003).[156]

The 21st century brought more examples of vampire fiction, such as J.R. Ward's Black Dagger Brseries, and other highly popular vampire books which appeal to teenagers and young adults. Such paranormal romance novels and allied vampiric chick-lit and vampiric occult detective stories areremarkably popular and ever-expanding contemporary publishing phenomenon.[157] L.A. Banks' TheVampire Huntress Legend Series, Laurell K. Hamilton's erotic Anita Blake: Vampire Hunter serieHarrison's The Hollows series, portray the vampire in a variety of new perspectives, some of themto the original legends. Vampires in theTwilight series (2005–2008) by Stephenie Meyer ignore the efof garlic and crosses, and are not harmed by sunlight (although it does reveal their supernatural n[158

Richelle Mead further deviates from traditional vampires in herVampire Academy series (2007–present), basing the novels on Romanian lore with two races of vampires, one good and one evil, as well avampires.[159]

Film and television

Considered one of the preeminent figures of the classichorror film, the vampire has proven to be a rich subject

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An iconic scene from F. W. Murnau's Nosferatu,1922.

or e m an gam ng n us r es. racu a s a ma or character in more films than any other but Sherlock Holmes, and many early films were either based on thenovel of Dracula or closely derived from it. Theseincluded the landmark 1922 German silent film Nosferatu, directed by F. W. Murnau and featuring thefirst film portrayal of Dracula—although names andcharacters were intended to mimic Dracula' s, Murnaucould not obtain permission to do so from Stoker'swidow, and had to alter many aspects of the film. Inaddition to this film was Universal's Dracula (1931),starring Béla Lugosi as the Count in what was the firsttalking film to portray Dracula. The decade saw severalmore vampire films, most notably Dracula's Daughter in 1936.[160]

The legend of the vampire was cemented in the film industry when Dracula was reincarnated for generation with the celebrated Hammer Horror series of films, starring Christopher Lee as the Co

successful 1958 Dracula starring Lee was followed by seven sequels. Lee returned as Dracula in allof these and became well known in the role.[161] By the 1970s, vampires in films had diversified with such asCount Yorga, Vampire (1970), an African Count in 1972's Blacula, the BBC'sCount Draculafeaturing French actor Louis Jourdan as Dracula and Frank Finlay as Abraham Van Helsing, and a Nosferatu-like vampire in 1979'sSalem's Lot , and a remake of Nosferatu itself, titled Nosferatu theVampyre with Klaus Kinski the same year. Several films featured female, often lesbian, vampire such as Hammer Horror'sThe Vampire Lovers (1970) based on Carmilla, though the plotlines still revaround a central evil vampire character.[161]

The pilot for the Dan Curtis 1972 television series Kolchak: The Night Stalker revolved around reporter Kolchak hunting a vampire on the Las Vegas strip. Later films showed more diversity in plotline, focusing on the vampire-hunter, such as Blade in the Marvel Comics' Blade films and the film Buffy theVampire Slayer .[144] Buffy, released in 1992, foreshadowed a vampiric presence on television, withadaptation to a long-running hit TV series of the same name and its spin-off Angel . Still others showed thvampire as protagonist, such as 1983'sThe Hunger , 1994's Interview with the Vampire: The VampireChronicles and its indirect sequel of sortsQueen of the Damned , and the 2007 series Moonlight . BramStoker's Dracula was a noteworthy 1992 film which became the then-highest grossing vampire filmever.[162]

This increase of interest in vampiric plotlines led to the vampire being depicted in films such asUnderworandVan Helsing , and the Russian Night Watch and a TV miniseries remake of'Salem's Lot , both from 200The series Blood Ties premiered on Lifetime Television in 2007, featuring a character portrayed as HFitzroy, illegitimate son of Henry VIII of England turned vampire, in modern-day Toronto, with aformer Toronto detective in the starring role. A 2008 series from HBO, entitledTrue Blood , gives aSouthern take to the vampire theme.[158]

In 2008 the BBC Three series Being Human became popular in Britain. It featured an unconventia vampire, a werewolf and a ghost who are sharing a flat in Bristol.[163][164] Another popular vampire-related show is CW'sThe Vampire Diaries. The continuing popularity of the vampire theme has beenascribed to a combination of two factors: the representation of sexuality and the perennial dread o

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mor a y. no er vamp r c ser es a as come ou e ween an s ew g aga, aseries of films based on the book series of the same name.

In quite another type of depiction, Count von Count, a harmless and friendly vampire parodying BLugosi's depictions, is a major character on the children's television seriesSesame Street. He teachescounting and simple arithmetic through his compulsion to count everything, a trait he shares withother vampires of folklore.

Games

The role-playing gameVampire: the Masquerade has been influential upon modern vampire fiction anelements of its terminology, such asembrace and sire, appear in contemporary fiction.[144] Popular videogames about vampires includeCastlevania, which is an extension of the original Bram Stoker Draculanovel, and Legacy of Kain.[166] Vampires are also sporadically portrayed in other games, includingThe Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, when a character can become afflicted with porphyric haemophilia.[167] Adifferent take on vampires is presented in Bethesda's other game Fallout 3 with "The Family". Membersthe Family are afflicted with a manic desire to consume human flesh, but restrict themselves to dr

blood to avoid becoming complete monsters.[168]

Notes

1. Silver & Ursini,The Vampire Film, pp. 22-23.2. Silver & Ursini,The Vampire Film, pp. 37-38.3. J. Simpson, E. Weiner (eds), ed. (1989). "Vampire".Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford: Clarendon

Press. ISBN 0-19-861186-2.4. Vermeir, K. (2012). Vampires as Creatures of the Imagination: Theories of Body, Soul, and Imaginatio

Modern Vampire Tracts (1659–1755). In Y. Haskell (Ed.), Diseases of the Imagination and Imaginary Dthe Early Modern Period. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers.

5. Barber, p. 5.6. "Deutsches Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm. 16 Bde. (in 32 Teilbänden). Leipzig:

1854–1960" (in German). Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. Retrieved 2006-06-13.7. "Vampire". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved 2006-06-13.8. "Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé" (in French). Retrieved 2006-06-13.9. Dauzat, Albert (1938). Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue française (in French). Paris: Librairie Larouss

OCLC 904687.10. Weibel, Peter. "Phantom Painting – Reading Reed: Painting between Autopsy and Autoscopy". David R

Vampire Study Center. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 2007-02-23.11. Dragana Jovanović (29 November 2012). "Vampire Threat Terrorizes Serbian Village". ABC News. Re

3 December 2012.

12. Tokarev, Sergei Aleksandrovich (1982). Mify Narodov Mira (in Russian). Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya: MoscOCLC 7576647. ("Myths of the Peoples of the World"). Upyr'13. "Russian Etymological Dictionary by Max Vasmer" (in Russian). Retrieved 2006-06-13.14. (Bulgarian) Mladenov, Stefan (1941). Etimologičeski i pravopisen rečnik na bǎlgarskiya knižoven ezik.15. MACHEK, V.: Etymologický slovník jazyka českého, 5th edition, NLN, Praha 2010

16. Рыбаков Б.А. Язычество древних славян / М.: Издательство 'Наука,' 1981 г. (in Russian). Retrieve2007-02-28.

17. Зубов, Н.И. (1998). Загадка Периодизации Славянского Язычества В Древнерусских Списках "СГригория ... О Том, Како Первое Погани Суще Языци, Кланялися Идолом...". Живая Старина (inRussian)1 (17): 6–10. Retrieved 2007-02-28.

–

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. , . .19. Barber, pp. 41–42.20. Barber, p. 2.21. Barber, p. 33.22. Reader's Digest Association (1988). "Vampires Galore!".The Reader's Digest Book of strange stories, ama

facts: stories that are bizarre, unusual, odd, astonishing, incredible ... but true. London: Reader's Digest. pp. 432–433. ISBN 0-949819-89-1.

23. Barber, pp. 50–51.24. Lawson, John Cuthbert (1910). Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press. pp. 405–06. ISBN 0-524-02024-8. OCLC 1465746.25. Barber, p. 49.26. Jaramillo Londoño, Agustín (1986) [1967].Testamento del paisa (in Spanish) (7th ed.). Medellín: Susaeta

Ediciones. ISBN 958-95125-0-X.27. Gjurmime albanologjike, Folklor dhe etnologji (https://books.google.com/books?

id=O5biAAAAMAAJ&q=dhampiri), Vol. 15, pp. 58–148.28. Barber, pp. 68–69.29. Barber, p. 125.30. Barber, p. 109.31. Barber, pp. 114–15.32. Barber, p. 96.33. Bunson,Vampire Encyclopedia, pp. 168–69.34. Barber, p. 63.35. Mappin, Jenni (2003). Didjaknow: Truly Amazing & Crazy Facts About... Everything . Australia: Pancake. p. 5

ISBN 0-330-40171-8.36. Burkhardt, "Vampirglaube und Vampirsage", p. 221.37. Spence, Lewis (1960). An Encyclopaedia of Occultism. New Hyde Parks: University Books. ISBN 0-486-42

0. OCLC 3417655.38. Silver & Ursini, p. 25.39. Barber, p. 73.40. Alseikaite-Gimbutiene, Marija (1946). Die Bestattung in Litauen in der vorgeschichtlichen Zeit (in German).

Tübingen. OCLC 1059867. (thesis).41. Vukanović, T.P. (1959). "The Vampire". Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society 38: 111–18.42. Klapper, Joseph (1909). "Die schlesischen Geschichten von den schädingenden Toten". Mitteilungen der

schlesischen Gesellschaft für Volkskunde (in German)11: 58–93.43. Löwenstimm, A. (1897). Aberglaube und Stafrecht (in German). Berlin. p. 99.44. Bachtold-Staubli, H. (1934–35). Handwörterbuch des deutschen Aberglaubens (in German). Berlin.45. Filipovic, Milenko (1962). "Die Leichenverbrennung bei den Südslaven".Wiener völkerkundliche Mitteilunge (i

German)10: 61–71.46. Barber, p. 158.47. Greenfieldboyce, Nell (November 27, 2014). "Scientists Analyze Skeletal Remains From Vampire Grav

NPR. Retrieved 8 March 2015.48. Barber, p. 157.49. Reported by Ariel David, "Italy dig unearths female 'vampire' in Venice," 13 March 2009, Associated P

Yahoo! News, archived (http://www.webcitation.org/5fFdDvCQQ); also by Reuters, published under the"Researchers find remains that support medieval 'vampire'" inThe Australian, 13 March 2009, archived(http://www.webcitation.org/5fFbiY3QS) with photo (scroll down).

50. Bunson, p. 154.51. 'Vampire' skeletons found in Bulgaria near Black Sea (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18334 BBC

6 June 201252. Skeletons treated for vampirism found in Bulgaria (http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2012/06/05/skelet

treated-for-vampirism-found-in-bulgaria/) Fox News, 5 June 2012.53. McNally, Raymond T.; Florescu, Radu. (1994). In Search of Dracula. Houghton Mifflin. p. 117. ISBN 0-395

65783-0.54. Marigny, pp. 24–25.

55. Burton, Sir Richard R. (1893) [1870].Vikram and The Vam ire:Classic Hindu Tales o Adventure, Ma ic

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