value of concurrent engineering

8/20/2019 Value of Concurrent Engineering

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P E E R R E V I E W E D P A P E R

VALU E OF CONCURR ENT ENG INEERING

FO R A E C IN D U S TR Y

B y J e s u s M . d e la G a r z a 1 A s s o c i a t e M e m b e r A S C E P r i m o A l c a n t a r a J r . 2

M u n i s h K a p o o r 3 a n d P . S . R a m e s h 4

ABSTRACT

Produ cing con structed facilities of the high est quality in a cost-effective envi-

ronm ent wil l benefi t not o nly owners and end users , bu t a lso a l l part ic ipants engaged in th e

conception, des ign, co ns truct ion, operat ion, maintenan ce, rehabi l i ta t ion, or d ecommiss ion

phase o f its life cycle. Cost-effective and top -qua lity facilities can be conceiv ed, desig ned ,

bui l t , and op erated i f these act ivi ties are not perform ed in a vacuum, but ra ther, p erform ed

in a l ife-cycle context . C oncurren t engineering is a phi losophy, which is conducive to t rue

life-cycle analysis. It brings togeth er, from pr oject incep tion, mu ltiple individuals to a ddress

al l angles of a project and enables the accumulat ion of knowledge and inform ation so as to

reduce downstream risks and ant ic ipate constructabi l i ty , operabi l i ty , and maintainabi l i ty

expectations. Aspects of concurrent engineering are a lrea dy pract iced in the archi tecture/

engineering-construct ion (A/E/C) industry in the form of Total Qu al i ty Man agem ent (TQ M),

constructabi l ity reviews, and p artnering. O ther aspects l ike mu lt i funct ional team form ation,

macrolevel reorganizat ion, and computer-based co operat ive and dis tr ibuted des ign s t i ll have

not been adopted. This paper sugges ts that the

A E C

industry should cont inue adopting

more facets of the concurrent engineering paradigm. Con current engineering can turn the

industry ' s high degree o f fragmentat ion and specia lizat ion into a s t rength, as opposed to a

curre nt debility.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

T h e a r c h i t e c t u r e - e n g i n e e r i n g - c o n s t r u c t i o n ( A / E / C )

i n d u s t r y i s o n e o f t h e l a r g e s t i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e U n i t e d

S t a te s a c c o u n t i n g f o r a s m u c h as 9 - 1 0 o f t h e g r o s s

n a t io n a l p r o d u c t ( G N P ) ( O g l e s b y 1 9 89 ; U . S . B u r e a u

1 9 9 1 ) . T h e A / E / C i s b r o a d l y d i v i d e d i n t o f i v e p r o j e c t -

t y p e c a t e g o r i e s : r e s i d e n t i a l , c o m m e r c i a l , i n d u s t r i a l ,

h i g h w a y a n d h e a v y , a n d m a r i n e . S t r u c t u r es t y p i c al l y

h a v e l if e s p a n s o f 2 5 y r o r m o r e . C o n c e p t i o n , d e s i g n ,

c o n s t ru c t i o n , o p e r a t i o n , m a i n t e n a n c e , r e h a b i l i ta t i o n ,

r e n e w a l , a n d d e c o m m i s s i o n i n g a re t h e v a r i o u s p h a s e s

i n t h e l i f e c y c l e o f c o n s t r u c t e d f a c i l i t i e s . T h e a v e r a g e

tA s s t . P r o f . , D ep t . o f C iv . En g r g . , V i r g in i a Tech , 2 0 0 P a t to n H a l l ,

Blacksburg, VA 24061-0105.

ZG r ad . R es . A s s t . , D ep t . o f C iv . En g r g . , V i r g in i a Tech , 2 0 0 P a t to n

H a l l , B lack s b u r g , V A .

3 G r ad . R es . A s s t . , D ep t . o f C i r . En g r g . , V i r g in i a Tech , 2 0 0 P a t to n


4 G r ad . R es . A s s t . , D ep t . o f C iv . En g r g . , V i r g in i a Tech , 2 0 0 P a t to n


N o te . D i s cu s s io n o p en u n t i l N o v emb er I , 1 9 9 4 . To ex ten d th e

c lo s in g d a te o n e mo n th , a w r i t t en r eq u es t mu s t b e f i l ed w i th th e

A S C E M a n a g e r o f J o u r n a l s. T h e m a n u s c r i p t f o r t h is p a p e r w a s s u b -

mi t t ed f o r r ev iew an d p o s s ib l e p u b l i ca t io n o n J u ly 1 6 , 1 9 9 3 . Th i s

p ap e r i s p a r t o f t h e

Journal o f Management in Engineering

Vol. 10 ,

No. 3 , Ma y/Jun e, 1994. 9 ISSN 0742-597X/94/0003-0046/$2.00

+ $ . 2 5 p e r p ag e . P ap e r N o . 6 5 7 3 .

4 6 J O U R N A L O F M A N A G E M E N T I N E N G I N E E R I N G

n u m b e r o f e m p l o y e e s i n a c o n s t r u c t i o n f i rm i s a b o u t 1 0

a n d 7 5 o f t h e fi r m s h a v e f o u r o r le s s e m p l o y e e s

( O g l e s b y 1 98 9 ). G i v e n t h i s a s p e c t o f t h e i n d u s t r y , i t

i s n o t p o s s i b l e f o r a s in g l e A / E / C f i r m t o p e r f o r m d i v e r s e

w o r k i n a l l l i f e- c y c l e p h a s e s o f a p r o j e c t o r e v e n t o

c l a i m a n e x p e r t i s e n i c h e i n a l l f i v e p r o j e c t - t y p e c a t e g o -

ries .

T h i s p a p e r a d v a n c e s t h e c o n c e p t o f c o n c u r r e n t e n -

g i n e e r i n g a s a p h i l o s o p h y w h i c h h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l t o

r e o p t i m i z e , r e e n e r g iz e , a n d r e f u e l t h e A / E / C i n d u s t r y .

C o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g i s a p h i l o s o p h y t h a t s y s t e m a t -

i c a l ly i n c o r p o r a t e s p l a n n i n g f o r a l l p h a s e s o f t h e l i f e-

c y c l e p r o j e c t a t i t s v e r y i n c e p t i o n . C o n c u r r e n t e n g i -

n e e r i n g a d v o c a t e s t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s f r o m a l l p h a s e s o f

t h e l i f e c y c l e p l a y a n a c t i v e r o l e r i g h t f r o m t h e c o n c e p -

t i o n a n d p l a n n i n g p h a s e s . I f a d a p t e d a n d a d o p t e d p r o p -

e r l y , c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g c o u l d m a k e i t p o s s ib l e f o r

t h e e n t i r e

A E C

i n d u s t r y t o o n c e a g a i n r e a p t h e b e n -

e f it s d e r i v e d f r o m i ts h i g h l y f r a g m e n t e d a n d s p e c ia l iz e d

n a t u r e .

T h i s p a p e r s u m m a r i z e s f e a tu r e s o f t h e A / E / C i n d u s-

t r y , w h i c h a r e r e l e v a n t in a c o n c u r r e n t - e n g i n e e r i n g c o n -

t e x t , o u t l i n e s c o r e p r i n c i p l e s o n w h i c h c o n c u r r e n t

e n g i n e e r i n g is b a s e d , a n d b e g i n s a n o p e n - e n d e d d i sc u s-

s i o n a b o u t s o m e c h a n g e s t h a t n e e d t o t a k e p l a c e in t h e

A / E / C s t a t e o f t h e p r a c t ic e t o a d o p t a n d a d a p t t o c o n -

c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g .

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S T A T E O F T H E P R A C T I C E IN

U S A / E /C I N D U S T R Y

To p ro v i d e a c o n t e x t f o r o p e n -e n d e d c o n c l u s i o n s ,

p ro s a n d c o n s o f f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n d s p e c i a li z a ti o n , t h e

s p e c t ru m o f o rg a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s , u p s t r e a m a n d

dow ns t ream l i fe -cyc le ac t iv i ti es , t rad i t iona l co n t rac tua l

a r r a n g e m e n t s , m e a n s o f e x c h a n g i n g p ro j e c t i n fo rm a -

t io n , a n d t h e ro l e o f c o m p u t e r s a r e e x a m i n e d .

ragmentat ion

Owners , des ign f i rms , cons t ruc t ion f i rms , mater ia l

s u pp l ie r s, b a n k e r s , l a w y e r s , g o v e rn m e n t a g e n c i e s , e n d

u s e rs , f ac i li ty o p e ra t o r s , m a i n t e n a n c e t e a m s , a n d d e m -

o l i t ion f i rms a re some o f the par t i c ipan t s invo lved in

the l i fe cyc le o f any con s t ruc te d fac i li ty . Th e d egre e o f

f r a g m e n t a t i o n in t h e A / E / C i n d u s t ry is e x e m p l i f i e d b y

the fo l lowing two exam ples : 2 ,400 con t ra c to rs , subcon -

t rac to rs , fab r ica to rs , supp l ie rs , and vendors were in -

v o l v e d i n t h e n e w P i t t s b u rg h In t e rn a t i o n a l A i rp o r t

(Moorc rofl 1993) and 125 contracto rs and suppliers were

i n vo l v ed i n t h e M a l l o f A m e r i c a p ro j e c t i n M i n n e a p o l is

(Cosgrove 1991). Cu rren t pract ice, thoug h, involves only

a f rac t ion o f these par t i c ipan t s w i th in each p ro jec t s l i fe -

cycle phase. T radi t ional ly , for exam ple, the design phase

o n l y i n vo l v es t h e o w n e r a n d t h e d e s ig n t e a m w i t h n e g -

l ig ib le par t i c ipa t ion f rom the cons t ruc t ion t eam. How-

ard e t al . (1989) no ted tha t the A /E/C indus t ry s em-

phas is on spec ia l i za t ion caused f ragm en ta t io n . The go a l

o f d i f fe ren t ia t ion and spec ia l i za t ion wi th in the ind us t ry

w a s t o p ro m o t e t e c h n o l o g ic a l in n o v a t i o n . A s y s t e m w a s

d i v id e d i n to s u b s y s te m s w i t h i n w h i c h w e re p e o p l e w h o

were expe rts in their f ields. Special izat ion al lowed gre ater

f l ex ib i li ty and increa sed p rod uct iv i ty du r ing t he 1960s .

H o w e v e r , a s t h e d e g re e o f s p e c i a li z a ti o n i n c r e a s e d , t h e

p ro b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f r a g m e n t a t i o n , l i k e b r e a k -

d o w n s i n t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n f r a s t ru c t u r e , b e g a n t o

negate the benefi ts of specializat ion (H ow ard et al . 1989).

I t c a n b e fu r t h e r s p e c u l a t e d t h a t d i m i n i s h e d l o y a l ty t o-

w a rd t h e u l t i m a t e c u s t o m e r o f c o n s t ru c t e d f a c i l i t i e s ,

i . e ., t h e o w n e r , h a s a l s o b e e n a b y -p ro d u c t o f e x c es s iv e

f r a g m e n t a t i o n . Th e c l a i m -c o n s c i o u s a t t i t u d e o f m o s t

p ro jec t par t i c ipan t s a t t es t s to th i s specu la t ion .

F ra g m e n t a t i o n h a s a l so r e s u l t e d i n i n t e n s e c o m p e t i -

t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e l a rg e n u m b e r o f s p e c i a l i z e d f i rm s

in the A/E/C indus t ry . B idd ing on a p ro jec t i s h igh ly

c o m p e t i t i v e , y e t e x p e c t e d p ro d u c t i v i t y i m p ro v e m e n t s

a s s oc i a te d w i th c o m p e t i t i o n a r e n o t a p p a re n t . I n f a c t ,

p ro d u c ti v it y h a s b e e n s t a ti c f o r a l m o s t t w o d e c a d e s

(Muspra t t 1988) . A h igh ly com pet i t ive env i ro nm en t has

fo rc e d c o m p a n i e s t o a v o i d r i sk s a n d a d h e re t o i n d u s t ry

n o rm s w h e n e v e r p o s s ib l e (M o h a n 1 99 0) . C o n d u c t i n g

re s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t a s w e l l a s i nv e s t in g i n n e w

a n d u n t r i e d t e c h n o l o g i e s a r e n o t u s u a l i n d u s t ry p r a c -

t i ces (De La Garza e t a l . 1991) . Howard e t a l , (1989)

n o t e d t h a t t h e r e is a s h a rp c o n t r a s t b e t w e e n t h e r e s e a r c h

a n d d e v e l o p m e n t po l ic i e s o f t h e U .S . A / E / C f i rm s a n d

t h e i r fo r e i g n c o u n t e rp a r t s . Th e s e fo r e i g n f i rm s i n v e st

l a rg e a m o u n t s o f t i m e a n d m o n e y i n r e s e a r c h a n d d e -

v e l o p m e n t a n d a s a r e s u l t , t h e y h a v e a l r e a d y s u rp a s s e d

t h e U .S . f i rm s i n a d v a n c e d c o n s t ru c t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s ,

l i k e b u i l d i n g -c o n st ru c t io n a u t o m a t i o n .

C a n c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g r e a l i g n t h e A / E / C i n -

d u s t ry b y o v e rc o m i n g t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f , w h i le b e n -

ef i t t ing f rom, i t s ex i s t ing f ragmen ta t ion and spec ia l i -

z a t i o n ?

Organizational Structures

Th e re a r e t h r e e t y p e s o f o rg a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s

p o p u l a r t o d a y , p ro j e c t o rg a n i z a t i o n , f u n c t i o n a l o rg a -

n i z a ti o n , a n d m a t r i x o rg a n iz a t i o n . F i gs . 1 -3 d e p i c t t h e

thre e types of organizat ional s t ructures (Blanch ard 1990)

Ta b l e s 1 -3 (B l a n c h a rd 1 99 0) e n u m e ra t e t h e a d v a n t a g e s

a n d d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f e a c h o f t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s . A l l f irm s

in the A E C i n d u s t ry fa l l w i t h i n t h e s p e c t ru m b o u n d e d

by these o rgan iza t iona l types . Whi le smal l f i rms typ i -

c a l l y h a v e a p ro j e c t -o rg a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e , m e d i u m

a n d l a rg e A / E / C f i rm s ty p i c a ll y h a v e e i t h e r t h e fu n c -

t i o n al o r t h e m a t r i x -o rg a n i z a ti o n a l s t r u c t u r e .

I C o m p a n y X Y Z

I I P r o

Funct ion Q Funct ion Q Funct ion Q

Funct ion R Funct ion R Funct ion R

Funct ion S Funct ion S Funct ion S

F IG 1 Pro ject Organ izat ion

[ C o m p a n y X y Z [

unction Q

Project A

Project B

Project

C

F I G 2

unction R

roject A

Project B

Project

C

unction

S

Project A

Project B

Project

C

Funct ional Organizat ion

f Project A

Project B

Project

C

I F u u e o n Q I I F u n e t i o n I I F u n e t i o ~ I

F IG 3 Mat r ix Organ izat ion

TABLE 1 Pro ject Organ izat ion St ructure

A d v a n t a g e s

Disadvantages

1 ) 2 )

C l e a r l y d e f i n e d l i n e s o f a u t h o r

i ty a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a

g i v e n p r o j e c t

S t r o n g c u s t o m e r o r i e n t a t io n

P e r s o n n e l l o y a l t y t o a p r o j e c t i s

h i g h

R e q u i r e d e x p e r t i s e c a n b e a s

s i g n e d a n d r e t a i n e d

A p p l i c a t i o n o f n e w t e c h n o l o g ie s

t e n d s t o s u f f e r w i t h o u t s t r o n g

f u n c t io n a l g r o u p s a n d o p p o r

t u n i ti e s f o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n

D u p l i c a t i o n o f e f f o r t i n l ar g e

c o n t r a c t o r o r g a n i z a t i o n s

D i f f i c u l t t o s h i f t p e r s o n n e l i n r e

s p o n s e t o n e e d s

I n d i v i d u a l c a r e e r g r o w t h m a y

s u f f e r

M A Y / J U N E 1 9 9 4 / 4 7



3/10

T A B L E 2 F u n c t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n S t r u c t u re

A d v a n t a g e s D i s a d v a n t a g e s

1 ) 2 )

Better technical capability

Quicker organ izational re-

sponse

Easier budgeting and control

Good communicationchannels

Lack of custom er orientation

Tailoring technical requirements

to a particular project is dis-

couraged

Difficult to maintain identity with

a specific project

Less personal motivation to excel

(because of group orientation

of expertise)

T A B L E 3 M a t r ix O r g a n i z a t i o n S t r u c tu r e

A d v a n t a g e s D i s a d v a n t a g e s

1 ) 2 )

Project manager can pro vide

strong project con trols while

having ready access to re-

sources from man y technical

departments.

Technical expertise can be ex-

changed between projects

with minimum con flict.

Autho rity and responsibility for

task accomplishment are

shared between project

manage r and functional

manager. There is mutual

comm itment in fulfilling

project requirements.

Key personnel can b e sh ared

and assigned to work on a

variety of problems (more

effective use of personnel

from com pany standpoint).

F r o m w o r k e r p e r s p e c ti v e t h e r e

i s o f t e n a s p l i t i n t h e c h a i n o f

comm and for reporting pur-

poses (project boss versus

functional boss).

Each p roject organization oper-

ates independently--possible

duplication of resources.

Both project and fun ctional areas

of activity require similar ad-

ministrative controls (m ore

costly from com pany view).

Balance of p ower between proj-

ect and functional organiza-

tions must be clearly defined

and maintained.

F I G 4 P a r t ia l A / E / C M a c r o f ir m F u n c t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n a l

S t r u c t u r e

A t t h e m a c r o l e v e l , h o w e v e r , t h e A / E / C i n d u s t r y o p -

e r a t e s p r i m a r i l y a s a f u n c t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . F i g . 4 i l -

l u s t r a t e s t h i s c o n c e p t b y c o n s i d e r i n g a l l t h e p r o j e c t p a r -

t ic i p an t s w i t h in o n e m a c r o f i r m . A s s h o w n i n T a b l e 2 ,

l ac k o f c u s t o m e r o r i e n t a t i o n i s o n e o f t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s

o f f u n c t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s s i n c e th e v a r i o u s f i r m s a c t

m e r e l y a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l o r g a n i z a -

t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n a s p a r t n e r s i n t h e m a c r o f i r m w o r k i n g

f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e o w n e r . F o r e x a m p l e , a s e x p l a i n e d

i n t h e f il m S k y s c r a p e r : T h e W o r l d w i d e P l a z a , w h i l e

d e s i g n e r s p r i d e t h e m s e l v e s i n d e s i g n i n g a f a c i li t y t h a t

m e e t s o r e x c e e d s t h e o w n e r ' s r e q u i r e m e n t s , c o n s t r u c -

t o r s p r i d e t h e m s e l v e s i n b u i l d i n g s u c h a f a c i l it y w i t h i n

48 J OURNAL OF MANAGEMENT tN ENGINEERING

t h e i m p o s e d c o n s t r a i n t s o f t i m e , c o s t , a n d q u a l i t y . H o w -

e v e r , a n e v e n b e t t e r a n d m o r e e f f i c ie n t f a c il i ty m a y b e

p o s s i b l e i f d e s i g n e r s a n d c o n s t r u c t o r s w e r e t o c o o p e r a t e

a n d c o l l a b o r a t e f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e p r o j e c t , i n s t e a d

o f p r i m a r i ly r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

I n o t la e r w o r d s , t h e r e s u l t o f g o o d p a r t n e r s w o r k i n g

t o g e t h e r t o w a r d s s h a r e d g o a l s a n d o b j e c t i v e s is fa r g r e a t e r

t h a n t h e s u m o f t h e p r o d u c t s , h o w e v e r g o o d , o f in d i-

v i d u a l p a r ti c i p a n t s w o r k i n g i n m a n y i n s t a n c e s w i t h c o n -

f l i c t i n g a g e n d a s .

H o w w o u l d t h is m a c r o f i r m l o o k w i th i n a c o n c u r r e n t -

e n g i n e e r in g p a r a d i g m ?

Upstream ctivit ies

U p s t r e a m l i fe - c y c l e a c t i v it i es i n c l u d e c o n c e p t i o n ,

s p e c i f ic a t i o n , a n d d e s i g n . I n i t i a ll y , t h e o w n e r c o n d u c t s

a f e a si b i li t y s t u d y a n d d e c i d e s t o p r o c e e d w i t h t h e p r o j -

e c t b a s e d o n f a v o r a b l e f ac t o r s o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e s t u d y .

T h e o w n e r d e v e l o p s p r o je c t r e q u i r e m e n t s b a s e d o n n e e d s

a n d a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s .

T h e a r c h i t e c t s a n d t h e d e s i g n e n g i n e e r s ( A / E s ) , i n

c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h t h e o w n e r , d e v e l o p c o n s t r u c t i o n d o c -

u m e n t s , w h i c h i n c l u d e d e t a i l e d s p e c i f i c a ti o n s a n d d r a w -

i n g s . F o r m a l d e s i g n r e v i e w s a r e c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g d e -

s i g n d e v e l o p m e n t . V a l u e - e n g i n e e r i n g a n a l y s i s i s a l s o

p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g d e s i g n - r e v i e w s e s s io n s . O w n e r s u s e

t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n d o c u m e n t s t o i n v i t e b i d s f r o m q u a l i f i e d

c o n t r a c t o r s . O w n e r s t y p i c a l l y a w a r d t h e c o n t r a c t t o th e

l o w e s t b i d d e r w h o i s t h e n t e r m e d a s t h e g e n e r a l c o n -

t r a c to r . T h e p r e s e n t m e t h o d o f a w a r d in g c o n s t r u c ti o n

c o n t r a c t s t o l o w b i d d e r s f o r c e s c o n s t r u c t i o n f i r m s t o

m i n i m i z e o v e r h e a d c o s t s , s u c h a s r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l -

o p m e n t c o s t s ( K e n n e d y 1 9 9 2 ) . U s u a l l y , t h e g e n e r a l c o n -

t r a c t o r e x e c u t e s o n l y a p a r t o f t h e w o r k a n d s u b c o n -

t r a c ts t h e r e s t t o v a r io u s o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s . O f t e n , t h e

l is t o f s u b c o n t r a c t o r s h a s t o b e r e v i e w e d b y t h e o w n e r

b e f o r e t h e c o n t r a c t is a w a r d e d t o t h e g e n e r a l c o n t r a c t o r .

T h e g e n e r a l c o n t r a c t o r a n d t h e o w n e r t h e n s ig n a c o n -

t r a c t . C o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s p a r t i c i p a n t s i s

u s u al ly a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h a p r e c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n f e r e n c e .

S c h e d u l e s , a s w e l l a s m e a n s a n d m e t h o d s o f c o n s t r u c -

t i o n , a r e d i s c u s s e d s o t h a t a n y c o n f l ic t s ca n b e d e t e c t e d

a n d r e m e d i a l m e a s u r e s t a k e n . U n d e r t h i s m e t h o d , t h e

A / E is r e t a i n e d b y t h e o w n e r t o a c t a s it s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

a n d t h e c o o r d i n a t e a n d i n s p e c t a l l w o r k d o n e b y th e

c o n t r a c t o r . P r a c t i t i o n e r s h a v e t e r m e d t h i s w a y o f p r o -

c u r i n g f a c il it ie s t h e t o s s e d o v e r t h e w a l l m e t h o d . I n

t h is m e t h o d , A / E s p r e p a r e d r a w i n g s a n d s p e c i f ic a t i o n s

w i t h o u t i n p u t f r o m c o n t r a c t o r s. T h e s e d o c u m e n t s a r e

t h e n f i g u r a t iv e l y t h r o w n o v e r a n i n v is i b le w a l l t o t h e

c o n t r a c to r s f o r e x e c u t io n . T h i s m e t h o d is u n p r o d u c t i v e

y e t o n e o f t h e m o r e p o p u l a r c o n t r a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t s .

C a n c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e t e a r i n g

d o w n o f th e i n v is i b le w a l l b e t w e e n t h e A r iE s a n d c o n -

t r a c t o r s ?

Downs tream c t iv i t i e s

D o w n s t r e a m a c t iv i t ie s i n c l u d e c o n s t r u c t i o n , o p e r a -

t i o n , m a i n t e n a n c e , a n d d e c o m m i s s io n i n g . C o n s t r u c ti o n

i s a f a i rl y c o m p l i c a t e d i n d u s t r y i n t h a t t h e r e is b o u n d



4/10

t o be cer ta i n ac t ua l con d i t i ons t ha t w i ll be d i f f e r en t f rom

p r e v io u s l y a g r e e d o n e s . T h i s c o u l d b e d u e t o o w n e r -

i mposed changes , i ncompl e t e des i gns , d i f f e r i ng s i t e

cond i t i ons , unava i l ab i l i t y o f r esou rces , mi s i n t e rp re t a -

t io n o f c o n t r a c t d o c u m e n t s , u n s u c c e s s f u l m e t h o d s o f

cons t ruc t i on , uncon s t ruc t ab l e des i gns , e t c . It does no t

t a k e l o n g t o c o n c l u d e t h a t o f t e n t h e s e s c e n a r i o s , n o w

c o m m o n o n e v e r y p r o j e c t , r e s u l t f r o m a l a c k o f c o o r -

d i n a ti o n a n d c o l l a b o r a t io n b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s p a r t ie s

r espons i b l e fo r t he concep t i on , des i gn , cons t ruc t i on ,

and opera t i on o f a f ac i l i t y .

Ow ner s o f cons t ruc t ed f aci li ti es wou l d be be t t e r se rved

i f d e s ig n s w e r e d e v e l o p e d t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n n o t

o n l y f u n c ti o n a l, p e r f o r m a n c e , a n d s c o p e r e q u i r e m e n t s ,

bu t a l so , cons t ruc t ab i l i t y , operab i l i t y , mai n t a i nab i l i t y ,

and r enew ab i l i t y is sues , i . e . , a t rue l i f e - cyc l ed des i gn .

D o e s c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g o f f e r a p h i l o s o p h y t h a t

i s conduc i ve t o t rue l i fe - cyc l e ana l ys i s?

Contractual rrangements

T h e U . S . A / E / C i n d u s t r y i m p l e m e n t s m a n y d i f f e r e n t

k i nd s o f c o n t r a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t s . T h e m o s t p o p u l a r

fo rm is t he t r ad i t iona l s epa ra t e des i gn -cons t ruc t i on con -

t ra c t . I n th i s t y p e o f c o n t r a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t , t h e o w n e r

re t a i n s an A/ E f i rm t o des i gn a f ac i l i t y and p roduce

cons truc ti on docum en t s . Th e own er se l ec ts t he A / E f i rm

b a s e d p r im a r i l y o n t h e f i r m ' s t e c h n ic a l c o m p e t e n c e a n d

o n a n e g o t i a t e d f e e f o r i ts s e rv i c e s . A f t e r t h e c o m p l e t i o n

o f th e d e s i g n , t h e o w n e r i n v i te s b i d s f r o m p r e q u a l i f ie d

o r o t herwi se a t - l a rge con t r ac t o r s . In t r ad i t i ona l l ump-

s u m o r u n i t - p r i c e c o n t r a c t s , t h e o w n e r c o n t r a c t s w i t h

t h e l o w e s t b i d d e r . U n l i k e t h e d e s i g n e r - s e l e c t i o n p r o -

c e s s, th e m a j o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n th e c o n t r a c t o r s e l e c t io n

is price.

O t h e r l e s s p o p u l a r f o r m s o f c o n t r a c tu a l a r r a n g e m e n t s

a r e t h e i n t e g r a t e d d e s i g n - b u i l d c o n t r a c t s a n d t h e c o n -

s t ruc t i on -managemen t con t r ac t s . S i mi l a r t o t he de-

s i gner - se l ec t i on p rocess i n t he t r ad i t i ona l separa t e de-

s i g n - c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t r a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t , t h e o w n e r

se l ec t s an i n t eg ra t ed des i gn -bu i l d f i rm based on p ro fes -

s i ona l qua l i f i ca t i ons . The des i gn -bu i l d f i rm i s r espon-

s i b l e fo r t he en t i r e des i gn and cons t ruc t i on o f t he own-

er ' s r equ i r ed f ac i l i t y . The owner and t he des i gn -bu i l d

f i rm nego t i a t e on t he f ee fo r t he l a t t e r ' s se rv i ces . Th i s

a r r a n g e m e n t i s n o t p r e v a l e n t i n t h e f r a g m e n t e d A / E / C

i n d u s t r y b e c a u s e o f t h e l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f i n t e g r a t e d

des i gn -bu il d f i rms . In con s t ruc t i o n -m ana gem en t con -

t r a c t s , t h e o w n e r r e t a i n s a c o n s t r u c t i o n - m a n a g e m e n t

f ir m t o o v e r s e e t h e d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e p r o -

posed f ac i l i t y . The owner se l ec t s t h i s f i rm based on

pro fess i ona l qua l i f i ca t i ons and pays a nego t i a t ed f ee .

Th i s f i rm t hen u t i l i zes e i t her t he t r ad i t i ona l separa t e

des i gn -cons t ruc t i on app roach o r t he i n t eg ra t ed des i gn -

bu i l d app roach i n acqu i r i ng des i gn and cons t ruc t i on

services .

W o u l d c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g f o s t e r a n e n v i r o n m e n t

w h e r e b y s m a l l f ir m s c o u l d q u i c k l y f o r m j o i n t v e n t u r e s

t o e f f ec t ive l y r espo nd t o d es i gn -bu i l d r equ es t fo r p ro -

p o s a ls ( R F P s ) ?

M e a n s o f E x c h a n g i n g P r o j e ct I n f o r m a t i o n

W h e n i t c o m e s to d i s s e m i n a t i n g p r o j e c t i n f o r m a t i o n ,

com pu t er u sage in t he A/ E/ C i ndus t ry has mere l y changed

t h e p a p e r - g e n e r a t i o n p r o c e s s . W e h a v e s w i t c h e d d r a f t -

i n g b o a r d s , l e a d p e n c i l s , a n d i n k p e n s t o c o m p u t e r s

a r m e d w i t h c o m p u t e r - a id e d d e s ig n ( C A D ) s o f tw a r e a n d

p l o t te r s . C o m p u t e r s n o t o n l y h a v e a l t e r e d t h e p a p e r -

p r o d u c i n g p r o c e s s , b u t t h e y h a v e a l s o e x p e d i t e d i t. P r o -

d u c i ng a C A D - b a s e d D - s i z e d r a w i n g ta k e s a f r a c t io n o f

t h e t i m e i t t a k e s t o p r o d u c e i t o n a d r a f t in g b o a r d . T h e

e n d r e s u l t is th a t c o m p u t e r s h a v e a f f o r d e d t h e e f f i c i e n t

p r o d u c t i o n o f m o r e p a p e r . W h i l e th i s m a y s e e m l i k e a

s t ep i n t he r i gh t d i r ec t i on , i t is ac t ua l l y becom i ng a s t ep

b a c k w a r d b e c a u s e t h e p o w e r o f C A D t o o l s i s b e i n g

s t r a n g le d b y t h e d e l i v e r y m e a n s , i . e . , p a p e r . I t is n o t

u n c o m m o n a n y m o r e t o f i n d C A D - b a s e d p a p e r - p r i n t e d

d r a w i n g s p r o d u c e d b y c o l la p s i n g a n u n r e a s o n a b l e n u m -

b e r o f C A D l a y e r s in a s in g l e s h e e t. T h i s p r a c t ic e r e n -

d e r s t h e p a p e r - p r i n t e d d r a w i n g s u n r e a d a b l e a n d u s e -

l ess , wh i ch i n t u rn l ead s to mi s i n t e r p re t a t i on , omi ss i ons ,

r e w o r k , p o o r q u a l i t y , a n d h i g h e r u n c e r t a i n t y . T h i s p r a c -

t ic e c e r t a i n ly c o n s t i t u t e s a m i s u s e o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y , y e t

f o r c e d b y t h e n e e d t o i n c l u d e e v e r y t h i n g in a d r a w i n g

a n d b y t h e n e e d t o d e l i v e r i t v i a p a p e r . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

t h e p a p e r i n f o r m a t i o n - e x c h a n g e p r o b l e m r e s u l t s i n i n -

c r e a s e d p r o j e c t l if e - c y cl e c o s t s , d e c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v i t y ,

and decrease d p ro j ec t per fo rmance (Ho wa rd e t a l. 1989).

T h u s , t h e r e i s a n e e d f o r a b e t t e r m o d e o f e x c h a n g i n g

p r o j e c t i n f o r m a t i o n .

D o e s c o m p u t e r - a i d e d c o n c u r r e n t e n g i ne e r in g o f f e r

a n e n v i r o n m e n t f o r t h e e l e c t r o n i c e x c h a n g e o f p r o j e c t

i n f o r m a t i o n ?

U s e o f C o m p u t e r T e c h n o l o gi e s

T h e A / E / C i n d u s t r y w i d e l y u s e s v a r i o u s c o m p u t e r

technologies in i ts activit ies. Choi and Ibbs (1990a, 1990b)

n o t e d t h a t t h e i n d u s t r y u s e s c o m p u t e r s f o r a d m i n is t r a -

t i on , accoun t i ng , des i gn , eng i neer i ng ana l ys i s , p ro j ec t

m a n a g e m e n t , a n d m a r k e t i n g a c t i v i t i e s . T h e i r f i n d i n g s

s h o w e d t h a t t h e u s e o f c o m p u t e r s a l l o w e d i n d i v i d u a l

compan i es t o i ncrease t he ir p roduct i v it y . Ho we ver , t here

was no s i gn i f i can t i ncrease i n t he overa l l p roduct i v i t y ,

cons i der i ng a l l t he par t i c i pan t s i nvo l ved i n a p ro j ec t .

D e s i g n i n g i n t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l ( 2 D ) g r a p h i c a l - c o m -

p u t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s a l r e a d y p r e v a l e n t i n t h e i n d u s -

t r y . T h e r e a r e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , o n l y a l i m i t e d n u m b e r

o f fi rms em pl oy i ng compu t er i zed t h ree-d i mens i ona l (3D)

m o d e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s . R e s e a r c h d o n e j o i n t l y b y C o l u m -

b i a U n i v e r s i t y a n d S t o n e & W e b s t e r E n g i n e e r i n g C o r -

p o r a t i o n p r o v e d t h a t 3 D m o d e l i n g i s s u p e r i o r t o 2 D .

T h e i r r e s e a r c h i n v o l v e d t r a n s f o r m i n g a n a l m o s t c o m -

p l e t e 2 D d e s i g n o f a b u il d in g i n t o a 3 D - c o m p u t e r m o d e l .

T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n e l i m i n a t e d n u m e r o u s i n c o n s i s t e n -

c i es in t h e 2 D - d e s i g n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h e i r r e s e a r c h

a l s o s h o w e d t h a t 3 D m o d e l i n g i n c r e a s e s t h e c o n s t r u c t -

ab i l i ty and sch edu l ab i l i t y o f des i gns , as wel l as enh ance s

const ruct ion planning, t rain ing, and moni tor ing. Al l these

b e n e f i t s u l t i m a t e l y l e a d t o t h e i n c r e a s e o f c o n s t r u c -

t i o n p r o d u c t i v i t y ( R e i n s c h m i d t e t a l . 1 9 9 1 ) . H o w e v e r ,

3 D c o m p u t e r m o d e l i n g t e c h n i q u e s a r e a t y p i c a l t o t h e

M A Y / J U N E 1 9 9 4 / 4 9



5/10

A / E / C i n d u s t ry , b e i n g i m p l e m e n t e d o n l y b y t h e l a rg e r

a n d / o r m o r e i n n o v a t i v e f ir m s , B e c h t e l C o r p . , S t o n e a n d

W e b s t e r E n g i n e e r i n g C o r p . , R u s t I n te r n a t i o n a l , F l u o r

D a n i e l , B r o w n a n d R o o t , a m o n g o t h e r s .

What i s t he ro l e o f compu t er s i n suppor t i ng t he i m-

p l e m e n t a t i o n o f c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g ?

N e e d f o r T r a n s f o r m a t i o n

O n e o f t h e m a j o r d r a w b a c k s i n t h e c u r r e n t s t a te o f

t he p rac t i ce i s t ha t mos t o f t he defec t s i n a f ac i l i t y ' s

des i gn a re no t no t i ced un t i l t he s t ruc t u re i s ac t ua l l y

b e i ng c o n s t r u c t e d , o p e r a t e d , o r m a i n t a i n e d . I t h a s b e e n

e s t im a t e d t h a t r e w o r k c o n s t i t u t e s 1 2 . 4 % o f t h e t o t a l

instal led-project cos t in industrial pro jec ts ( C os ts 1989).

I f t h is we re t he case fo r a l l f ive p ro j e c t - t yp e ca t eg o r i es ,

t h e n c o n s t r u c t i o n r e w o r k c o u l d r e p r e s e n t a s t a g g e r i n g

1 .2 % o f t h e g r os s n a ti o n a l p r o d u c t ( G N P ) .

T h e n e e d f o r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s a l s o n e c e s s a r y to g e t

r id o f t he s t e r eo t ype s tha t ha ve b r ed cu l t u ra l i mpe d i -

m e n t s t o c o o p e r a t i v e - p r o d u c t d e v e l o p m e n t . A n e x -

ampl e o f such s t e r eo t ypes i s t yp i f i ed by t he r e l a t i ve

pos i t i on o f a phase i n a p ro j ec t ' s l i f e cyc l e (Sp rague

1991) . The fu r t her a l ong a func t i on f a l ls i n t he l i f e cyc l e

o f the f ac i l it y , the l ess i n fo rma t i on i t needs fo r dec i s i on

mak i ng , hence t he l ower i t s va l ue t o an o rgan i za t i on .

Concur ren t eng i neer i ng i s conduci ve o f a l eve l ed f i e l d

so t ha t e very p l ay er i nvo l ved i n a f ac i l it y ' s l if e cyc l e can

con t r i bu t e on an equal bas i s .

The cons t ruc t i on i ndus t ry has t o l ook fo r a l t e rna t i ve

m e t h o d s a n d p h i l o so p h i e s t o r e m a i n c o m p e t i t iv e i n d o -

m e s t ic a n d f o r e i g n m a r k e t s . O n e o f t h e a l t e r n a t iv e s t o

rec t ify t he s i t ua t i on i s t o au t om at e t hose t ask s t ha t a r e

t echno l og i ca l l y and economi ca l l y f eas i b l e . The o t her

a l t e r n a t i v e i s t o m o d i f y t h e b a s i c A / E / C p r o c u r e m e n t

p r o c e s s b y a u g m e n t i n g i t w i t h t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f c o n -

c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g . F o r e i g n f i r m s h a v e i m p l e m e n t e d

bo t h o f t hese a l t e rna t i ves wi t h g rea t success . A s t udy

o n c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g p r a c t i c e s w a s c o n d u c t e d i n

Eu rope wi t h s t a r tl i ng r esu l t s . So m e o f t he m ore s ign if -

i c an t r e s ul ts a r e a 3 0 % - 4 2 % r e d u c t i o n i n m a n u f a c t u r -

i ng c o st s, 7 5 % r e d u c t i o n i n s c r a p a n d r e w o r k , 3 5 % -

60% reduct i on i n t he t i me i t t akes t o deve l op an a r t i -

f a c t , 3 0 % - 8 7 % r e d u c t i o n i n d e f e c t s , a n d 3 0 % - 6 0 %

i ncrease i n sav i ngs (Creese i 990 ) . A l t hough t h i s s t udy

was no t conduct ed fo r t he cons t ruc t i on i ndus t ry , i t p ro -

v i d e s a n e x a m p l e o f h o w t h e c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g

p h i lo s o p h y c a n h e l p i n c r e a s e t h e c o m p e t i t iv e n e s s o f a

c o m p a n y .

In the p rese n t se t up o f t he i ndus t ry , t he no r m i s t o

des i gn , bu i l d , t hen r ewo rk . S uch a m et ho d i s t i me and

m o n e y c o n s u m i n g a n d r e d u c e s c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s . T h e

t im e s e e m s r i g h t f o r a m a j o r r e n a i s sa n c e o f t h e U . S .

A / E / C / i n d u s t r y . C o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g m a y b e i t.

O N U R R E N T E N G I N E E R I N G

Fi gs . 5 (a) and 5 (b ) dep i c t t yp i ca l a t t i t udes t owards

des i gn i ng , eng i neer i ng , bu i l d i ng , and opera t i ng con -

s t ruc t ed f ac i li t ies du r i ng t he l as t t wo deca des . In t r in s i c

t o t hese a t t i t udes i s t he no t i on o f i ncreased r ework du r -

50 JOURNALOF MANAGEMENT N ENGINEERING

1 9 7 s I B u i l d i t I ] D o e s t w o r k ? I [ I s i t t h e b e s t? I

(a)

1 9 8 0 s l W i ll t w 0 r k ? ~ - ~ B u i l d i t H I s i t th ebest? ]

6)

1 9 9 0 s [ I s i t t he b e s t ? ~ W i ll it wo r k? ] [ Bu c )

FIG 5

Product Development Phi losophies

i ng cons t ruc t i on as wel l as i ncreased cos t s du r i ng op -

era t i on , mai n t enance , and r ehab i l i t a t i on . In t he 1990s

a n d b e y o n d , t h e r e i s a n e e d t o r e v a m p t h e f a c i l i t y -

d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s f o r t h e U . S . A / E / C i ndus t ry t o

r e m a i n c o m p e t i t i v e i n b o t h d o m e s t i c a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l

marke t s . F i g . 5 (c) r ep resen t s no t on l y t he nex t l og i ca l

e v o l u t i o n p h a s e f r o m t h e 1 98 0s p a r a d i g m , b u t a l s o r e p -

r e s e n t s a c o m p l e t e r e v e r s e p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e f a c i l i t y -

d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s , w h i c h p r e v a i l e d i n t h e 1 9 7 0s a n d

ear l i e r .

W h a t i s C o n c u r r e n t E n g i n e e r i n g ?

T h e r e i s n o a g r e e m e n t a m o n g e x p e r t s a s t o t h e e x a c t

def i n i t i on o f conc ur ren t eng i neer i ng . The fo l l owi ng def -

i n i t i on t ake n f rom t he m echa n i ca l , e l ec t r i ca l , and i n -

dus t r i a l - eng i neer i ng d i sc i p l i nes exp l a i ns t he concep t

r a t her succ i n t l y :

Con current engineering is defined as a systematic ap-

proach to the integrated, concurrent design of products

and their related processes, inc luding manufacturing

and support . This approach is intended to cause the

developers, from the ou tset , to consider al l elements o f

the prod uct l ife cycle from conception through disposal

including quality, cost, schedule and, user require-

me nts [CE RC (1992), page 3].

I n la y m a n t e r m s , c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g c a n b e d e f i n e d

a s a p h i l o s o p h y w h i c h s y s t e m a t i c a l ly i n c o r p o r a t e s p l a n -

n i ng fo r a l l phases o f t he p ro j ec t l i f e cyc l e a t i t s very

i n c e p t io n . C o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g a d v o c a t e s th a t p a r -

t i c i pan t s f rom a l l phases o f t he l i f e cyc l e p l ay an ac t i ve

r o l e r i g h t f r o m t h e c o n c e p t i o n a n d p l a n n i n g p h a s e s .

F i g . 6 i l l u s t r a t es t he concur ren t eng i neer i ng concep t

b y d e p i c t i n g t h e c o n c u r r e n c e n a t u r e i n t h e f a c i l i t y - d e -

v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s ( R o s e n b l a t t 1 9 9 1 ) . I t c a n b e s e e n

f rom t h i s fi gu re t ha t a s i gn if i can t amo un t o f ex t r a w ork

t akes p l ace du r i ng t he des i gn phase . Th i s i s i n con t r as t

t o t he t r ad i t i ona l sequen t i a l p rocess dep i c t ed i n F i g . 7

( L e e 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g p h i l o s o p h y

suppor t s t he parad i gm sh i f t ou t l i ned i n F i g . 5 (c) by

f i r s tl y and d i r ec t l y answ er i ng t he i s i t t he be s t ? and

wi l l i t wo rk? ques t i ons befo re a f ac i l it y i s ac t ua l l y

bui l t .

T h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f s u c h a r a d i c a ll y d i f f e r e n t p h i-

l o s o p h y r e q u i r e s a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

s t r u c tu r e a n d c u l t u r e , a s w e l l a s n e w m e t h o d s o f d e s ig n



6/10

Performance

Testability

Manufacturability

Design

Service

ost

Quality

FI G 6

~ e v i e w P ro du ce T es t

Concurren t Eng ineer ing Ph i losophy

~ O peration

F IG 7 Sequent ia l Eng ineer ing Ph i losophy

Design ]

Manufacturing [

p e r a t i

F I G 8

Marketing

I

ntenance

[ Rehabilitation ]

Mul t i funcUonal Teaming

and manufacturing. The first thing that the concurrent

engineering philosophy emphasizes is integrated-prod-

uct development. This is achieved by the use of mul-

tifunctional teams which consist of experts from both

upstream and downstream phases of a facility. Such a

team goes through the conception and design phases

with due consideration for subsequent phases.

M u l t i f u n e t io n a l T e a m s

Implementing concurrent engineering requires the use

of multifunctional or interdisciplinary teams. Such teams

aim to break down the barriers that exist between func-

tional departments in order to promot e communication

(Lee 1992). Fig. 8 shows how people with different

functional specialties, e.g., design, manufacturing, mar-

keting, operation, maintenance, and rehabilitation must

work together in a single group. Customers and sup-

pliers are also invited as team members so that real-

time feedback can be obtained from them.

The members of such multifunctional teams should

ideally have a holistic thinking capability and be able

to analyze concepts, fundamental principles, and the-

ories of different disciplines. Team members work to-

gether to confront issues rather than to confront each

other. To increase the odds of succeeding, it is impor-

tant that the various team members adopt goals that

are product--and market--oriented rather than merely

serve as representatives of their particular functions.

Lake (1992), quoting Sarchet (1991), said that a team

should have accountability for its collective actions and

members should develop a feeling of accountability to

one another.

It has been determined that interaction among in-

dividual members increases the creative and productive

process. Hence, the size of a team becomes an impor-

tant variable to consider. An oversized team creates too

many lines of communication and increases overhead

costs, while a undersized team is like not having a team

at all. Wrong people on a team can also lead to making

wrong decisions, thus defeating the purpose of team

formation (Carter 1992). When it is not possible to

collocate, i.e., bring together team members, co mputer

networks can be used to overcome this problem by

virtually collocating various team members.

Concurrent engineering requires that organizations

develop new performance-measurement systems, new

career-advancement paths, and new reward systems.

Members of multifunctional teams should no longer be

evaluated with respect to existing individual-perfor-

mance measures presently prevalent in most organi-

zations. Rather, management should promote the

teaming philosophy through the creation of team-per-

formance measures.

A word of caution is warranted here; the implemen-

tation of the multifunctional-t eamingphilosophy within

a system that still rewards individual performance has

the potential to create more damage than betterment.

A perfect example of this scenario is found in the Dallas

Cowboys football team. The Cowboys won the Best

Defensive Team award during the National Football

League's (NFLs) 1992 season. However, none of the

defensive players was awarded the distinction of being

a member of the Pro-Bowl All-Star Team because nom-

inations to the All-Star team are based on individual

accomplishments and not on team performance.

Just like the Pro-Bowl incentive, existing organiza-

tional career-advancement paths and reward systems

are geared towards individual performance. Manage-

ment of organizations embracing the concurrent engi-

neering paradigm must devise new career-advancement

and reward systems consistent with the multifunctional

team concept.

For the success of multifunctional teams, it is im-

portant that there be collaboration, and not just com-

munication, between team members. While commu-

nication includes the exchanging of information,

collaboration means the creation of a shared under-

standing about the objectives and values of the cus-

tomer. There are three stages of collaboration that lead

a team to a consensus about its role, about solving a

problem, and about finding a solution. These stages are

to define a common vocabulary, agree on a common

purpose, and agree on individual priorities. For a team

to succeed, it is of utmost impor tance that these stages

be attained at the very inception of the project. When

a team is collaborating rather than just communicating,

M A Y / J U N E 1 9 9 4 / 5 1



7/10

i t i s eas i e r fo r a t eam t o r each a consensus abou t a

p rob l em and i t s so l u t i ons (Car t e r 1992) .

Organizat ional Requirements

A n o r g a n i z a t i o n i m p l e m e n t i n g c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r -

i ng concep t s i s qua l i t y o r i en t ed and focuses on p rocess

cons i s t ency , wi t h a sound s t r a t egy t o charac t e r i ze each

process , i t s cos t s , and i t s va l ue . There i s a commi t men t

t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e v a l u e o f t h e p r o d u c t t o t h e c u s -

t o m e r . C u s t o m e r r e q u i r e m e n t s r a n k f i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t

i n t he o rgan i za t i on s p r i o r i t i es . To ach i eve t hese no rm s ,

o n e o r m o r e o f t h e f o ll o w i n g te c h n i q u e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y

utilized:

T o t a l Q u a l it y M a n a g e m e n t ( T Q M ) i s a m a n a g e m e n t

p h i lo s o p h y t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e s q u a l i ty i n t o e v e r y s t e p o f

t he p roduct l i f e cyc l e , by everyone i n t he company . I t s

over r i d i ng pu rp ose i s to i ncrease t h e va l ue o f t he p ro d -

uc t t o t he cus t omer (Rosenb l a t t 1991) .

Q u a l i t y F u n c t i o n D e p l o y m e n t ( Q F D ) c o n s i s t s o f a

p a i r o f s p r e a d s h e e t s t h a t r e l a t e c u s t o m e r a t t r i b u t e s t o

q u a n t i t a t i v e - e n g i n e e r i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e f ir s t

s p r e a d s h e e t s h o w s t h e r e la t i o n b e t w e e n t h e e n g i n e e r i n g

charac t e r i s t i cs and t he cus t omer a t t r i bu t es . The second

s p r e a d s h e e t s h o w s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s

eng i neer i ng charac t e r i s t i cs (Rosenb l a t t 1991) .

Jus t - i n -t i me i nve n t o ry ( J IT ) i s t he ph i l o soph y o f p ro -

v i d i ng t h i ngs , i n fo rmat i on , o r mat er i a l s j u s t when t hey

a r e n e e d e d w i th t h e p u r p o s e o f r e d u c in g i n v e n t o r y c o s t s

(Ros enb l a t t 1991).

S t a t i s t i ca l P rocess Con t ro l (SPC) seeks t o mon i t o r

qua l i t y i n t he des i gn and manufac t u r i ng s t age , s t a r t i ng

w i th a th o r o u g h k n o w l e d g e o f t h e l in k b e t w e e n d e f e c t s

and t he manufac t u r i ng p rocess (Rosenb l a t t 1991) .

D e s i g n f o r m a n u f a c t u r e a n d a s s e m b l y ( D F M A ) i s a

ph i l o sophy o f des i gn t ha t a l e r t s des i gn eng i neer s t o t he

m a n u f a c t u ri n g i m p l i c a t io n s o f t h e i r w o r k ( R o s e n b l a t t

1991).

A n o r g a n i z a ti o n i m p l e m e n t i n g t h e a b o v e c o n c e p t s ,

i n a mu l t i func t i ona l - t eam env i ronmen t , w i l l have t o

o v e r c o m e t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e v a r -

i o u s t e a m m e m b e r s . A s o l u t i o n t o t h i s p r o b l e m i s t o

l in k t e a m m e m b e r s t h r o u g h c o m p u t e r - n e t w o r k i n g t e c h -

no l og ies i n such a way t ha t geo graph i ca l bar r i e r s a r e

o v e r c o m e . G e o g r a p h i c a l d i s p e r s io n o f p r o j e c t p a r t ic i -

p a n t s i s a m a j o r f a c t o r d e f i n i n g t h e r o l e o f c o m p u t e r s

i n concur ren t eng i neer i ng .

R o le o f o mpu te r s in o nc ur r e nt Eng ine e r ing

C a r t e r ( 19 92 ) q u o t e s D e C a s t r o a n d H o o g e r h u i s a s

fol lows:

The ev olving design automation environment that

supports concurrent engineering has seen the pow er and

scope of its tools expand steadily. One interesting area

is the relationship between advanced-simulation tools

and concurrent engineering. As simulation technology

grows mo re comprehensive, designers are approaching

the capabil ity to produce virtual prototype s that em-

body all aspects of the product. I t wil l eventually be-

come possible to m odel the user interface o f a product

5 2 J O U R N A L O F M A N A G E M E N T I N E N G I N E E R I N G

so that customers can interact directly with the virtual

prototypes. Their feedback can then be incorporated

into QFD maps, which help redirect the design to ac-

commodate their suggestions.

C o l l o c a ti n g m e m b e r s o f m u l t i f u n c t io n a l t e a m s i n a

s i ng l e room i s no t a l ways poss i b l e , f eas i b l e , o r even

p r a c t i c a l . C o m p u t e r n e t w o r k s e n a b l e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f

m u l t i f u n c t i o n a l t e a m s w i t h m e m b e r s l o c a t e d a n y w h e r e

i n t h e p l a n e t. D a t a a n d i n f o r m a t i o n - e x c h a n g e s t a n d a r d s

h a v e e v o l v e d o u t o f t h e n e e d f o r e l e c t r o n i c d e s i g n , e n -

g i n e e r i n g , a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g t o o l s , e a c h w i t h i t s o w n

i n t e r f a c e , t o c o m m u n i c a t e d a t a ( C a r t e r 1 9 9 2 ) . E l e c -

t ron i c-da t a s t andards , wh i ch a l l ow compu t er -based t oo l s

t o c o l l a b o r a t e , c o o p e r a t e , c o m m u n i c a t e a m o n g t h e m -

s e l v e s a n d w i t h m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m s i n a d i s t r i b u t e d

c o m p u t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t , a r e r e q u i r e d f o r a n e f f e c t i v e

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f c o m p u t e r - a i d e d c o n c u r r e n t e n g i-

n e e r i n g . A n e m e r g i n g s t a n d a r d t h a t p r o m o t e s t h e e x -

c h a n g e a n d i n t e g r a t i o n o f p h y s i c a l a n d f u n c t i o n a l p r o d -

u c t i n f o r m a t i o n o v e r t h e l if e c y c l e o f t h e p r o d u c t is

P D E S [ P r o d u c t D e f i n i t i o n E x c h a n g e u s i n g S T E P ( i n -

t e rna ti ona l S t andard fo r t he Exchange o f P rodu ct model

da t a ) ] .

I n t e r o p e r a b i l i t y b e t w e e n v a r i o u s c o m p u t e r s , d a t a -

b a s e s , a n d u s e r i n t e r f a c e s i s a m u s t f o r t h e i m p l e m e n -

t a t i o n o f a s u c c e s s f u l c o m p u t e r - a i d e d c o n c u r r e n t - e n -

g i n e e r i n g p h i l o s o p h y . T h i s c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y a

c o m p u t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t i f t o o l s a n d d a t a b a s e s c o m -

m u n i c a t e a s p a r t o f a c o m m o n n e t w o r k a n d t h e p r o -

c e s s in g p o w e r o f c o m p u t e r s c a n b e s h a r e d , t h e s a m e

d a t a i s a v a i l a b le t o a ll te a m m e m b e r s i n v o l v e d , a n d t h e

w a y s o f c o m m u n i c a t i n g a n d m a n i p u l a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n

a r e c o n s i s t e n t f o r al l t e a m m e m b e r s ( C a r t e r 1 99 2) .

C o m p u t e r t o o l s f o r d e s ig n , a n a l y s is , s i m u l a t i o n , a n d

v i s u a li z a ti o n l i n k e d in a c o m p u t e r n e t w o r k t h r o u g h d a t a

a n d i n t e r f a c e s t a n d a r d s a r e r e a d y t o e n a b l e t h e p r a c t i c e

o f conc ur ren t eng i neer i ng . Too l s spec i fi ca l l y des i gned

t o s u p p o r t t h e im p l e m e n t a t i o n o f c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r -

i n g a r e b e i n g d e v e l o p e d , a m o n g o t h e r p l a c e s , a t t h e

C o n c u r r e n t E n g i n e e r i n g R e s e a r c h C e n t e r ( C E R C ) a t

M o r g a n t o w n , W e s t V i r gi ni a. C E R C w a s e s ta b l is h e d b y

D e f e n s e A d v a n c e d R e s ea r c h P r o je c t A g e n c y ( D A R P A )

m a i n l y t o h e l p i m p r o v e t h e p r o d u c t - d e v e l o p m e n t c a -

p a b i li t ie s o f t h e U . S . d e f e n s e - i n d u s t r ia l b a s e . C E R C i s

t r y i n g t o p r o m o t e a n d f a c i l i t a t e t h e a d o p t i o n o f c o n -

c u r r e n t - e n g i n e e r i n g t e c h n o l o g y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

i n d u s tr y . A n e x a m p l e o f t h e t o o l s b e in g d e v e l o p e d a t

C E R C i s M e e t in g O n th e N E T w o r k ( M O N E T ) . M O -

N E T i s a m u l t i m e d i a - c o n f e r e n c i n g s y s t e m w h i c h f a c il -

i t a te s c o l l o c a t i o n o f p e o p l e a n d p r o g r a m s i n a n e t -

w o r k e d e n v i ro n m e n t . I n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n g e w it h

M O N E T i s e i t h e r p a s s i v e o r a c t i v e . A t p r e s e n t , M O -

N E T p r o v i d e s c o n f e r e n c e f a c i l i t i e s ; t e x t , a u d i o , a n d

v i d e o c o m m u n i c a t i o n ; t o o l s f o r s h a r i n g i m a g e s o n t h e

screen ; t oo l s fo r co l l abo ra t i ve shar i ng o f app l i ca t i on

p r o g r a m s ; a n d c o o p e r a t i v e - p r o b l e m s o l v i n g ( C E R C

1992).



8/10

C O N C U R R E N T E N G I N E E R IN G IN

A E C I N D U S T R Y

K n o w i n g l y o r n o t , t h e A / E / C i n d u s t r y h a s a l r e a d y

a d o p t e d s o m e e l e m e n t s o f t h e C o n c u r r e n t E n g i n e e r i n g

p h i l o so p h y w h e n i t p ra c t i c e s T Q M , d e s i g n f o r c o n -

s t ruc t ab i l i t y , va l ue eng i neer i ng , compu t er - i n t eg ra t ed

cons t ruc t i on , des i gn -bu i l d con t r ac t s , j u s t - i n - t i me-ma-

t e r i a l d e l i v e r i e s a n d m o r e r e c e n t l y , p a r t n e r i n g . S o m e

o t h e r e l e m e n t s n o t y e t a d o p t e d p e r t a i n t o t h e m a c r o -

l eve l -mu l t i func t i ona l t eams , coopera t i ve and d i s t r i b -

u t ed des i gn , t rue l i f e - cyc l e ana l ys i s o f f ac i l i t i es , med i a

f o r e x c h a n g in g c o n s t r u c t io n d o c u m e n t s , a n d c o m p u t e r

ne t work i ng .

C o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g c a n b e i m p l e m e n t e d i n a n y

organ i za t i on by ba l anc i ng t he fo l l owi ng t h ree concep t s

(Car ter 1992) .

Organ i za t i on S t ruc t u res : The o rgan i za t i ona l s t ruc-

t u re s h o u l d s u p p o r t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t e a m s . T e a m s

shou l d opera t e as a s i ng l e en t i t y wi t h focus on i s sues

ra t her t han i nd i v i dua l s .

C o m m u n i c a t i o n I n f r a s t r u c t u r e : A d v a n c e s i n c o m -

mun i ca t i ons t echno l ogy are r equ i r ed t o l i nk a l l par t i c -

i p an t s. T h i s w ill p r o m o t e t h e f r e e a n d s p e e d y e x c h a n g e

of i deas , spec i f i ca t i ons , and p roce sses . I t w i ll a l so en -

c o u r a g e r e g u l a r f e e d b a c k f r o m e n d u s e r s .

P r o d u c t D e v e l o p m e n t : T h e a n a l y si s o f t h e p r o d u c t

l if e cyc l e shou l d be ca r r i ed ou t du r i ng t he c once p t i on

a n d d e si g n p h a s e s s o t h a t n o p r o b l e m s a r e e n c o u n t e r e d

i n d o w n s t r e a m p h a s e s .

Organizational Structure

T h e A / E / C i n d u s t r y ' s c u r r e n t m a c r o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

p h i l o so p h y d o e s n o t f o s t e r c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e ri n g . T o

i m p l e m e n t c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r in g , t h e A / E / C i n d u s t r y

mus t swi t ch f rom t he macro f i rm func t i ona l -o rgan i za-

t i ona l s t ruc t u re (F i g . 4 ) t o a macro f i rm mat r i x -o rgan i -

za t i ona l s t ruc t u re (F i g . 9 ) . There i s a sub t l e d i f f e r ence

i n dep i c t i ng t he macro f i rm o rgan i za t i on t o be a mat r i x

t y p e i n st e a d o f a f u n c t io n a l t y p e . M a c r o f i r m - f u n c t i o n a l

o rgan i za t i ons a l l ow f i rms t o have a s t ronger a f f i n i t y t o

t he i r func t i ona l p r i o r i t i es and fos t e r l oca l op t i mi za t i on .

However , t h i s adherence t o l oca l - func t i ona l p r i o r i t i es

somet i mes nega t i ve l y a f f ec t s t he g l oba l -p ro j ec t p r i o r i -

t i es . The mat r i x o rgan i za t i on , on t he o t her hand , i n -

d i c at e s t h a t t h e n u m e r o u s f i rm s a r e m e m b e r s o f o n e

p r o j e c t te a m . T h e p l a y e r s in t h is m a c r o f i rm - m a t r ix o r -

g a n iz a t io n m u s t c a r e f u l ly f i nd a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e i r

p ro j ec t and t he i r func t i ona l p r i o r i t i es .

At t he i nd i v i dua l - f i rm l eve l , t here i s no gener i c o r -

gan i za t iona l s t ruc t u re wh i ch i s app l i cab l e t o a ll f irms i n

t he A/ E/ C i ndus t ry . Each f i rm i n t he i ndus t ry has i t s

own app l i cab l e o rgan i za t i ona l s t ruc t u re (p ro j ec t , f unc-

t i ona l, o r mat r i x ) . Im p l em en t i ng a con cur re n t eng i -

n e e r i n g p h i l o s o p h y i n t h e A / E / C i n d u s t r y d o e s n o t r e -

qui re individual f i rms to adop t on e gene r ic organizat ional

s t r u c t u r e . R a t h e r , i m p l e m e n t i n g c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r -

i ng r equ i r es t ha t peop l e i n var i ous f i rms opera t e i n t he

con t ex t o f a macro f i rm hav i ng a mat r i x -o rgan i za t i ona l

s t ruc t u re .

FIG 9

t u r

I P r o j e c t

XYZ [

Owners

~ Architect

____~ Mechanical

Engineer [

~ Electrical

Engineer

_ _ ~

General

ontractor

~ Stuctural

Sub

Par t i a l A JE/ C M acr o f i r m

•

Mechanical

Sub

Electrical

Sub

Facility

Managers

~ t Supplierx

M a t r i x O r g a n i z a t io n a l S t r u c

omm unic at ion Infr astr uc tur e

F u r t h e r a d o p t i o n o f t h e c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g p h i -

l o s o p h y i n t h e A / E / C i n d u s t r y i n v o l v e s i t s p a p e r i n -

f o r m a t i o n - e x c h a n g e p r a c t i c e . A s s t a t e d e a r l ie r , t h e

A / E / C i n d u s t r y is v e r y f ra g m e n t e d . T h e f i r m s in v o l v e d

i n a s i ng l e p ro j ec t a r e t yp i ca l l y d i sper sed bo t h geo -

g r a p h ic a l ly a n d o v e r t i m e . C o m p u t e r - n e t w o r k i n g t e c h -

n o l o g i e s m u s t b e a p p l i e d t o m a s k t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l d is -

p e r s i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s p r o j e c t p a r t ic i p a n t s t h u s e n a b l i n g

v i r t u a l c o l l o c a t i o n . T h e i n d u s t r y ' s w i d e a c c e p t a n c e o f

c o m p u t e r s g i v e s a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o u s e e l e c t r o n i c - c o m -

m u n i c a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s . E l e c t r o n i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s

r e a d i ly a v a i l a b le a s e v i d e n c e d b y t h e n u m e r o u s e l e c -

t r o n i c m a i l a n d e l e c t r o n i c b u l l e t i n - b o a r d s y s t e m s . A d -

v a n c e s in c o m p u t e r te c h n o l o g i e s s u c h a s c o m m u n i c a t i o n

n e t w o r k s , d i s t r i b u t e d p r o c e s s i n g , a n d m u l t i m e d i a c o n -

f e r e n c i n g c a n r e a d i l y a s s i s t i n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f

c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g p h i l o s o p h y w i t hi n o r g a n i z a t i o n s

( Hi gh - en d 1993).

T h e s w i t c h t o e l e c t r o n i c - i n f o r m a t i o n e x c h a n g e d o e s

no t s i mp l y i nvo l ve t he li nk i ng o f t he p r o j e c par t i c i-

p a n t s ' c o m p u t e r s t o e x c h a n g e t e x t u a l d a t a , s u c h a s e -

m a i l m e s s a g e s , o r t o d o w n l o a d f il e s t h r o u g h f i le - t ra n s f e r

p r o t o c o l s . S e v e r a l i s s u es s u c h a s t h e e x c h a n g e o f p r o d -

u c t i n f o r m a t i o n a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s i n c o m p a t i b l e c o m -

p u t e r t o o l s u s e d b y p r o j e c t p a r t i c i p a n t s , a n d t h e c a p -

t u re , s t o rage , r e t ri eva l , and owner sh i p o f p ro j ec t- spec i f ic

i n f o r m a t i o n s t i l l n e e d t o b e a d d r e s s e d . T h e u p c o m i n g

P D E S s t a n d a r d w i l l a l l o w t h e v a r i o u s i n c o m p a t i b l e

c o m p u t e r t o o l s t o e x c h a n g e g r a p h i c a s w e l l a s p r o d u c t

i n f o r m a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f a n e u t r a l i n f o r m a t i o n

f i l e fo rmat (Reed 1992) .

M A Y J U N E 1 9 94 5 3



9/10

O t h e r c h a n g e s i n t h e p r a c t ic e o f th e A / E / C i n d u s t ry

i n c lu d e t h e a u g m e n t a t i o n o f 2 D g r a p h i c a l - r e p r e s e n t a -

t io n c o m p u t e r t o o l s w i t h 3 D - m o d e l i n g c o m p u t e r t o o l s .

3D model i ng o f f e r s enhanced v i sua l i za t i on benef i t s fo r

c o n s t ru c t io n o p e r a t i o n s a s w e l l a s f a c il it y m a n a g e m e n t

opera t i ons (Rei nschmi d t e t a l . 1991) . The change f rom

2D t o 3D wi ll have t o o r i g i na t e a t t he des i gn er s ' o f f i ces ,

o t herwi se i t wou l d make l i t t l e sense t o rou t i ne l y t r ans -

fo rm 2D d rawings i n t o 3D model s i n downs t r eam phases .

O n t h e f r i ng e s o f t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n f r a s tr u c t u r e s

i s Vi r t ua l Rea l i t y Techno l ogy . Vi r t ua l r ea l i t y i s a com-

puter-generated spat ial s imulat ion of real i ty , al so known

as t he u l t i mat e CA D t oo l . I t i s an i nhab i t ab l e , a l t e r -

n a t e e n v i r o n m e n t c r e a t e d e n t ir e l y w i t h in a c o m p u t e r

( F i sh e r 1 9 90 ). O n e c a n l e a r n a b o u t t h e v a r i o u s f e a t u r e s

o f a f ac i l i t y by i mmers i ng i n i t . One can l ook i n a l l

d i r ec t i ons , app roach an ob j ec t t ha t i s i n t e r es t i ng , f ee l

i t , a n d e x a m i n e a n y m i n u t e o r c o m p l e x d e t a i l ( M c -

Avi nne y 1990) . V i r t ua l r ea l i t y wi ll beco m e a concu r ren t

e n g i ne e r in g t o o l b e c a u s e i t c a n b e u s e d b y d e s i g n e r s i n

t he p l ann ing s t ages t o fi x p rob l em s w hen i t is eas i e r and

cheaper (Rhei ngo l d 1991) . Inexpens i ve a l t e rna t i ves i n

des i gns cou l d be t houg h t o f and exp l o red us i ng t h is t oo l .

A l s o , t h e n e c e s s i t y o r r e q u i r e m e n t o f a p a r t i c u la r d e s i g n

p a r a m e t e r o r o b j e c t c o u l d b e r e c o n s i d e r e d w h e n t h e

des i gn i s i mp l em en t ed i n t he v i r tua l w or l d . V i r t ua l r ea l -

i ty c a n b e u s e d i n p e r f o r m a n c e e v a l u a t i o n o f b u i l di n g s

and t o s t udy s i mu l a t i on o f var i ous sys t ems i n a bu i l d i ng

such as acous t i c , v i sua l , and t hermal . Once t he i n i t i a l

des i gns o f a bu i l d i ng a re done , a l l a l t e r a t i ons and / o r

r e c t i f i c a t i o n s c a n b e d o n e i n r e a l t i m e o n a 3 D C A D

vi r t ua l model . A v i r t ua l -wor l d sys t em t hus he l ps A/ Es

and t he i r c l ien t s , con t r ac t o r s , and f ac i l i ty ope ra t o r s ex -

p l o re a p roposed bu i l d i ng du r i ng t he des i gn and de-

ve l opm en t phas e (C l ev e l and 1988; Rh ei ngo l d 1991) .

Pr oduc t e ve lopme nt

Comput er - a i ded concur ren t eng i neer i ng assumes t ha t

t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e p r o j e c t p a r t i c i p a n ts a r e i n v o l v e d a s

ear l y as poss i b l e i n t he l i f e cyc l e o f a p ro j ec t and a re

l i nked v i a compu t er ne t works . Sh i f t i ng t he con t r ac t o r -

se l ec t i on bas i s f rom l ow-con t r ac t b i d t o p ro fess i ona l

qua l i f i ca t i ons wou l d a l l ow fo r t he t i mel y i n t eg ra t i on

of t i me- sca t t e r ed p ro j ec t par t i c i pan t s and cha nge t he

A/ E/ C i ndus t ry ' s l ack o f i n t e r es t i n r esearch and de-

v e l o p m e n t , A m e t h o d o f i m p l e m e n t i n g c o n c u r r e n t

eng i neer i ng i s t o sh i f t f rom t he t r ad i t i ona l separa t e de-

s i g n -c o n s t ru c t io n c o n t r a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t s t o

t h e i n t e g r a t e d d e s i g n - b u i l d c o n t r a c t u a l a r r a n g e m e n t s

(Sch roe der 1992).

T h e p r e s e n t m e t h o d o f in v o l vi n g th e v a r i o u s p r o j e c t

par t i c i pan t s a t s t aggered s t ages mus t be changed t o a l -

l ow t he i nc l us i on o f a maj o r i t y o f t hese par t i c i pan t s

du r ing t he des i gn phase . S i nce t he conc ep t o f des ign -

bu i l d i s assoc i a t ed p r i mar i l y wi t h l a rge compan i es , t he

A / E / C i n d u s t r y c o u l d p r o m o t e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f in s t a n-

t a n e o u s j o i n t v e n t u r e s b e t w e e n A / E s a n d g e n e r a l c o n -

t r ac t o r s t o f ac i l i t a t e a p rompt r esponse t o owner -d r i ven

des i gn -bu i l d RFPs . Th i s p rac t i ce wou l d a l so fo s t e r de-

s i gn -b i d -bu i l d a r r angemen t s whereby f ac i l i t i es ' owner s

54 J OURNAL OF MANAGEMENT IN ENGINEERING

p r o c u r e d e s i g n s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d , e x c e p t t h a t

d e s ig n s m u s t b e d e v e l o p e d w i t h a p r e - d e f i n e d m i n i m u m

n u m b e r o f h o u r s o f c o n t r a c t o r ' s i n p u t . L o g i c a l ly , a n

A / E f i r m w o u l d f o r m a j o i n t v e n t u r e w i t h a c o n t r a c t o r

t o p r o d u c e t h e d e s i g n , a f t e r w h i c h i t w o u l d s u b m i t a

b i d t o bu i l d t he p ro j ec t .

S U M M R Y

B r o w n ( 1 9 9 3 ) , r e f e r r i n g t o c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , s a i d it v e r y s im p l y :

Concurrent engineering has the pu rpose o f increasing

the amount of information at decision-making t ime. It

is handled in multiples; referring to multiple aspects of

the l ife-cycle process, m ult iple p eople working to-

gether, and multiple accum ulation o f knowledge.

C e r t a i n l y , n o t h i n g t h e A / E / C c a n ' t h a n d l e .

C o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g i s a p h i l o s o p h y ; h e n c e , i t s

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n r e q u i r e s o n l y p e o p l e . T o a d o p t c o n -

c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g i n t h e A / E / C i n d u s t r y , t h o u g h , w e

n e e d p e o p l e , c o m p u t e r s , a n d c o m p u t e r n e t w o r k s . I n

t h e A / E / C i n d u s t r y , c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g c a n b r i n g

c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s a n d p r o d u c e n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n t o p

q u a l i t y f o r t h e u l t i m a t e b u y e r a n d c o n s u m e r o f c o n -

s t ruc t ed f ac i l i t i es , i . e . , owner s and end user s , r espec-

t ively .

W e c l o s e th i s p a p e r b y r e v is i ti n g t h e q u e s t i o n s p o s e d

t h r o u g h o u t t h e p a p e r :

Q : C a n c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r in g r e a l ig n t h e A / E / C

i n d u s t ry b y o v e r c o m i n g t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f ,

wh i l e benef i t i ng f rom, i t s ex i s t i ng f r agmen t a t i on

and spec i a l i za t i on?

A : Y e s . C o m p u t e r n e tw o r k i n g c a n m a k e it p o s s ib l e

t o m a s k t h e f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f t h e A / E / C p l a y e r s

b y e l e c t r o n ic a l l y c o l l o c a ti n g m e m b e r s o f m u l t i-

f u n c t io n a l t e a m s .

Q : H o w w o u l d t h is m a c r o f i r m l o o k w i t h in a c o n -

c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g p a r a d i g m ?

A : A m a c r o f i r m h a vi n g a m a t r i x - o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

s t r u c t u r e w i l l c r e a t e a n e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e b y

t h e n u m e r o u s f i r m s w o u l d f e e l a s m e m b e r s o f

o n e p r o j e c t t e a m .

Q : C a n c o n c u r r e n t e n g in e e r i n g c o n t r i b u t e to t h e

t e a r i n g d o w n o f t h e i n v i s i b l e w a l l b e t w e e n t h e

A / E s a n d c o n t r a c t o r s ?

A : Y e s . A / E s p a r t n e r in g s i d e b y s i d e w i t h c o n t r a c -

t o r s d u r in g t h e d e s i g n - b id - b u i ld p h a s e s a r e m o r e

l i k e l y t o d e v e l o p a n d c u l t i v a t e r e s p e c t f o r e a c h

o t h e r s p r o f e s s i o n .

Q : D o e s c o n c u r r e n t e n g in e e r i n g o f f e r a p h i l o s o p h y

t ha t i s conduci ve t o t rue l i f e - cyc l e ana l ys i s?

A : Y e s . B y d e v e l o p i n g m u l t i f u n c t io n a l te a m s s i nc e

t h e c o n c e p t i o n p h a s e , t h e v i e w s o f u p s t r e a m a n d

downs t r eam par t i c i pan t s wi l l be t ru l y cons i d -

ered . Fac i l i t i es o f t he h i ghes t qua l i t y wi l l be t he

obv i ous r esu l t .

Q : W o u l d c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g f o s t e r a n e n v i -

r o n m e n t w h e r e b y s m a l l f i rm s c o u l d q u i c k l y f o r m



10/10

jo in t ven tu res to e f fec t ive ly resp ond to des ign -

b u i ld r e q u e s t f o r p ro p o s a l s R F P s )?

A : Y e s . I n d e e d , j o i n t v e n t u r e s w il l e v e n fo rm to

r e s p o n d t o t r a d i t io n a l d e s i g n -o n l y R F P s s i n c e

these can be tu rned in to des ign -b id -bu i ld op -

por tun i t i es .

Q : D o e s c o m p u t e r - a i d e d c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e er i n g

o f f e r a n e n v i ro n m e n t fo r t h e e l e c t ro n i c e x c h a n g e

o f p ro j e c t i n fo rm a t i o n ?

A : Y e s . I n d e e d , p ro l i f e r a ti o n o f c o m p u t e r - a i d e d

c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g w il l a c c e l e r a t e t h e d e f -

i n i t i o n a n d d e p l o y m e n t o f b a d l y n e e d e d p ro d -

u c t -d e fi n i ti o n s ta n d a rd s , l i ke P D ES . S u s t a i n e d

e l e c t ro n ic d a t a i n t e r c h a n g e a m o n g p ro j e c t p a r -

t i c i p a n t s w i l l r e n d e r p a p e r a n u n d e s i r a b l e m e -

d i u m fo r d e l i v e r i n g c o n t r a c t d o c u m e n t s .

Q : W h a t is t h e ro le o f c o m p u t e r s in s u p p o r t i n g t h e

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f c o n c u r r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g ?

A : V i t al . W i t h o u t c o m p u t e r te c h n o l o g y , c o n c u r -

r e n t e n g i n e e r i n g w ill m o re l i ke l y b e p r a c t i c e d

o n l y w i t h in v e r t i ca l l y i n t e g ra t e d f i rm s , w h i c h a r e

t h e e x c e p t i o n i n th e A / E / C i n d u s t ry .

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